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Estimates of body composition have been derived using 3-dimensional optical imaging (3DO), but no equations to date have been calibrated using a 4-component (4C) model criterion. This investigation reports the development of a novel body fat prediction formula using anthropometric data from 3DO imaging and a 4C model. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of 179 participants were measured via 3DO (Size Stream® SS20) and a 4C model. Machine learning was used to identify significant anthropometric predictors of body fat (BF%), and stepwise/lasso regression analyses were employed to develop new 3DO-derived BF% prediction equations. The combined equation was externally cross-validated using paired 3DO and DXA assessments (n = 158), producing a R2 value of 0.78 and a constant error of (X ± SD) 0.8 ± 4.5%. 3DO BF% estimates demonstrated equivalence with DXA based on equivalence testing with no proportional bias in the Bland–Altman analysis. Machine learning methods may hold potential for enhancing 3DO-derived BF% estimates.

The purpose of the article is to study problems of translation equivalence in machine translation, which is based on a sequence of invariable actions (algorithms) with a text to identify linguistic equivalents in a pair of languages at a given direction of translation by means of a computer, in respect of the pragmatic aspect. Translation equivalence is understood as a specific type of equivalence, which is fundamentally different from other types, since it does not correlate with the phenomena that have a special place in the structure of a language, but the phenomena that currently exist in a language correlation or are equivalent to the text content. The translation is formalized, but allows getting an idea of the text content at the introductory level, since it is not an accurate, adequate translation, but performs the function of rendering basic information. Machine translation is not able to render nuances of an original text, not only at the lexical level. When translating, it is necessary to take peculiarities of syntax and semantics into account. Adequate computer translation is almost impossible in this case. This fact is recognized by all scholars who study possibilities of this type of translation only when rendering main content of a document without taking language nuances and features into account. Machine translation can be carried out on a basis of the translation equivalence (objective and dynamic) model. The model in terms of linguistic technology provides an optimal solution of problems of independent linguistic description and algorithm. The system of translation equivalence, which can be implemented within the model of translation equivalence, allows providing sufficient quality of machine translation at the pre-editing stage. When creating a machine translation program, in addition to solving linguistic problems, a program of their implementation is also necessary, since a translation program is a tool for studying and finding information in a foreign language, and the prospects of a machine translation are related to the further development of translation theory and practice in general.

Cross-sectional validation study. To conduct a literature search for existing energy expenditure (EE) predictive algorithms using ActiGraph activity monitors for manual wheelchairs users (MWUs) with spinal cord injury (SCI), and evaluate their validity using an out-of-sample dataset. Research institution in Pittsburgh, USA. A literature search resulted in five articles containing five sets of predictive equations using an ActiGraph activity monitor for MWUs with SCI. Out-of-sample data were collected from 29 MWUs with chronic SCI who were asked to follow an activity protocol while wearing an ActiGraph GT9X Link on the dominant wrist. They also wore a portable metabolic cart which provided the criterion measure for EE. The out-of-sample dataset was used to evaluate the validity of the five sets of EE predictive equations. None of the five sets of predictive equations demonstrated equivalence within 20% of the criterion measure based on an equivalence test. The mean absolute error for the five sets of predictive equations ranged from 0.87 to 6.41 kilocalories per minute (kcal min−1) when compared with the criterion measure, and the intraclass correlation estimates ranged from 0.06 to 0.59. The range between the Bland–Altman upper and lower limits of agreement was from 4.70 kcal min−1 to 25.09 kcal min−1. The existing EE predictive equations based on ActiGraph monitors for MWUs with SCI showed varied performance when compared with the criterion measure. Their accuracies may not be sufficient to support future clinical and research use. More work is needed to develop more accurate EE predictive equations for this population.

Objectives. Sound field (SF) audiometry tests are usually conducted in audiometric booths measuring greater than 2×2 m in size. However, most private ENT clinics carry about 1×1-m-sized audiometric booths, making SF audiometry testing difficult to perform. The aims of this study were to develop an SF audiometry system for use in smaller audiometric booths and compare its performance with traditional system.Methods. The newly developed SF audiometry system can yield an SF signal at a distance of about 30 cm from the subject’s ears. Its height can be adjusted according to the subject’s head height. We compared SF hearing results between the new SF system and the traditional SF audiometry system in 20 adults with normal hearing (40 ears) and 24 adults with impaired hearing levels (38 ears) who wore hearing aids. Comparative parameters included warble tone audiometry threshold, a speech reception threshold (SRT), and a speech discrimination score (SDS). For statistical analysis, paired t-test was used. The equivalence of both SF systems was tested using two one-sided test (TOST) with a margin of 5 dB (normal hearing participants) and 10 dB (hearing aids wearing participants).Results. Among participants with normal hearing, warble tone hearing thresholds of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz, average values of these four frequencies, and SRT were similar between the two systems (all P>0.05). Participants with hearing aids showed similar warble tone threshold and SRT (P>0.05) in both systems except for threshold of 4 kHz (P=0.033). SDS was significantly higher in the newly developed system (P

Whether recognition memory is mediated by discrete or continuous processes has long been the subject of debate. Deemed "the ignored alternative" by Kellen, Erdfelder, Malmberg, Dubé, and Criss (2016), Luce's (1963) low-threshold model is a discrete model that describes data thought to be indicative of continuous mediation. Kellen et al. found that the low-threshold model describes data quantitatively as well as signal detection theory, a continuous model. We replicate that finding here across 8 experiments. More interestingly, we find that this equivalence is because of the 2 models fitting different aspects of the data-the low-threshold model better fits strongly encoded stimuli, and signal detection theory better fits weakly encoded stimuli. An alternative framework for recognition memory may be necessary-one that incorporates a control process that can induce either continuous or discrete mediation. According to this framework, meta-cognitive judgments regarding the strength of an item may induce the strategic discretization of memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The quality of software can be measured. One of them is by its functionality, whether it is suited to user requirements or not. To maintain the quality of the software, testing needs to be conducted during the development stage to ensure that there are no errors or bugs. Tests carried out on the state property maintenance software are focused on the functional module of item replacement by using the black box testing equivalence partitions method. The final result of this test is to know the effectiveness level of the equivalence partitioning method by determining the application test case, initializing the standard input and output partition grade and testing dataset. The final result of the application test shows that the level of effectiveness of the functional goods replacement module is 93.2%

Studies on the quality of service thrive to quantify passenger satisfaction of public transport services which is a key factor in how these services are used. Service quality evaluation is performed by means of objective and subjective approaches. Considering that people are attracted to public transport services based on their own perception, subjective approaches are utilized to capture user judgment. However, there are various subjective approaches in the literature to model service quality in which different lists of factors and model structures are identified. This paper aims to test the spatial transferability of these approaches at various levels. All the adopted approaches are based on a Structural Equation Model (SEM) to evaluate the relationship between perceived service quality and customer satisfaction. First a synthesis of the literature on model transferability is presented to compare these approaches in terms of model characteristics (structural equivalence) and parameter values (measurement equivalence). Three classes of model characteristics, including six distinct SEM structures in total, are tested to identify the factors affecting service quality: (1) recommendations of previously published models from the literature, (2) established customer satisfaction theories, and (3) adopting an exploratory approach and developing it based on the previous two approaches and the nature of locally collected data. Tehran Metro Line 3, which is a heavy urban rail mode, is used as a case study. The dataset consists of three hundred validated responses collected through a customer satisfaction survey. The results indicate that model characteristics are not transferable to this case study (i.e., none of the SEM structures from previous studies were directly transferable). The best model is developed when the entire modeling procedure is repeated using a wide range of affecting factors and gradually narrowing them down through model development. The final model comprises four latent variables, namely major services, comfort, security, and minor services, the first two of which have the largest effect on service quality.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to verify the equivalence of 2 alternate test forms with nonoverlapping content generated by an item response theory (IRT)–based computer-adaptive test (CAT). The Philadelphia Naming Test (PNT; Roach, Schwartz, Martin, Grewal, & Brecher, 1996)was utilized as an item bank in a prospective, independent sample of persons with aphasia. Method Two alternate CAT short forms of the PNT were administered to a sample of 25 persons with aphasia who were at least 6 months postonset and received no treatment for 2 weeks before or during the study. The 1st session included administration of a 30-item PNT-CAT, and the 2nd session, conducted approximately 2 weeks later, included a variable-length PNT-CAT that excluded items administered in the 1st session and terminated when the modeled precision of the ability estimate was equal to or greater than the value obtained in the 1st session. The ability estimates were analyzed in a Bayesian framework. Results The 2 test versions correlated highly ( r = .89) and obtained means and standard deviations that were not credibly different from one another. The correlation and error variance between the 2 test versions were well predicted by the IRT measurement model. Discussion The results suggest that IRT-based CAT alternate forms may be productively used in the assessment of anomia. IRT methods offer advantages for the efficient and sensitive measurement of change over time. Future work should consider the potential impact of differential item functioning due to person factors and intervention-specific effects, as well as expanding the item bank to maximize the clinical utility of the test. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.11368040

The present paper discusses the possibility of using parallel corpora in the study of phraseology. The results of the analysis support the assumption that the use of corpus data not only significantly improves cross-linguistic descriptions, but also changes the very idea of the specifics of phraseology as a subsystem of the lexicon. Parallel corpus data make it possible to identify the language-specific features of idioms that were traditionally considered completely equivalent. As the empirical bases, parallel subcorpora of the Russian National Corpus (RNC) are used: Russian-German and primarily German-Russian. In some cases, the material of the main corpus of the RNC is involved. In addition to the task of identifying similarities and differences between semantically similar idioms of German and Russian, the paper also addresses general issues, in particular the question of the boundaries of the concept of crosslinguistic equivalence and ways to operationalize it. At least two different types of equivalence have to be distinguished: equivalence at the level of the language system and equivalence at the text level. The proposed method includes a subsequent comparison of individual pairs of correlating idioms of different languages based on corpus data. It aims at identifying differences between them, including semantic, syntactic, pragmatic and combinatorial ones. The results of the performed analysis may find application in bilingual lexicography.

The registration of a 3D model over an image can be seen as the alignment of visual correspondences extracted from these two data. This is a challenging task and it is even more complex when the two images have a different modality. This paper introduces an approach that allows matching features detected in two different modalities: photographs and 3D models, by using a common 2D representation. Our approach is based on a modifcation of the Marching Cubes algorithm aiming to remove ambiguous cases without adding further calculations in each cube. We share the idea about the crucial importance of splitting the equivalence cases into two classes. Considering all the possible states inside/outside in the four corners of a cube side, indeed, there are only four non-trivial cases after eliminating those equivalences through the rotation. The obtained results allow us to validate the feasibility of the proposed methodology.

In edge computing, for dimensionality reduction and core data extraction, both edge computing node (ECN) and cloud server may implement a high-order singular value decomposition (HOSVD) algorithm before data are passed to local computing models. However, at present, many edge computing systems regard the two HOSVD procedures as two independent parts, which leads to repeated calculations in the cloud. In this paper, we propose an aggregative HOSVD method by reusing intermediate results of subtensor HOSVD in ECNs to reduce the HOSVD computing cost of the merged tensor in the cloud server. First, two equivalence lemmas of singular value decomposition (SVD) are proven. Second, the SVD left mergence algorithm (SVDLM), hierarchical-SVDLM (H-SVDLM) algorithm and aggregative HOSVD (AHOSVD) algorithm are proposed to obtain the HOSVD result of the merged tensor by efficiently merging the unfolded matrix SVD results of the subtensors. Finally, the efficiency and accuracy between the HOSVD and the AHOSVD are compared, and the experimental results validate that the proposed AHOSVD algorithm improves efficiency compared with the HOSVD algorithm in circumstances with comparable accuracy results with the HOSVD algorithm.

This article briefly illustrates and discusses the possibility to develop alternative, simplified test methods for radiated susceptibility testing at unit level for the aerospace sector. The rationale here discussed, and the alternative test methods here illustrated, are targeted to the development of a testing approach with deeper physics' sense, quicker and less expensive in order to help the industrial design process of equipment for spacecraft. The theoretical basis of this analysis is the possibility to enforce equivalence (in terms of common mode current) among the effects due to field-to-wire-coupling, bulk current injection and crosstalk, under suitable assumptions. Two dual approaches are considered, one aimed at achieving deterministic equivalence, the other enforcing equivalence in statistical terms. Pros and cons of the proposed alternative test methods are discussed by illustrating the outcomes of ad hoc setups and a wide experimental campaign.

The quantitative electroencephalographic (QEEG) theta/beta power ratio (TBR) has been shown to have an association with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with a previous tacit assumption of equivalence across hardware and software systems. Therefore, the International Collaborative ADHD Neurofeedback (ICAN) randomized clinical trial used a fixed TBR ≥ 4.5 cutoff as measured by the Thought Technology Monastra-Lubar Assessment Suite as an inclusion criterion, 1.5 SD above norms collected with that system. However, a difference was noted between the TBR calculated by that assessment suite and the TBR computed by EEGer, the neurofeedback software used for treatment, leading us to investigate the discrepancy. The difference may arise from different calculation methods. This article explains and compares various computational methods used to calculate and display EEG values, including TBR, elucidating why the values are not equivalent across equipment and software programs. Two major sources of variance are (1) how “spectral leakage” at the ends of bands is handled and (2) whether voltages of bins within a band are first averaged and then squared to get bandwidth power or are first squared to get power (turning negative voltages into positive power) and then averaged to get the bandwidth power; the latter method results in higher band power. This article compares methods of computing the TBR. Biofeedback practitioners and investigators should be aware of the algorithms their systems use when interpreting TBRs and require normative comparison data collected with the same system.

Purpose To evaluate the equivalence of the volumes obtained using different anatomic references to measure the nasopharynx and oropharynx on cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans. We hypothesized that no variations would be found in the nasopharynx and oropharynx dimensions when measured using different measurement methods. Materials and Methods A total of 40 CBCT scans of patients with skeletal Class I (age range, 20 to 50 years) were measured independently by 2 of us. The nasopharynx and oropharynx subregions were volumetrically measured using the adopted limits of 5 different measurement methods (3 for the nasopharynx and 2 for the oropharynx) and InVivoDental software, version 5.4 (Anatomage, San Jose, CA). The minimum area and the minimum area of localization were also evaluated. The intra- and interexaminer concordance for the measurements from the different methods were verified using the interclass correlation coefficient (ICC). The analysis of variance for repeated measures was used to compare the measurements from the 3 nasopharynx methods. The paired t test was used to compare the measurements from the 2 oropharynx methods. The statistical tests were performed at the 5% significance level using SPSS software, version 22.0 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY). Results The intra- and interexaminer ICC values were greater than 0.8. We found a statistically significant difference in the volume measurements among the 3 nasopharynx methods (P = .001). However, no differences were found in the minimum area or minimum area of localization comparisons. Statistically significant differences were also observed for the volume, minimum area, and minimum area of localization between the 2 oropharynx methods (P = .001). Conclusions Studies that have used different methods of measurement should not be directly compared. The different measurement methods used for nasopharynx and oropharynx evaluations should not be compared.

The problem of learning automata from example traces (but no equivalence or membership queries) is fundamental in automata learning theory and practice. In this paper we study this problem for finite state machines with inputs and outputs, and in particular for Moore machines. We develop three algorithms for solving this problem: (1) the PTAP algorithm, which transforms a set of input-output traces into an incomplete Moore machine and then completes the machine with self-loops; (2) the PRPNI algorithm, which uses the well-known RPNI algorithm for automata learning to learn a product of automata encoding a Moore machine; and (3) the MooreMI algorithm, which directly learns a Moore machine using PTAP extended with state merging. We prove that MooreMI has the fundamental identification in the limit property. We also compare the algorithms experimentally in terms of the size of the learned machine and several notions of accuracy, introduced in this paper. Finally, we compare with OSTIA, an algorithm that learns a more general class of transducers, and find that OSTIA generally does not learn a Moore machine, even when fed with a characteristic sample.

The construction of super and megayachts has overcome the recent economic crisis by increasing the quality of the final product and by changing the main input of the entire project. The old trend of searching higher and higher speeds and performances has been overstretched by a strong focus on the comfort onboard that has to be addressed by numerical simulations since the early design stages. In this paper, the study of the noise propagation onboard a superyacht built by Italian shipyard has been assessed during the construction stages using the SEA software VaOne and the results have been lately compared with real scale measurements. The propagation of noise throughout laminated glass has been addressed with particular attention by a dynamic effective thickness equivalence.

Purpose This study aims to evaluate the lead equivalence (LE) of radiation protective apparatuses under various combinations of tube potentials and spectral shaping filter. Method In this study, the commercially available 3M™ Lead Foil Tape 421, with nominal lead thickness of 0.1 mm, was employed to determine the LE of four different radiation protective apparatuses. The LE of protective apparatus was determined by utilizing the X‐ray transmission curves obtained with the lead foil tape at 60–120 kVp in combination with the spectral shaping filters of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 mmCu. The experimental setup and test method, for the transmission measurements with narrow beam geometry, was performed in accordance to ASTM Designation F2547‐18 Standards. All measurements were obtained using cardiovascular interventional angiography system. Results A much larger discrepancies between the measured LE and stated (nominal) LE were observed at low tube potential (80 kVp) and thicker spectral shaping filters, the measured LE appears to be more consistent with the manufacturer specified nominal thickness for the protective apparatus investigated. On the other hand, for the lead protective eyeglasses, the measured lead equivalence of both the lead side shield and the lens of eyeglasses (0.38 and 0.85 mmPb respectively) are consistent across all tube voltage. Conclusion The conventional specification of LE without considering spectral shaping filter is a valid measure for tube voltages at and above 80 kVp. The measured LE generally exceed the specifications. The difference is most significant at lower tube potentials, and especially with thicker spectral shaping filters. At higher voltages (>100 kVp), the measured LE and the nominal LE are in good agreement with each other irrespective of the spectral shaping filter thickness.

Various aspects of solving multiobjective discrete optimization problems are considered. Advantages of the equivalence set method are shown compared to other methods often used to solve multiobjective problems such as the method of successive concessions and the method of seeking the set of Pareto-optimal solutions. Theorems reflecting the main properties of the equivalence set method and showing the relationship and interrelation between the set of Pareto-optimal solutions and the equivalence set are formulated and proved.

Natural gas, as a clean fossil energy, has been widely used in power generation system by converting chemical energy into electrical energy through gas turbines. However, the natural gas pipeline network system (NGPNS) is comprised of many equipments, and the failure of any equipment will probably cause the outage of gas turbines. Therefore, this study proposes an analytical method which can incorporate the uncertainty of NGPNS into the reliability assessment of integrated energy system. Firstly, on the basis of an analytical technique, NGPNS's operating states and the corresponding state probabilities are simulated. Secondly, a state transferring and equivalence technique is proposed for transferring the unreliability of NGPNS to the involved outage of gas turbines. Thirdly, an equivalent reliability model of gas turbine is established for taking into account the uncertainty of NGPNS. Finally, the NGPNS is connected to the Roy Billinton Test System through the coupling of gas turbines between electrical and gas networks. The results of case studies verify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Computational fluid dynamics is an invaluable tool for both the design and analysis of aerospace vehicles. Reliable error estimation techniques are needed to ensure that simulation results are accurate enough to be used in engineering decision-making processes. In this work, a framework for estimating error and improving solution accuracy is presented. A linearized error transport equation (ETE) is used to estimate local discretization errors. A truncation error estimation technique is proposed which combines aspects of higher-order residual methods and continuous residual methods. The equivalence between adjoint and ETE methods for functional error estimation is demonstrated. Using adjoint/ETE equivalence, the higher-order properties of adjoint methods are extended to ETE methods. Consequently, ETE error estimates are shown to converge to the true discretization error at a higher-order rate. ETE error estimates are then used to correct the entire primal solution, and by extension, all output functionals, to higher order. The computational advantages of this ETE approach are discussed. Results are presented for 1D and 2D inviscid and viscous flow problems on grids with smoothly varying and non-smoothly varying grid metrics.

Automatic fiber placement (AFP) is a type of labor-saving automatic technology for forming composite materials that are widely used in aviation and other fields. In this process, concave surface delamination is a common defect, as existing research on the conditions for this defect to occur is insufficient. To predict the occurrence of this defect, the concept of allowable interlaminar normal stress is proposed to define its occurrence conditions, and based on this concept, probe tests are carried out using the principle of time–temperature equivalence. Through the laying speed/allowable normal stress curve measured in the probe experiment, the physical meaning of allowable normal stress is discussed. At the same time, the measured curve is quantitatively analyzed, combined with viscoelastic theory and the molecular diffusion reptation model, and the dominating effect in the formation of a metal/prepreg layer and prepreg/prepreg layer is determined. Finally, the experimental data are used to guide the parameter selection in an automatic placement engineering case and prove its correctness.

Objectives We evaluated the analytical performance characteristics and the biological equivalence of the Atellica TnIH assay. Methods Precision, detection capability, linearity, and sex specific 99th percentiles were determined de novo. Classification of patients relative to the 99th percentiles was used to assess biological equivalence. Results Analytical precision and detection capability of the Atellica TnIH assay is excellent with a limit of blank ≥±1.96) occurred in 65% (95% CI 53–76%) of 99th percentile discordant patients compared to 2.7% (p Conclusions The 99th percentile discordant and the concordantly elevated groups are more alike with respect to their z≥±1.96 rates. This favours an overestimated Atellica TnIH 99th percentile as more likely, and we hypothesize that antibody interference resulting in asymmetric scatter of nearly 5% samples may be the underlying mechanism. Analytical accuracy and interferences in cardiac troponin assays should be investigated and resolved with high priority.

Objective: To translate and validate Clinically Useful Depression Outcome Scale on Urdu speaking Pakistani population. Method: This cross-sectional study was conducted in Rawalpindi and Islamabad from January 2018 to November 2019 on a conveniently available sample. The process of translation and validation was conducted in two phases. In the first phase the scale was forward and backward translated. In the second phase it was validated on a convenient sample of 170 subjects. 85 of these were from clinical and 85 were from non-clinical setting. After descriptive analysis, Cronbach’s alpha as a reliability coefficient, test-retest reliability, item-to-total correlation for internal consistency, Pearson product-moment for convergent and discriminant validity, and independent sample t-test for contrast group mean comparison were computed for validation purpose on the data through SPSS 22. Cross-language validation and mean comparison of the original and translated scale were established on a separate sample of 82 participants as indicators for equivalence. Result: The translated scale was found to be internally consistent with satisfactory Cronbach’s alpha and test-retest reliabilities. Convergent and discriminant validity were in assumed directions. Significant mean differences between clinical and non-clinical groups indicated the diagnostic capability of the scale. Significant cross-language correlations and non-significant mean differences between original and translated version showed that the Urdu version can be considered as equivalent to original English version. Conclusion: Results of the study found the translated scale to be as a reliable and valid Instrument. Keywords: Depression, Urdu-translation, psychometrics, reliability, validity. Continuous....

Similarity is the assessment of deviation from equivalence. Spatial scene similarity assessment is a hot topic in Geographic Information Science and has wide prospect in spatial analysis, spatial query, and map generalization, etc. Spatial scene similarity is usually employed to measure similarity between query spatial scene and various candidate scenes. The spatial relation between geographic objects are consisted of topological, directional, and distance. As they capture the essence of a scene's structure, conventional spatial scene similarity computation method builds synthetic evaluation models by adjusting coefficient among different parameters. In this paper, deep neural networks were introduced to assess the spatial scene similarity. More than 50 million map search case was used to train the model. The case data was from Tusou system, which was developed to search map via spatial scene by users' sketch. Experimental implement show that the new model understands users' intension better than current model.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The clinical performance of home sleep apnea tests (HSATs) can be described by their (diagnostic) accuracy, defined as the percentage agreement with the obstructive sleep apnea severity category (normal, mild, moderate, and severe) based on polysomnography. Rather than reporting on accuracy, there has been a strong reliance in the literature to report correlation coefficients between the apnea-hypopnea index of HSATs and polysomnography to support claims of diagnostic performance. This is surprising, as it has been well described that correlation coefficients are inadequate to evaluate equivalence between 2 parameters. The aim of this study was to systematically investigate the magnitude of the discrepancies between correlation coefficients and diagnostic accuracy reported in or retrievable from HSAT validation studies. METHODS: We compared the discrepancy between accuracy and apnea-hypopnea index correlation coefficients of all validation papers that met the inclusion criteria. A total of 20 papers were retained, representing a participant pool of 1,652. RESULTS: The weighted average apnea-hypopnea index correlation across all 20 papers was 0.82 and the weighted average accuracy was 0.61, highlighting a discrepancy of 0.21 and an overall misdiagnosis rate of 39%. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study confirm the need for increased scientific rigor in selecting primary performance endpoints to support clinical performance claims of HSATs. CITATION: Massie F, Van Pee B, Bergmann J. Correlations between home sleep apnea tests and polysomnography outcomes do not fully reflect the diagnostic accuracy of these tests. J Clin Sleep Med. 2022;18(3):871–876.

Improving information integration is a challenge faced by many organizations. This study constitutes a mixed application if network analysis to measure the integrating performance on suppliers and customers in supply chain, called tourism supply chain integration (TSCI). The quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) method was applied to test the causal relationships among interconnectedness, structural equivalence, structural autonomy and TSCI. Results show that interconnectedness and structural equivalence were positively related to supplier integration. Whilst structural autonomy was positively related to both supplier and customer integration, indicating that highly structurally embedded tour organizations can achieve relatively better efficiency on supplier integration. It is supposed to provide directions for engineering managers to enhance the cooperation with suppliers and customers through improving integrating performance of information.

Objectives Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) are evaluated in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), but not widely used in clinical practice. However, interest in incorporating PROMs into the management of SLE is increasing as PROMs provide a unique insight into the patient’s perception of lupus disease activity. The objective was to assess agreement in PROMs answered using a web app versus an outpatient touchscreen among patients with SLE. Methods In a crossover RCT, SLE patients answered the following PROMs in a random order using the web app and the outpatient touchscreen: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Activity Questionnaire (SLAQ) Global Health, SLAQ Symptom, SLAQ Total, SLAQ Worsening, Pain Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Fatigue VAS, Patient Global Health VAS, Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ-DI), Patient Acceptable Symptom State (PASS), and an Anchoring Question. Equivalence between the two device types was demonstrated if the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) of the difference in PROM scores was within the prespecified equivalence margin. Agreement between the two device types was assessed using mixed linear models. Results Thirty-four patients with SLE were included. Equivalence was demonstrated between the two device types for SLAQ Global Health with a difference of −0.21 (95% CI: −0.65 to 0.23). Moreover, equivalence was also found for HAQ-DI, Pain VAS, and Fatigue VAS whereas only comparability within the limits of the Minimal Clinically Important Difference (MCID) was demonstrated for VAS Patient Global Health. Statistical comparability was demonstrated for SLAQ Total, SLAQ Worsening, PASS, and Anchoring Question (no predefined MCID/equivalence margins available). However, a statistically significant difference between device types was observed for the SLAQ Symptom of −0.56 (95% CI: −1.10 to −0.01). The difference was, however, very small when considering the scale range of 0–24; thus, it was not judged to be of clinical relevance. Preference for the web app was very high (91.2%). Conclusion For the first time ever, equivalence and comparability between two electronic device types for various PROMs were demonstrated among patients with SLE. Implementation of the device is expected to improve the management of SLE.

Accurate measurement requires assessment of measurement equivalence/invariance (ME/I) to demonstrate that the tests/measurements perform equally well and measure the same underlying constructs across groups and over time. Using structural equation modeling, the measurement properties (stability and responsiveness) of intervention measures used in a study of metabolic syndrome (MetS) treatment in primary care offices, were assessed. The primary study (N = 293; mean age = 59 years) had achieved 19% reversal of MetS overall; yet neither diet quality nor aerobic capacity were correlated with declines in cardiovascular disease risk. Factor analytic methods were used to develop measurement models and factorial invariance were tested across three time points (baseline, 3-month, 12-month), sex (male/female), and diabetes status for the Canadian Healthy Eating Index (2005 HEI-C) and several fitness measures combined (percentile VO2 max from submaximal exercise, treadmill speed, curl-ups, push-ups). The model fit for the original HEI-C was poor and could account for the lack of associations in the primary study. A reduced HEI-C and a 4-item fitness model demonstrated excellent model fit and measurement equivalence across time, sex, and diabetes status. Increased use of factor analytic methods increases measurement precision, controls error, and improves ability to link interventions to expected clinical outcomes.

A risk analyst assesses potential financial losses based on multiple sources of information. Often, the assessment does not only depend on the specification of the loss random variable, but also various economic scenarios. Motivated by this observation, we design a unified axiomatic framework for risk evaluation principles which quantifies jointly a loss random variable and a set of plausible probabilities. We call such an evaluation principle a generalized risk measure. We present a series of relevant theoretical results. The worst-case, coherent, and robust generalized risk measures are characterized via different sets of intuitive axioms. We establish the equivalence between a few natural forms of law invariance in our framework, and the technical subtlety therein reveals a sharp contrast between our framework and the traditional one. Moreover, coherence and strong law invariance are derived from a combination of other conditions, which provides additional support for coherent risk measures such as Expected Shortfall over Value-at-Risk, a relevant issue for risk management practice.

BACKGROUND Both the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials (SPIRIT) and Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines recommend that clinical trials follow a study framework that aligns with their objective to test the relative efficacy or safety (equality) or effectiveness (superiority, noninferiority, or equivalence) between interventions. We conducted a systematic review to assess the proportion of studies that demonstrated inconsistency between the framing of their research question, sample size calculation, and conclusion and those that should have framed their research question differently based on the compared interventions. METHODS We included studies from 5 high-impact-factor orthopaedic journals published in 2017 and 2019 that compared at least 2 interventions using patient-reported outcome measures. RESULTS We included 228 studies. The sample size calculation was reported in 60.5% (n = 138) of studies. Of these, 52.2% (n = 72) were inconsistent between the framing of their research question, sample size calculation, and conclusion. The majority (n = 137) of sample size calculations were for equality, but 43.8% of these studies concluded superiority, noninferiority, or equivalence. Studies that framed their research question as equality (n = 186) should have been framed as superiority (n = 129), equivalence (n = 52), or noninferiority (n = 3). Only 2 studies correctly framed their research question as equality. CONCLUSIONS Studies published in high-impact journals were inconsistent between the framing of their research question, sample size calculation, and conclusion. Authors may be misinterpreting research findings and making clinical recommendations solely based on p values. Researchers are encouraged to state and justify their methodological framework and choice of margin(s) in a publicly published protocol as they have implications for sample size and the applicability of conclusions. CLINICAL RELEVANCE The results of clinical research must be interpreted using confidence intervals, with careful consideration as to how the confidence intervals relate to clinically meaningful differences in outcomes between treatments. The more typical practice of relying on p values leaves the clinician at high risk of erroneous interpretation, recommendation, and/or action.

To improve the accuracy and precision of the offshore direct-drive wind farm (PMSG) equivalence model, this paper proposes a dynamic equivalence method for offshore PMSG wind farms based on the improved R-K clustering algorithm. The method selects suitable cluster indicators, clusters the indicator data using the improved R- K clustering algorithm, and then equates the offshore PMSG wind farms to multiple wind turbines based on the capacity-weighting method to achieve dynamic equivalence of PMSG wind farms. Finally, to verify the accuracy of the model, a dynamic equivalence model was built on the PSCAD/EMTDC simulation platform and analyzed in comparison with the single machine equivalence model and the detailed model. The simulation results show that the model is in good agreement with the detailed model, and it can reflect the dynamic response characteristics of the PMSG wind farm at the grid connection point accurately.

Assessing children’s literacy skills is a key requirement for successful learning. However, standardized assessments are almost exclusively available as paper-and-pencil tests, discarding digital testing’s advantages. In this article, we develop and evaluate two different tablet versions for a paper-based reading fluency test for German primary school children: one true-to-original design (TDId) and a tablet-optimized design (TDOpt). We investigate the reliability, equivalence, and user experience of the tablet-based versions by comparing it to each other and to the paper-based version in a user test with 21 fourth graders. The results suggest very high reliability of both tablet-based versions (r’s >.94). Children scored significantly higher on TDId than on the other tests while reading scores assessed with TDOpt matched the conventional test. Children preferred both tablet versions over the paper-based test, whereby TDOpt was consistently rated best. This study suggests that a tablet-optimized reading fluency test not only retains test reliability but is also more appealing to primary school children.

International audience; New analytical models have been developed for predicting equivalent Young’s and shear moduli of laminate composites. Sets of procedures and calculations are presented in order to obtain equivalent properties in all levels, lamina and laminate. An ultimate path to predict the mechanical properties of laminated composites on the perspective of the material, orientation, and thickness has been developed. By calculating the mechanical properties using Chamis model then an Objectif function with five norms, these norms allow the mechanical properties to be examined and the ultimate answer to be predicted. Another model discusses an alternative concept of equivalent lamina elements (ELEs) by first using Chamis model for hybrid composites. Next, the ELEs are laminated in the direction and integrated into the compliance matrix for each ply. In addition, four new Generalization models for equivalence in thickness and in angle are presented in this paper. The analytical results are validated against other developed models in published articles as well as experimental results. Numerical case studies were conducted to assess the precision of results from the suggested models. The results demonstrated the capability and efficiency of the presented models for predicting the mechanical properties of multi-layer/multi-material laminate composites under different orientation conditions.

Spiking neural networks (SNNs) have shown clear advantages over traditional artificial neural networks (ANNs) for low latency and high computational efficiency, due to their event-driven nature and sparse communication. However, the training of deep SNNs is not straightforward. In this paper, we propose a novel ANN-to-SNN conversion and layer-wise learning framework for rapid and efficient pattern recognition, which is referred to as progressive tandem learning. By studying the equivalence between ANNs and SNNs in the discrete representation space, a primitive network conversion method is introduced that takes full advantage of spike count to approximate the activation value of ANN neurons. To compensate for the approximation errors arising from the primitive network conversion, we further introduce a layer-wise learning method with an adaptive training scheduler to fine-tune the network weights. The progressive tandem learning framework also allows hardware constraints, such as limited weight precision and fan-in connections, to be progressively imposed during training. The SNNs thus trained have demonstrated remarkable classification and regression capabilities on large-scale object recognition, image reconstruction, and speech separation tasks, while requiring at least an order of magnitude reduced inference time and synaptic operations than other state-of-the-art SNN implementations. It, therefore, opens up a myriad of opportunities for pervasive mobile and embedded devices with a limited power budget.

Background The study tests the effects of data collection modes on patient responses associated with the multi-item measures such as Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement System (PROMIS®), and single-item measures such as Patient-Reported Outcomes version of the Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (PRO-CTCAE), and Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) measures. Methods Adult cancer patients were recruited from five cancer centers and administered measures of anxiety, depression, fatigue, sleep disturbance, pain intensity, pain interference, ability to participate in social roles and activities, global mental and physical health, and physical function. Patients were randomized to complete the measures on paper (595), interactive voice response (IVR, 596) system, or tablet computer (589). We evaluated differential item functioning (DIF) by method of data collection using the R software package, lordif. For constructs that showed no DIF, we concluded equivalence across modes if the equivalence margin, defined as ± 0.20 × pooled SD, completely surrounds 95% confidence intervals (CI's) for difference in mean score. If the 95% CI fell totally outside the equivalence margin, we concluded systematic score difference by modes. If the 95% CI partly overlaps the equivalence margin, we concluded neither equivalence nor difference. Results For all constructs, no DIF of any kind was found for the three modes. The scores on paper and tablet were more comparable than between IVR and other modes but none of the 95% CI’s were completely outside the equivalence margins, in which we established neither equivalence nor difference. Percentages of missing values were comparable for paper and tablet modes. Percentages of missing values were higher for IVR (2.3% to 6.5% depending on measures) compared to paper and tablet modes (0.7% to 3.3% depending on measures and modes), which was attributed to random technical difficulties experienced in some centers. Conclusion Across all mode comparisons, there were some measures with CI’s not completely contained within the margin of small effect. Two visual modes agreed more than visual-auditory pairs. IVR may induce differences in scores unrelated to constructs being measured in comparison with paper and tablet. The users of the surveys should consider using IVR only when paper and computer administration is not feasible.

Summary Deep neural networks (DNNs) can resolve real-world categorization tasks with apparent human-level performance. However, true equivalence of behavioral performance between humans and their DNN models requires that their internal mechanisms process equivalent features of the stimulus. To develop such feature equivalence, our methodology leveraged an interpretable and experimentally controlled generative model of the stimuli (realistic three-dimensional textured faces). Humans rated the similarity of randomly generated faces to four familiar identities. We predicted these similarity ratings from the activations of five DNNs trained with different optimization objectives. Using information theoretic redundancy, reverse correlation, and the testing of generalization gradients, we show that DNN predictions of human behavior improve because their shape and texture features overlap with those that subsume human behavior. Thus, we must equate the functional features that subsume the behavioral performances of the brain and its models before comparing where, when, and how these features are processed., Graphical abstract, Highlights • DNNs modeled how humans rate the similarity of familiar faces to random face stimuli • A generative model controlled the shape and texture features of the face stimuli • The best DNN predicted human behavior because it used similar face-shape features • Explaining human behavior from causal features is difficult with naturalistic images, The bigger picture Deep neural networks (DNNs) are often presented as “the best model” of human perception, achieving or even exceeding “human-level performance.” However, it remains difficult to describe what information these DNNs process from their inputs to produce their decisions. In naturalistic images, multiple cues can lead to the same decision. For example, a DNN can identify Peter's face from his darker eyebrows or high cheekbones. However, a human knowing Peter could identify his same face with similar accuracy, but using different features (e.g. his chin or hairstyle). Decision accuracy thus only tells the visible part of the story. The hidden part is the specific information processed to decide. To address this, we compared DNNs that predicted human face identity decisions to varying faces generated with a computer graphics program. With such controlled stimuli, we revealed the hidden part of the specific face information that caused the same behavioral decisions in humans and DNNs., With a set of five DNNs, Daube et al. model the behavior of n = 14 human participants and n = 12 human validators who identified familiar faces using a generative model of faces that controls the face features. They demonstrate that the better DNNs can predict human behavior because they use similar face shape features. They visualize the shape features that humans and DNNs jointly use and test whether these features enable generalization to new viewing angles, older age, and opposite sex conditions.

Equivalence in a clinical trial may be assessed through a three-arm trial (test drug, reference drug, and placebo). A three-arm equivalence trial consists of three hypothesis tests in practice, with two hypothesis tests demonstrating the superiority of the test and reference drugs against placebo, and the other one demonstrating the equivalence of the test and reference drugs. When designing a three-arm equivalence clinical trial, the practitioner should minimize the chances that a test drug will be found to be equivalent to the reference drug but non-superior to the placebo. One way to minimize these chances at the design stage, for a three-arm equivalence trial with a binary primary outcome, is to test the equivalence through hypotheses based upon the ratio of the differences of the proportions. In this article, we derived the test statistics and the power functions based on maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) and restricted MLE for the proposed hypotheses. The required sample size for achieving the desired power at the given significance level can be obtained by solving the power function. We illustrated the proposed design through an example and investigated the required sample sizes for various conditions.

We investigate, both theoretically and numerically, the equivalence relationship between the positive and negative refraction index dielectric materials in electrostatic invisibility cloak. We have derived an analytical formula that enables fast calculate the corresponding positive dielectric constant from the negative refraction index material. The numerical results show that the negative refraction index material can be replaced by the positive refractive index materials in the static field cloak. This offers some new viewpoints for designing new sensing systems and devices in physics, colloid science, and engineering applications.

Comparative studies in communication and Internet research call for equivalent measures of key constructs that are comparable across populations. This article details and applies the concept of measurement invariance within a cross-nationally comparative context. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis is used to test configural, metric, and scalar invariance in an empirical example and structural equation modeling introduces exogenous predictors of Internet use types. Results support metric invariance for a four-factor Internet usage model in three English-speaking countries. The significance of measurement invariance testing for unbiased comparative research is discussed.

This is an entry for the publication titled "Three-way decision and conformal prediction: Isomorphisms, differences and theoretical properties of cautious learning approaches". You can cite the paper as: Andrea Campagner, Federico Cabitza, Pedro Berjano, Davide Ciucci. Three-way decision and conformal prediction: Isomorphisms, differences and theoretical properties of cautious learning approaches. Information Sciences, Volume 579, 2021, Pages 347-367. This entry contains both a pre-publication version of the paper, as well as the only non-previously available dataset used in the study. This dataset, in particular, contains observations for 325 patients, of which 124 have been annotated by two different clinicians. The legend of the labels is as follows: 0 Normal sagittal alignment 1 Cervical kyphosis 2 Thoracic kyphosis 3 Thoracolumbar kyphosis 4 Lumbar kyphosis 5 Lower lumbar kyphosis 6 Global kyphosis 7 Pelvic kyphosis While the features are the following: PI: pelvic incidence PT: pelvic tilt SS: sacral slope LL: lumbar lordosis LLL: lower lumbar lordosis TLK: thoraco-lumbar kyphosis TK: thoracic kyphosis SVA: sagittal vertical axis T1PA: T1 pelvic angle sex: 0=female; 1=male type of X-ray: 0=EOS; 1=traditional X-ray&nbsp

Continuous engineering of autonomous driving functions commonly requires deploying vehicles in road testing to obtain inputs that cause problematic decisions. Although the discovery leads to producing an improved system, it also challenges the foundation of testing using equivalence classes and the associated relative test coverage criterion. In this paper, we propose believed equivalence, where the establishment of an equivalence class is initially based on expert belief and is subject to a set of available test cases having a consistent valuation. Upon a newly encountered test case that breaks the consistency, one may need to refine the established categorization in order to split the originally believed equivalence into two. Finally, we focus on modules implemented using deep neural networks where every category partitions an input over the real domain. We present both analytical and lazy methods to suggest the refinement. The concept is demonstrated in analyzing multiple autonomous driving modules, indicating the potential of our proposed approach., Paper accepted at IEEE AI Test'21

Prestige Biopharma Ltd (Singapore) has developed HD201, a proposed biosimilar to reference product trastuzumab. As a part of the stepwise approach to ensure comparability between the biosimilar candidate and the reference medicinal product, a phase I study in healthy subjects was conducted to demonstrate the pharmacokinetic (PK) equivalence ({"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT03776240","term_id":"NCT03776240"}}NCT03776240). The primary objective of the study was to demonstrate (PK) equivalence of HD201, EU‐Herceptin®, and US‐Herceptin® given at 6 mg/kg as a 90‐min i.v. infusion to healthy male subjects. A pairwise comparisons based on the primary endpoint AUC0–inf and secondary PK endpoints, AUC0–last and C max were undertaken. PK equivalence was to be concluded if the 90% confidence interval (CI) for the ratio of geometric means for each criterion were within the equivalence margin of 80% to 125%. Secondary objectives included assessment of other PK parameters, safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity in the three arms. A total of 105 healthy male subjects (35/treatment) were randomized in this study. The 90% CI for the ratios of AUC0–inf, C max and AUC0–last, were within 80%–125% for the comparisons of HD201 to EU‐Herceptin® or US‐Herceptin® and EU‐Herceptin® to US‐Herceptin®. The frequency of subjects with TEAEs of special interest was slightly lower in the HD201 group (20.0%) compared to the other treatment groups (EU‐Herceptin®: 34.3%; US‐Herceptin®: 31.4%). Only 1 subject (EU‐Herceptin® group) developed anti‐drug antibodies prior to dosing. Overall, HD201 demonstrates PK similarity to both EU‐Herceptin® and US‐Herceptin®. The three study drugs also demonstrated similar safety profiles.

According to the authors point of view, absence of the accepted by metrological society software based on simple and understandable and at the same time flexible and multipurpose mathematical apparatus is one of the restrictions on the way to arrangement of international comprehensive comparisons with expanded group of participants (hereinafter — comprehensive comparisons). General methodology of measurements adjustment by the least square method (LSM) may be used for this mathematical apparatus. Software named «Metrology Network» is defined. It was used for repeated processing of measurement results during the key comparisons of EURAMET.L-K1.2011 «Measurement of gage blocks by interferometer». «Metrology Network» software allowed to estimate simply and quickly systematic measurement error components of the gage blocks length measurement by each laboratory. They are called multiplicative and additive measurement standards degrees of equivalence. «Metrology Network» allowed to estimate strictly by LSM the uncertainties of length measurement. Additive degrees of equivalence are considered substantial and constant characteristics of the measurement standards for many laboratories. Thus, they coincide for steel and ceramic gage blocks. These additive degrees of equivalence may be used as corrections in the process of calibration or as the reference values for further comparisons. The simulation of measurement results for international comprehensive comparisons with complicated structure was provided. For 120 laboratories divided into 12 groups, totally 2442 length measurements of the steel or ceramic gage blocks were provided. They form together 24 sets of 8 gage blocks and provide 24 loops of comparisons. Necessity to provide the adjustment by the least square method is caused by the fact that two subgroups from each group of three laboratories took part in two different related loops of comparison. As a conclusion, «Metrology Network» software easily managed this complicated task of adjustment. It allowed us to calculate each of 120 measurement standards additive degree of equivalence relative to the averaged zero for all measurement standards and multiplicative degree of equivalence relative to the averaged measurement unit.

International audience; The work presented in this paper is about comparison and analysis of four different reconstruction methods applicable to MR images. Two of them are based on the marching cube algorithm and the other two are contour based algorithms. We describe the studied reconstruction methods and compare their results. The comparative study examined, allows to establish similarity, equivalence, or distinctness between the four methods. We show that the various reconstruction methods produce different 3D models and each one has its own advantages and limitations.

Accurate and efficient electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation of various types of solid-state transformers (SST) is extremely time-consuming due to the complex module structure, flexible topology connections, large number of electrical nodes and simulation time-steps limited in the range of micro-seconds. Therefore, it is urgent to develop the EMT equivalent modelling and fast simulation of SSTs for system level studies. Taking the modular multilevel converter (MMC) based SST as an example, this paper proposes an accelerated EMT model which focuses on the equivalence of the dual active bridge (DAB) based high-frequency link (HFL) in the SST. Compared with the existing algorithms, two critical factors of the proposed method that contribute the most to the efficiency improvement are the preprocessing of the nodal admittance equation and the conversion of the short-circuit admittance parameters. The proposed model is verified in PSCAD/EMTDC by comparing it with the detailed EMT model. The results show that the accelerated model is one to two orders of magnitude faster than the detailed model without sacrificing the accuracy. The experiment validation also confirms the validity of the proposed model.

Due to the gradual improvement of computing power and the development of big data, the error rate of voice recognition systems and voice assistance functions gradually decreases with the gradual application of deep learning. In terms of commercial contracts, it is a legally binding text. This article first analyzes the theory of functional equivalence translation and then analyzes the theory of functional equivalence translation from the perspective of professionalism and accuracy and determines the principles of business contract English vocabulary translation. At the same time, it studies English in terms of vocabulary equivalence. In the process of teaching trade English, some common vocabulary in trade English is easy to be misunderstood. This article analyzes these common translation errors and their main causes and proposes some appropriate solutions. Business English vocabulary translation must follow the principle of pragmatic equivalence, and the translation must be flexible to deal with communication obstacles caused by cultural background, language habits, and other factors, because they are subject to two different language and cultural characteristic rules (English and Chinese). The seasonal autoregressive summed moving average (ARIMA) model is used to simulate the time series of the surface water temperature in the coastal waters, and the structure of the model is determined through the principle of irrelevance and simplicity. On this basis, the optimal ARIMA prediction model is established and the surface water temperature of the coastal waters is monthly. The prediction results are consistent with the monthly change trend of the sea surface temperature, indicating that the model is suitable for predicting the offshore surface temperature.

In the domain of safety-critical systems, fault injection campaigns on ISA-level have become a widespread approach to systematically assess the resilience of a system with respect to transient hardware faults. However, experimentally injecting all possible faults to achieve full fault-space coverage is infeasible in practice. Hence, pruning techniques, such as def/use pruning are commonly applied to reduce the campaign size by grouping injections that surely provoke the same erroneous behavior. We describe data-flow pruning, a new data-flow sensitive fault-space pruning method that extends on def/use-pruning by also considering the instructions’ semantics when deriving fault-equivalence sets. By tracking the information flow for each bit individually across the respective instructions and considering their fault-masking capability, data-flow pruning (DFP) has to plan fewer pilot injections as it derives larger fault-equivalence sets. Like def/use pruning, DFP is precise and complete and it can be used as a direct replacement/alternative in existing software-based fault-injection tools. Our prototypical implementation so far considers local fault equivalence for five types of instructions. In our experimental evaluation, this already reduces the number of necessary injections by up to 18 percent compared to def/use pruning.