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With the purpose of valuing the species Chenopodium quinoa Willd (quinoa), as well as encouraging the consumption of its grains, this study aimed at providing a detailed evaluation of the nutritional value and chemical composition of several quinoa grains of different colour varieties (black, red and white) from different origins. The results demonstrated an excellent composition, namely in the presence of many compounds of interest, such as organic acids, tocopherols and unsaturated fatty acids, as well as a very favourable nutritional profile, with carbohydrates and proteins being the prominent macronutrients. Regarding the different varieties, statistical analysis showed that there were no significant differences in studied parameters, with the exception of proteins, carbohydrates, oxalic acid, γ-tocopherol and total tocopherols content. Thus, this pseudocereal takes a position of nutritional excellence, compared to others cereals more commonly consumed, thereby representing a promising ingredient for many uses in the food industry. The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for financial support to CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/2013), L. Barros and U. Gonzales-Barron contracts. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the main causes of viral hepatitis infection worldwide. Sources of contamination can vary greatly according to geographical regions and HEV genotypes. HEV is endemic and responsible for large waterborne epidemics involving human HEV-1 or HEV-2 genotypes in regions with limited sanitation, in contrast to industrialized countries, where HEV is mainly a foodborne zoonosis involving HEV-3 and HEV-4 zoonotic genotypes. Limited data on HEV source attribution are available, and all possible sources and transmission pathways of HEV are not fully identified. A systematic review and a meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies (including transversal studies) were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic hepatitis E infection. Suitable scientific articles were identified through a systematic literature search and subjected to a methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds-ratio (OR) measures were extracted/calculated, as well as study characteristics such as population type, design, and risk factor hierarchy. Mixed-effects meta-analyses models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. Seventy-seven cohort and case-control studies conducted between 1986 and 2016 and investigating risk factors in mixed population, susceptible population, and pregnant women, were included in this meta-analysis. Hepatitis E cases were defined with serological exams and differentiated whenever the serological exam is associated or not with symptoms. This meta-analysis identified the parenteral pathway (blood transfusion, tattooing or IV injection, dialysis or hemodialysis), and routes of infection related to contaminated water, animal contact (occupational exposure) and consumption of foods as relevant risk factors for hepatitis E infection. With regards to the role of food, as suspected and sometimes proven in several studies, pig meat, pork sausages, and game meat are identified as significant risk factors for HEV, in particular undercooked pig meat, or meat preparations containing pig liver. In addition, consumption of shellfish (oysters and mussels), in which HEV can accumulate when water is environmentally contaminated (from animal or human origin), is also associated with the detection of anti-HEV antibodies. The results of this meta-analysis show that symptomatic and infected cases share the most explainable risk factors, and are in agreement with recent studies conducted in Europe. This meta-analysis reveals that some sources such as consumption of insufficiently treated water, shellfish, or vegetables are under-investigated. Future case-control studies should include population at risk but under-investigated, such as transplant recipients, pregnant women and children, and investigate other potential sources of HEV. The authors would like to thank ANSES staff and the members of the ANSES Working Group on Source Attribution of Foodborne Diseases: Moez Sanaa, Laurence Watier, Jean Christophe Augustin, Frédéric Carlin, Julie David, Philippe Fravalo, Laurent Guillier, Nathalie Jourdan-Da Silva, Alexandre Leclercq, Lapo Mughini-Gras, Isabelle Villena. The authors are also grateful to the reviewers for their help in improving the manuscript quality. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support through national funds FCT/MCTES to CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020). U. Gonzales-Barron also thanks FCT, P.I., for the institutional scientific employment program. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Campylobacter spp. is an important causative agent of diarrheal illness worldwide. The disease is frequently associated with foodborne transmission, but other routes of exposure are increasingly recognized. A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic campylobacteriosis. Suitable scientific articles published up to March 2017 were identified through a systematic literature search and subject to methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds ratios (OR) as measures of association were extracted or calculated, as well as study characteristics such as study population, design, type of model used and risk factor categorization. Mixed-effects meta-analytical models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. From 4453 identified references, the quality assessment stage was passed by 71 case-control studies focusing on sporadic campylobacteriosis. The eligible studies were conducted between 1981 and 2012 and provided 1336 ORs for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis identified international travel (pooled OR=4.626), recent use of gastric antacids (pooled OR=2.911), occupational exposure to animals/carcasses (pooled OR=3.022), and food consumption (in particular raw or undercooked eggs, poultry, beef, and dairy) as the main risks factors for sporadic campylobacteriosis in the mixed population. In the child population, the main risk factors concerned environmental/animal transmission routes (e.g. drinking untreated water (pooled OR=3.261), exposure to recreational water (pooled OR=3.156), exposure to farm/rural environment (pooled OR=3.128), contact with farm animals (pooled OR=2.747), person-to-person transmission (pooled OR=2.736) and consumption of raw milk (pooled OR =2.603). The results of this meta-analysis highlight the importance of overlooked routes and vehicles of transmission (environment, animal contact, and other food vehicles) of Campylobacter that should be explored in dedicated studies. The authors would like to thank Anses staff and the members of the Anses Working Group on Source Attribution of Foodborne Diseases: Moez Sanaa, Laurence Watier, Jean Christophe Augustin, Frédéric Carlin, Laurent Guillier, Nathalie Jourdan-Da Silva, Alexandre Leclercq, Anne Thébault, Nicole Pavio, Isabelle Villena. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Food Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for financial support to CIMO ( UID/AGR/00690/2019 ). U. Gonzales-Barron thanks the national funding by FCT , P.I., through the Institutional Scientific Employment Program contract. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

International audience; Giardia duodenalis is an important source of gastroenteritis worldwide. Endemic cases have been described in developing and industrialized countries. We analyzed risk factors for sporadic giardiasis by a systematic review and a meta-analysis of the literature. From 72 studies, contact with an infected person, lack of personal hygiene, and attending a child daycare center were identified as risk factors in children and adults.Feco-oral transmission was significantly associated with exposure to human sewage/waste water, untreated drinking water and recreational waters. Travel abroad was a risk factor in industrialized countries. No handwashing before eating or preparing food, eating unwashed vegetables, or composite food were significant risk factors. Breastfeeding was a protective factor in developing countries. Interestingly, contact with pets was found as a significant risk factor in children in this meta-analysis. This could be explored in future studies with the comparison of the Giardia assemblage isolated from humans and pets. In the future, it would be interesting to investigate more precisely the type of water, vegetable, and whenever possible the method of preparation/treatment. Environmental and epidemiological investigations of specific risk factors by assemblages and types of Giardia spp. should be further studied. Finally, host factors in relationship with the severity and sequelae of giardiasis deserve future research.

International audience

Listeriosis is a major public health concern associated with high hospitalization and mortality rates. The objective of this work was to summarize evidence on the associations between risk factors and sporadic cases by meta-analysing outcomes from currently published case-control studies. Suitable scientific articles were identified through systematic literature search, and subjected to a methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds-ratio (OR) measures as well as study characteristics such as population type, design, type of model and risk factor hierarchy were extracted. Mixed-effects meta-analysis models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. Twelve primary studies investigating sporadic listeriosis conducted between 1985 and 2013 passed through a quality assessment stage. These studies provided 226 OR considered for meta-analysis. According to the meta-analysis, the main risk factor for acquiring listeriosis is suffering from an immunocompromising disease. In relation to the food exposures, this meta-analysis confirmed known risk factors such as consumption of RTE dairy, seafood and processed meat and underlined new food vehicles as fruits and vegetables, recently involved in outbreaks. There were not enough data to appraise travel, animal-contact and person-to-person as transmission pathways for listeriosis. These results will allow refining the case-control studies in the aim of improving risk factors characterisation for listeriosis in the susceptible population. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support through national funds FCT/MCTES to CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020). U. Gonzales- Barron also thanks FCT, P.I., for the institutional scientific employment program. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

In order to design effective public health strategies, and, in particular, effective food safety interventions to reduce the burden of foodborne disease, the most important sources of enteric illnesses should be identified. Both case-control and cohort observational studies have for long been powerful approaches among epidemiologists to investigate the association of exposure and illness. In the literature, there are numerous case-control and cohort studies reporting results on risk factors and routes of transmission of sporadic foodborne infections. The objective of this article is to describe, in depth, the strategies implemented for systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations between multiple risk factors and eleven food and waterborne diseases, namely, non-typhoidal salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Shiga-toxin E. coli infection, listeriosis, yersiniosis, toxoplasmosis, norovirus infection, hepatitis A, hepatitis E, cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis. First, this article describes the procedures of systematic searches in five bibliographic engines, screening of relevance and assessment of methodological quality according to pre-set criteria. It proceeds with the explanation of a broad data categorisation scheme established to hierarchically group the risk factors into travel, host-specific factors and pathways of exposure (i.e., person-to-person, animal, environment and food routes), with views to harmonising and supporting the integration of outcomes from studies investigating a variety of potential determinants of disease. Next, the article describes the four meta-analysis models that were devised in order to calculate: (i) overall oddsratios of acquiring the disease due to a specific risk factor by geographical region; (ii) overall odds-ratios of acquiring the disease from the different risk factors; (iii) overall risks of disease from consumption of ready-toeat and barbecued foods; and (iv) overall effects of food handling (i.e., consuming food in raw, undercooked or unwashed state) and food preparation setting (i.e., eating food prepared outside the home) on risk of disease. The procedures for sensitivity analysis and removal of any influential and potentially-biased odds-ratio; and two methods for publication bias assessment are outlined. Finally, details are given on deviations from the standard risk categorisation scheme for specific foodborne hazards. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Health concerns have led to a search for natural plant-based antimicrobials. Ellagic acid has been shown to have antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of a high-ellagic acid commercial pomegranate on the heat resistance of Escherichia coli O104:H4 in ground chicken. A full 2 4 factorial design was used, consisting of temperature treatment with four levels (55.0, 57.5, 60.0, and 62.5 °C) and pomegranate with four levels (0.0, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 wt/wt. % containing 70% ellagic acid). Experiments were conducted twice, providing a total of 32 survival curves. A three-parameter Weibull primary model was used to describe survival kinetics. Secondary models were then developed to estimate the shape parameter ß (i.e., curvature representing susceptibility of cells to stress), scale parameter ? (i.e., time to reach the first decimal reduction) and the 5.0-log lethality time t 5.0 (i.e., time to reach a 5.0-log reduction), all as polynomial functions of temperature and pomegranate powder concentration. The positive effect of pomegranate concentration on both ß and ? demonstrated that the phenolic-rich pomegranate powder causes E. coli O104:H4 cells to become more susceptible to heat, increasing the steepness and concavity of the isothermal survival curves. It was estimated that the 5.0-log reduction time would reach a minimum at a pomegranate powder concentration of 1%, producing a 50% decrease in lethality time, in comparison to that without added pomegranate powder. Nonetheless, a mixed-effect omnibus regression further confirmed that the greatest difference in the thermal resistance of E. coli O104:H4 happened between tests with and without pomegranate powder. In fact, adding more than 1.0% pomegranate powder, at a constant temperature, resulted only in a marginal decrease in thermal resistance. Meat processors can use the model to design lethality treatments in order to achieve specific reductions of E. coli O104:H4 in ground chicken. We thank Angie Osoria and Carol E. Levin for technical assistance as well as in facilitating the preparation of the manuscript. Also, Dr. Gonzales-Barron wishes to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through the award of a five-year Investigator Fellowship (IF) in the mode of Development Grants (IF/00570). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Yersinia enterocolotica is an important causative agent of diarrheal illness. A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic Y. enterocolitica infections. Suitable scientific articles published between 1987 and 2017 were identified through a systematic literature search and subject to methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds ratios (OR) were extracted or calculated, as well as study characteristics such as population type, design, type of model used and risk factor categorization. Mixed-effects meta-analytical models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. From 807 identified references, the quality assessment stage was passed by 14 case-control studies focusing on sporadic Y. enterocolitica infections which provided 165 ORs for meta-analysis. All studies considered Y. enterocolitica as the cause of sporadic infections and are mainly located in Europe. The meta-analysis identified host-specifics factors, animal and food exposures as significant risk factors. The meta-analysis confirms the predominant role of the pig reservoir. The occupational contact with pigs and the consumption of pork meat are significantly associated with sporadic Y. enterocolitica infections occurrence. The consumption of raw or undercooked pork meat is also a very important risk factor. Untreated drinking water was also identified as risk factor. Further studies with other enteropathogenic Yersinia species, especially Y. pseudotuberculosis, and/or from other continents would help to refine conclusions of the meta-analysis of the risk factors of yersiniosis. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support through national funds FCT/MCTES to CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020). U. Gonzales- Barron acknowledges FCT, P.I., for the institutional scientific employment programme. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Toxoplasmosis is considered as the most prevalent parasitic zoonotic infection worldwide. The parasitic cycle is mostly known, but the relative contribution of different sources and pathways of transmission was not previously studied by a meta-analysis. A systematic review and a meta-analysis of case-control, cohort, and cross-sectional studies were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic Toxoplasma infection. Suitable scientific articles were identified through a systematic literature search and subjected to a methodological quality assessment. Mixed-effects meta-analysis models were adjusted by population type – children, mixed population, and pregnant women – to appropriate data partitions. 187 primary studies passed the quality assessment stage, investigating risk factors for sporadic infection with Toxoplasma gondii conducted between 1983 and 2016. Cases were defined by serology. The meta-analysis of Toxoplasma sporadic infections revealed the significance of transmission by environmental factors such as contact with soil and contact with animals, in particular cats. The consumption of raw or undercooked meat and unwashed vegetables significantly increased the odds of acquiring the disease. Shellfish and raw milk were identified as significant sources of toxoplasmosis. Almost all meat categories were identified as risk factors: pork, poultry, beef, processed meat, lamb, and game meat. Contaminated drinking water may play a role in the acquisition of infection. Moreover, the lack of hygiene in preparing food was identified as a risk factor. A significant risk factor for pregnant women is traveling abroad. Lastly, blood transfusion (in pregnant women) and immunocompromised conditions were found associated with positive serology. The broad definition of exposures and the use of serology for the case definition are the main limitations for the interpretation of the results of this meta-analysis. The transmission pathways require further investigations using longitudinal studies and subtyping approaches. The authors would like to thank ANSES staff and the members of the ANSES Working Group on Source Attribution of Foodborne Diseases: Moez Sanaa, Laurence Watier, Jean Christophe Augustin, Fr´ed´eric Carlin, Julie David, Philippe Fravalo, Laurent Guillier, Nathalie Jourdan-Da Silva, Alexandre Leclercq, Lapo Mughini-Gras, Nicole Pavio. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for the financial support to CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/2019). U. Gonzales-Barron acknowledges the national funding by FCT, P.I., through the Institutional Scientific Employment Program contract. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Non-typhoidal Salmonella is an important causative agent of diarrheal illness worldwide. A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic salmonellosis. Suitable scientific articles published up to 2017 were identified through a systematic literature search and subject to methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds ratios (OR) were extracted or calculated, as well as study characteristics such as population type, design, type of model used and risk factor categorization. Mixed-effects meta-analytical models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. From 3858 identified references, the quality assessment stage was passed by 62 case-control studies focusing on sporadic salmonellosis which provided 1154 ORs for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis identified host-specifics factors, travel, environmental, animal and food exposures as significant risk factors of salmonellosis in the mixed population. For the mixed population, foods significantly associated with salmonellosis were eggs and egg products, composite foods, and meat (pork, red meats other than beef and poultry meats). In the child population, the main risk factors were found for person-to-person transmission, recent use of gastric anti-acids or antibiotics, contact with pets and farm animals, environmental, and food vehicles. Breastfeeding was found to be a protective factor for children. The food vehicles identified in children comprised dairy (milk formula), produce, meat and eggs products. Untreated drinking water was a risk factor for the children and mixed population. The result of the meta-analysis conducted at the international level is very important in the context of increasing international trade in foodstuffs and changes in food consumption patterns. The authors would like to thank Anses staff and the members of the Anses Working Group on Source Attribution of Foodborne Diseases: Moez Sanaa, Jean Christophe Augustin, Fr´ed´eric Carlin, Alexandre Leclercq, Nicole Pavio, Isabelle Villena, and Laurence Watier. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support through national funds FCT/MCTES to CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020). U. Gonzales- Barron acknowledges the national funding by FCT, P.I., through the institutional scientific employment program contract. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Norovirus is responsible for 20% of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. The fecal-oral route of transmission is known, but we proposed a first attempt to identify the relative importance of different sources and vehicles for sporadic cases using meta-analysis models. Case-control and cohort/cross-sectional studies were systematically reviewed and analyzed to assess the main risk factors associated with sporadic norovirus infections. Suitable scientific articles were identified through systematic literature search and subjected to a methodological quality assessment. Mixed-effects meta-analyses models were adjusted by population type to appropriate risk factor categories. The quality assessment stage led to include 14 primary studies conducted between 1993 and 2014. From these, eight studies investigated exposures in children/infants, and eight concerned the mixed population. The meta-analysis confirmed the oro-fecal route for norovirus infections, with the person-to-person transmission (pooled OR=3.002; 95% CI: [2.502 -3.060] in mixed population), and the lack of personal hygiene (pooled OR=2.329; 95% CI: [1.048 -5.169]). The meta-analysis also enlightened the role of indirect transmission through the environment with pathways like untreated drinking water (mixed population), with a pooled OR=2.680 (95% CI: [1.081-6.643]) and farm environment (children population). Indirect transmission also involved the food pathway, which was finally found significant with consumption of seafood (mixed population) (pooled OR=2.270; 95% CI: [1.299-3.968]) and composite food (eating outside/uncooked mixed and young population) (pooled OR=4.541; 95% CI: [3.461-5.958]). These results are coherent with the findings from studies on outbreaks. However, a too broad definition of exposure factors limited the interpretation of results, as occurred with the seafood pathways that combined fish and shellfish. Other factors such as consumption of Food-handled products or the type of drinking water deserveE to be better investigated. Furthermore, better harmonization in case definition and appropriate case-control or cross-sectional studies would allow better addressing sporadic cases risk factors, especially for susceptible populations, such as children, elderly or immunosuppressed persons. U. Gonzales-Barron and V. Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Food Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for financial support to CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/ 2019). U. Gonzales-Barron thanks the national funding by FCT, P.I., through the Institutional Scientific Employment Program contract. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Cryptosporidium spp. is an important cause of gastrointestinal disease worldwide, responsible for 69 million cases of illness in 2016. Information on the sources and transmission pathways of human cryptosporidiosis results mainly from outbreak investigations. A systematic review and a meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies were performed to determine the main risk factors associated with sporadic cryptosporidiosis. Suitable scientific articles were identified through a systematic literature search and subjected to a methodological quality assessment. From each study, odds ratio (OR) measures were extracted or calculated, as well as study characteristics such as population type, design, type of model and risk factor hierarchy. Mixed-effects meta-analysis models were adjusted by population type to appropriate data partitions. From 1985 identified references, the quality assessment stage was passed by 57 cohort and case-control studies focusing on sporadic cryptosporidiosis. The eligible studies were conducted between 1983 and 2016 and provided 568 OR categorized for meta-analysis. This meta-analysis identified travel, immunocompromising conditions, contact with infected humans, waterborne transmission (contact with recreational waters, wastewater, and consumption of untreated drinking water), contact with animals and food consumption as the relevant risk factors for sporadic cryptosporidiosis. With regards to food exposures, consumption of meat, dairy products (raw milk) and dishes consumed outside home were found significantly associated with cryptosporidiosis. The consumption of poorly washed fruits and vegetables significantly increases ORs. This meta-analysis reveals that some potential sources of Cryptosporidium such as shellfish or vegetables are under-investigated. Future case-control studies for sporadic cryptosporidiosis should include population at risk, and investigate other potential sources in relation to the genotype and the subtype of Cryptosporidium spp. The authors would like to thank ANSES staff and the members of the ANSES Working Group on Source Attribution of Foodborne Diseases: Moez Sanaa, Laurence Watier, Jean Christophe Augustin, Frédéric Carlin, Julie David, Philippe Fravalo, Laurent Guillier, Nathalie Jourdan-Da Silva, Alexandre Leclercq, Lapo Mughini-Gras, Nicole Pavio. Ursula Gonzales-Barron and Vasco Cadavez are grateful to the Foundation for Food Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for financial support to CIMO UID/AGR/00690/2019. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

This study estimated the risk of listeriosis from Brazilian cheese consumption using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Risks associated to consumption of two cheese types were assessed: artisanal ripened semihard cheese (produced with raw milk) and refrigerated fresh soft cheese (produced with pasteurized milk). The semi-hard cheese model predicted Listeria monocytogenes growth or decline during ripening, while the soft cheese model predicted pathogen growth during refrigerated storage. Semi-hard cheese modeling scenarios considered L. monocytogenes starting concentration from −2.4 to 6 log CFU/mL in raw milk and three ripening times (4, 22 and 60 days). Soft cheese modeling scenarios considered L. monocytogenes starting concentration from −2.4 to 4 log CFU/mL in milk. The inclusion of anti-listerial lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in cheeses was also examined. Risk of listeriosis due to consumption of soft cheese was 6000 and 190 times greater than that of semi-hard cheese, for general and vulnerable populations, respectively. Aging semi-hard cheese reduced risk, and risk was influenced by L. monocytogenes starting concentration. Aging cheese with inhibitory LAB for 22 days reduced risk over 4 million-fold when L. monocytogenes was assumed to be 6 log CFU/mL in raw milk. The inclusion of inhibitory LAB also reduced risk of listeriosis due to soft cheese consumption, but not as much as for semi-hard cheese. QMRA results predicted that consumption of contaminated cheeses can carry a high risk of listeriosis, especially for vulnerable populations. Scenario analyses indicated that aging of semi-hard cheese and inclusion of antimicrobial LAB mix in semi-hard and soft cheeses are effective risk mitigation measures. The authors thank to Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo for the financial support (Grants 2014/14891-7 and 2016/ 09346-5) and to Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (Grant # 302763/2014-7 and #305804/2017-0), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Grant #33003017027P1). Dr. Gonzales-Barron wishes to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through the award of a five-year Investigator Fellowship (IF) in the mode of Development Grants (IF/00570). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Sampling food for microbial testing is a risk management strategy used to evaluate whether a food safety system is correctly implemented. Within-batch testing can be accomplished to comply with microbiological criteria or to assess whether the food production process is under control. Generally, sampling plans can be designed to meet the consumer’s and/or producer’s quality requirements, and have been conventionally derived by borrowing notions of acceptance sampling theory from classical quality statistics. This chapter describes and illustrates the methodologies to derive the different types of sampling plans used for microbiological criteria in foods; namely, the two-class attributes sampling plans (based on prevalence, on concentrations, and with an enrichment step) and the variables sampling plans. The chapter also discusses the weakness of the classical assumption that the measure of the quality characteristic (i.e., log microbial concentration) is normally distributed among food units with a variance that is approximately stable batch to batch; and provides an insight to novel modelling trends to produce more efficient and discriminatory sampling plans. Dr. Gonzales-Barron wishes to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through the award of a five-year Investigator Fellowship (IF) in the mode of Development Grants (IF/00570). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Currently, food industries need rapidly available information related to food production while most lab-based instrumentation techniques are often complicated and expensive for real-time application. Studies show that the measurement of rheological characteristics of dough is a relevant control variable for the proper formulation of ingredients and bread-making additives. It is in this context that this work aims to present an alternative method for real-time monitoring of the evolution of the dough behavior during processing with telemetry form. The dough behavior is monitored through the changes in the electrical properties of the motor as affected by the properties of the machine torque that makes the mixture. Results of this work showed that it is possible to record dough deformation during mixing in real time and also demonstrated how wireless technology can contribute to the quality control of a food processing system.

A second-order simulation model was built to estimate the risk of Salmonella Typhimurium associated with the consumption of Irish fresh pork sausages. To select appropriate hazard characterization models, an initial appraisal of the current dose-response models was conducted. The cooking modality of grilling was associated with a higher mean risk of infection per serving (1.399 × 10− 6; 95% CI: 7.54 × 10− 7–2.65 × 10− 6) than frying (6.246 × 10− 7, 95% CI: 2.78 × 10− 7–1.17 × 10− 6). When the risk was extrapolated over the consumption in a year period, the mean risk of infection increased considerably to 8.541 × 10− 5 with an expected number of infections and illnesses of 184.3 (95% CI: 26–664) and 17 (95% CI: 2–63), respectively. Results highlighted the importance of consumer education, as scenario analysis predicted that, for the current level of Salmonella in pork sausage, decreasing the product's cold storage by approximately 8 h and cooking for an additional half minute can reduce the current risk level by ∼ 50%.

This communication deals with the use of meta-analysis as a valuable tool for the synthesis of food safety research, and in quantitative risk assessment modelling. A common methodology for the conduction of meta-analysis (i.e., systematic review and data extraction, parameterisation of effect size, estimation of overall effect size, assessment of heterogeneity, and presentation of results) is explained by reviewing two meta-analyses derived from separate sets of primary studies of Salmonella in pork. Integrating different primary studies, the first meta-analysis elucidated for the first time a relationship between the proportion of Salmonella-carrier slaughter pigs entering the slaughter lines and the resulting proportion of contaminated carcasses at the point of evisceration; finding that the individual studies on their own could not reveal. On the other hand, the second application showed that meta-analysis can be used to estimate the overall effect of a critical process stage (chilling) on the incidence of the pathogen under study. The derivation of a relationship between variables and a probabilistic distribution is illustrations of the valuable quantitative information synthesised by the meta-analytical tools, which can be incorporated in risk assessment modelling. Strengths and weaknesses of meta-analysis within the context of food safety are also discussed.

Contemporary Precision Livestock Technology in poultry production is very limited and does not meet European standards for traceability and Best Available Technology (BAT), as laid down in EN ISO 2205:2007 standards (2007) and the European Directive 2008/1/EC (2008). A worldwide occurrence of Avian Influenza additionally calls for a fraud-proof tagging device and source verification system for poultry and poultry products in order to complete partially existing documentary trails. During a preliminary laboratory trial, a procedure for the application of miniature linear and two-dimensional Data Matrix (DM) barcodes onto poultry beaks and legs through inkjet printing was set up and assessed. Results regarding the proportion of readability (p%), the standard error in readability (SE) and general statistics on the reading time were calculated. Tests for independence based on Chi-square and Pearson's were performed on the categorical data, to estimate the differences between proportions of readability of reading groups. The resulting data was used to define the optimal position of barcodes as well as the optimal reading mode of the barcode scanner to be used for further trials. As this experiment provided an estimate of readability of barcodes imprinted on chicken beaks and legs, it is intended to serve as a basis for sample size calculation for an ongoing live trial.

In today's globalized world, to ensure effective traceability, food-producing animals must be identified by a tamper-proof and durable technique. This article investigates the avian comb profile as a potential biometric-based method for the traceability of poultry. Forty mature hens were used for this experiment. Video was acquired of comb profiles, and morphological image processing techniques including dilation and erosion were performed on still images obtained from the video with the purpose of linking a segmented template or "fingerprint" with each bird that was imaged to act as a unique identifier. Comb profile features were abstracted using the Zahn-Roskies Fourier descriptor technique for subsequent shape analysis. Multivariate discriminant analysis was applied to the most discriminant harmonic variables, resulting in a positive classification rate of 80.6%. When a simple comb overlap function was combined with the Fourier technique, the rate increased to 84.4%.

Ratings of visual characteristics of bread crumb images obtained by panellists were correlated with features obtained by digital fractal and texture analysis and simple thresholding. Trained panellists were asked to rate 168 bread crumb images on fineness, homogeneity and degree of orientation, using continuous line scales. The relative orientation of the main and secondary peaks of the image power spectrum was the only parameter related to the human perception of the degree of crumb orientation. Single fractal dimension terms correlated better with the panellists’ perception of grain fineness and homogeneity than the single crumb features from thresholding. Second-order polynomial models were significantly better (P 0.860).

The suitability of seven thresholding methods (six algorithms: isodata, Otsu, minimum error, moment-preserving, Pun and fuzzy; and a manual method) to consistently segment bread crumb images was investigated in comparison with the previously reported k-means clustering technique. Thresholding performance was assessed by two criteria: uniformity and busyness of the binary images. Crumb features (cell density, mean cell area, cell uniformity and void fraction) were computed for each optimal threshold on 135 bread slice images. Slight variations in threshold led to substantial variations in crumb feature values, with cell uniformity and void fraction being more sensitive than the others. The manual method was inadequate for quantification of cell uniformity and void fraction. The fuzzy, Otsu, isodata and moment-preserving methods yielded good and consistent binary images. Although the fuzzy method showed relatively higher amount of busyness than the other methods, it was able to perform well on images with large void areas.

Meat and meat products are the main vehicles of foodborne diseases in humans caused by pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) and Staphylococcus aureus. In order to prioritise research on those microbial hazards, a meta-analysis study was conducted to summarise available information on the presence of such pathogens in meats produced in Portugal. By using a logit-transformed proportion as effect size parameterisation, a number of multilevel random-effectmeta-analysismodelswere fitted to estimatemean occurrence rates of pathogens, and to compare them among meat categories (i.e., bovine meat, broiler meat, pork, minced beef and minced pork), and among meat product categories (i.e., intended to be eaten cooked, to be eaten raw and cured meats). The mean occurrence rate of Campylobacter in Portuguese broiler meat (40%; 95% CI: 22.0–61.4%) was about ten times higher than that of Salmonella (4.0%; 95% CI: 1.4–10.8%); although these levels were comparable to current EU ranges. Nevertheless, in the other meat categories, the meta-analysed incidences of Salmonella were slightly to moderately higher than EU averages. A semi-quantitative risk ranking of pathogens in Portuguese-produced pork pointed Salmonella spp. as critical (with a mean occurrence of 12.6%; 95% CI: 8.0–19.3%), and Y. enterocolitica as high (6.8%; 95% CI: 2.2–19.3%). In the case of the Portuguesemeat products, the non-compliance to EUmicrobiological criteria for L. monocytogenes (8.8%; 95% CI: 6.5–11.8%) and Salmonella spp. (9.7%; 95% CI: 7.0–13.4%) at sample units level, in the categories ‘intended to be eaten cooked’ and ‘to be eaten raw’, were considerably higher than EU levels for ready-to-eat products in comparable categories. S. aureuswas the pathogen of greatest concern given its high occurrence (22.6%; 95% CI: 15.4–31.8%) inmeat products. These results emphasised the necessity of Portuguese food safety agencies to take monitoring, and training actions for the maintenance of good hygiene practices during the production of the great variety of traditional meat products. This meta-analysis study also highlighted important gaps of knowledge, and may assist food safety authorities in the prioritisation of microbiological hazards, and the implementation of essential food safety assurance systems at primary production. Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through the award of a five-year Investigator Fellowship (IF) in the mode of Development Grants (IF/00570).

Sampling and testing for microorganisms in foods is a risk management strategy used to evaluate whether a food safety system achieves the appropriate level of control. Sampling plans can be derived to meet the consumer's and/or producer's quality requirements, and have been traditionally designed using classical acceptance sampling theory. This chapter describes in detail and illustrates the methodologies to derive the different type of sampling plans used for microbiological criteria in foods; namely, the two-class (based on prevalence, on concentrations, and with an enrichment step) and three-class attributes sampling plans and the variables sampling plans. The validity of the assumption that the log microbial concentration is normally distributed among food units with a variance that is approximately stable batch to batch is questioned; and, within this context, new modelling trends based on more realistic assumptions are examined that consider the clustering of bacteria, the intrinsic variability among food batches and the use of past monitoring microbial data. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Bread is inherently irregular in conformation and it is not straightforward to quantify its physical structure. With digital image analysis, meaningful features of textured surfaces can be obtained using spectral and fractal methods. The objective of this work was to compare some bread crumb features obtained using fractal analysis with visual characteristics obtained by panellists. Ten trained panellists were asked to rate 140 bread-crumb images (520 × 520 pixels) on number of cells, uniformity, and orientation, using continuous line scales. Several methods to estimate fractal dimension of surface intensity were programmed in Matlab 6.1. The images that were rated as moderately to highly orientated by panellists presented a high textural orientation in their power spectra in the range of 90-135 degrees. The number of cells (visual) was better correlated to the fractal dimension by the method of relative differential box-counting (R=0.863) followed by the method of fractional Brownian motion (R=0.750). The range of coarsest to finest crumb corresponded to a fractal dimension of 2.36 to 2.54. The degree of crumb uniformity (visual) showed good correlation to the mass fractal dimension of the pore space (R=0.853) followed by the frequency domain method (R=0.747). In summary, the fractal texture analysis is a suitable method to assess the grain quality of bread and to characterise such uneven structures including pores, heterogeneity, and apparently replicating structures.

The suitability of face recognition was investigated as a biometric-based identifier for sheep using a holistic analysis of face images by the independent components technique. Algorithm training was performed independently on several normalized face images from 50 sheep (sets of two, three, and four training images per sheep). The performance of this technique was assessed on a separate set of images (three normalized face images per sheep) using the cosine distance classifier. When 180 to 200 components were extracted, the recognition rate was as high as 95.3% to 96%. As expected, fewer independent components reduced the recognition rate, while a higher number of training images per sheep improved it. Although our results have demonstrated the potential of face recognition as a non-invasive, inexpensive, and accurate novel biometric identifier of sheep, further work should aim at improving recognition rates on a larger set of sheep faces. Author has checked copyright

Salmonella Typhimurium is the predominant serotype isolated from humans in Europe. Pork and pork products are recognized vehicles of Salmonella and are responsible for outbreaks of human salmonellosis. Pigs can become infected with Salmonella on the breeding or fattening farm and during transport, lairage, and slaughter. The aim of this study was to investigate selected points of Salmonella contamination from the time pigs entered the lairage to the time the carcass was processed in the boning hall and to determine the importance of different sources of Salmonella along the Irish pork production chain. A second objective was to evaluate whether the serological status or category of a herd influenced the levels of bacteriological contamination detected on individual carcasses and pork cuts during slaughter and dressing operations. All samples were tested for the presence and numbers of Salmonella. Enterobacteriaceae numbers were also determined. Serotype, phage type, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis were utilized to determine similarity among Salmonella isolates. Lairage was a major source of cross-contamination with Salmonella as were the hands of evisceration operatives, conveyor belts, and equipment in the boning hall. Cross-contamination within the slaughter plant environment accounted for up to 69 % of Salmonella carcass contamination. In general, herd category reflected the bacteriological status of carcasses and pork cuts. Major findings were a strong association (P < 0.01) between Enterobacteriaceae counts and Salmonella occurrence on prechill carcasses and a significant association (P < 0.05) between Enterobacteriaceae counts and Salmonella occurrence on pork cut samples.

Arising from the current need for positive identification for cattle traceability, the objective of this work was to investigate the feasibility of using muzzle pattern as a biometric-based identifier for cattle by acquiring muzzle patterns through lifted ink prints and through digital images. A three-stage matching algorithm was evaluated for scanned muzzle ink prints and performed successfully in all cases. Digital imaging of muzzles was far simpler than the ink print lifting method. For these digital images, the techniques of principal component analysis and Euclidean distance classifier were used. The algorithm training was performed independently on a different number of normalized muzzle images from 29 cattle (sets of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 training images per animal). The performance of this technique was assessed on a separate set of images (3 normalized muzzle images per animal). Results showed that when using 230 eigenvectors (out of 290), the recognition rate was 98.85%, and that additional eigenvectors did not improve the recognition rate. As expected, fewer principal components (less than 230) reduced the recognition rate, while a higher number of training images per animal improved it. Although the results have demonstrated the potential of muzzle pattern recognition as a non-invasive, inexpensive, and accurate biometric identifier of cattle, further research towards automation is necessitated.