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With globalization and the knowledge society, the expansion of higher education has become an 'object of desire' among governments to bolster both economic growth and social development. In recent decades, just as in other countries, Brazil has expanded the system and become the fourth largest in the world in enrollment numbers, significantly increasing distance education at for-profit private institutions. However, massification without the necessary attention to quality and equity may present undesired consequences. Thus, considering Brazil has created one of the largest information databases that allow for studies with huge samples, we statistically analyzed performance in a wide scale national examination (Enade) with approximately 222,000 students, disaggregated by background and education modalities. The results back the argument that learning possibilities and performance in distance education are inferior in relation to in-person modalities and that the expansion based on distance education at for-profit private institutions may be reproducing inequalities within the higher education system in one of the most unequal nations in the world.

While critical thinking is widely regarded as a key outcome of higher education, research has shown that in practice it is only developed when certain conditions are in place, relating to the pedag...

In the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals, higher education has been given a key role in addressing societal challenges, reducing poverty, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and protecting the natural environment. Yet there has been a singular lack of imagination as regards the institutional forms that might help support this vision. This article reports on the findings of an exploratory qualitative case study of the Intercultural University of Veracruz, one of a number of institutions created in Mexico to ensure access for indigenous populations, to promote local development and to provide a space for intercultural dialogue. The findings show a number of ways in which this innovative institution provides opportunities for supporting the SDGs that go beyond conventional universities. The university addresses SDG4 by enabling access for marginalised populations, and through its engaged teaching, research and community engagement also contributes to environmental protection, health, livelihoods, gender equality and a range of other goals. However, it also presents challenges to the global framework, highlighting the lack of attention to culture, language, identity and knowledge traditions, and in critiquing the very basis of its conception of development. Implications are drawn out more broadly for the relationship between higher education and international development in the contemporary era.

Unbundling is the process through which products previously sold together are separated into their constituent parts. In higher education, this dynamic has been driven primarily by financial motivations, and spearheaded by the for-profit sector, but also has pedagogical motivations through its emphasis on personalization and employability. This article presents a theoretical analysis of the trend, proposing new conceptual tools with which to map the normative implications. While appearing to offer the prospect of financial viability and increased relevance, unbundling presents some worrying signs for universities: frst, the removal of possible synergies between teaching and research, and between different modes of learning; second, the undermining of the ability of institutions to promote the public good and ensure equality of opportunity; and third, the threat of hyperporosity to the conducting of basic research with long-term benefits. Keywords : Commodifcation, For-profit higher education, Future of the university, MOOcs. Resumo A desagregacao e o processo pelo qual os produtos anteriormente vendidos em conjunto sao separados em suas partes constituintes. No ensino superior, esta dinâmica tem sido impulsionada principalmente por motivacoes financeiras e liderada pelo setor com fins lucrativos, mas tambem tem motivacoes pedagogicas atraves da enfase na personalizacao e na empregabilidade. Este artigo apresenta uma analise teorica da tendencia, propondo novas ferramentas conceituais para mapear as implicacoes normativas. Embora pareca oferecer perspectivas de viabilidade financeira e maior relevância, a desagregacao apresenta alguns sinais preocupantes para as universidades: primeiro, a remocao de possiveis sinergias entre ensino e pesquisa, e entre diferentes modos de aprendizagem; em segundo lugar, o enfraquecimento da capacidade das instituicoes de promover o bem publico e garantir a igualdade de oportunidades; e, em terceiro lugar, a ameaca de hiperporosidade na realizacao de pesquisas basicas com beneficios no longo prazo. Palavras-chave : Comoditizacao, Ensino Superior com fins lucrativos, Futuro da universidade, MOOCs. References AGARWAL, A. Unbundled: Reimagining Higher Education. The Huffington Post , 9 December, 2013. Disponivel em: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/anant-agarwal/unbundled-reimagining-higher-education_b_4414048.html, acesso em 9/2/17. ANDERSON, R. British Universities Past and Present . London: Continuum, 2006. BARBER, M.; DONNELLY, K.; RIZVI, S. An avalanche is coming . 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Recuperado de: http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/02/disrupting_college.html, 9/2/17 COLEMAN, J. S. The idea of the developmental university, Minerva: A review of Science, Learning and Policy , 24(4), 476–494, 1986. COLLINI, S. What are universities for? London: Penguin, 2012. COWEN, R. Robustly Researching the Relevant: A Note on Creation Myths in Comparative Education. In: WIKANDER, L.; GUSTAFFSON, C.; RIIS, U. (eds.) Enlightenment, Creativity and Education : Polities, Politics, Performances, pp. 3–26. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers & CESE, 2012. CRAIG, R. College disrupted : The great unbundling of higher education. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. de JONGHE, A. Reorganising the teaching-research tension. Higher Education Management and Policy , 17(2), 61–76, 2005. de RIDDER-SYMOENS, H. (ed.) A History of the University in Europe (Volume 2). Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500-1800). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. DIANATI, S. What do Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) Have To Do With ‘Good’ Education? : An Ideology Critique of MOOCs. Unpublished PhD thesis. Flinders University, 2016. GEHRKE, S.; KEZAR, A. Unbundling the faculty role in higher education: Utilizing historical, theoretical, and empirical frameworks to inform future research. In: Higher Education : Handbook of Theory and Research (pp. 93-150). Springer International Publishing, 2015. GIBBONS, M.; LIMOGES, C.; NOWOTNY, H.; SCHWARTZMAN, S.; SCOTT, P.; TROW, M. The new production of knowledge : The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1994. GROVE, J. Troubling FX as Falmouth forces staff to go private. Times Higher Education , 3 rd January, 2013. HATTIE, J.; MARSH, H.W. The relationship between research and teaching—a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research 66: 507–542, 1996. HERK, M. Fixing Our Broken Colleges : Competency-Based Education and Reauthorizing the Higher Education Act. 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Disponivel em: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-case-for-unbundling-higher-education/, acesso em 9/2/17 MACFARLANE, B. The Academic Citizen : the Virtue of Service in University Life . London: Routledge, 2007. MACFARLANE, B. The morphing of academic practice: Unbundling and the rise of the para-academic. Higher Education Quarterly , 65(1), 59–73, 2011. MARGINSON, S. Higher education and public good. Higher Education Quarterly , 65(4), 411–433, 2011. MARGINSON, S. What holds the conglomerate university together ? Paper presented at the Education, Practice and Society seminar, UCL Institute of Education, London, 16 November, 2016a. MARGINSON, S. The dream is over : The Crisis of Clark Kerr’s Californian Idea of Higher Education. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016b. McCOWAN, T. The growth of private higher education in Brazil: Implications for equity and quality. Journal of Education Policy , 19, 453–472, 2004. McCOWAN, T. Should universities promote employability? 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In recent years, higher education institutions have been encouraged to engage more strongly with their local communities, and address their historically weak links with their surrounding populations. In the latter part of the twentieth century, a number of community universities were established in the South of Brazil, characterised by democratic local community involvement, expansion of access in non-metropolitan regions, and close ties with local industry. This article analyses these innovative institutions in relation to the complex demands of the so-called knowledge economy and multifaceted relationships between public and private, exploring the ways in which the public good role of universities manifests itself in relation to the local. Given their hybrid nature – independent from the state but with a public good mission – these institutions can be seen to represent a new model of non-state public higher education. Implications are drawn out for the potential role of these institutions in the...

Indigenous groups in Latin America face a double exclusion from higher education, with low levels of access to institutions and little acknowledgement of their distinctive cultural and epistemological traditions within the curriculum. This article assesses current policies in Mexico and Brazil towards indigenous populations in higher education, considering the various responses to the challenge, including affirmative action programmes in mainstream universities, intercultural courses and autonomous institutions. These policies and initiatives are analysed using the theoretical frames of redistribution and recognition, focusing on demands for formal equality and material wellbeing on the one hand, and a distinctive cultural and educational space on the other. While state-sponsored policies focus primarily on the redistributive element, initiatives based on recognition come largely from autonomous organisations, raising a series of dilemmas and tensions around educational justice for indigenous popu...

While concerns about graduate unemployment and the work-readiness of graduates in Sub-Saharan Africa abound, there is a severe lack of institutional data and academic research on graduate destinations on which to base policy changes. This article presents findings from an exploratory study of three major higher education institutions in Kenya. An online survey was conducted with recent graduates in a range of disciplinary areas, aiming to determine, first, what employment activities they were engaged in, and second, what associations there might be between those activities, the graduates’ background characteristics, and their experiences at university. Findings suggest that proportions of absolute unemployment are lower than expected, but that many graduates are transiting between provisional or part-time employment and internships, and have not yet obtained the graduate level jobs aspired to. Finally, implications are drawn out for potential national-level graduate destination surveys in Kenya and elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa.

While higher education has always had an international dimension, it is problematic to assume universally valid epistemologies, curricula and missions. This penultimate chapter explores radical critiques of the university in terms of its institutional structures and epistemic underpinnings, drawing on the ideas of Ivan Illich and post-development theorists. Cases of alternative universities in Mexico and Brazil are explored, assessing the significant possibilities of innovation, but also challenges in providing a viable option of study. These experimental institutions serve not only to reinvent learning, but also to promote a broader imagination of our conception of society and sustainable development.

This chapter explores the various pathways through which higher education can have a positive impact on the SDGs. The goals are diverse in nature, and their achievement requires in some cases innovation and breakthroughs in knowledge, in some the development of professional skills, and in others the raising of public awareness or changing of attitudes. The roles of the university, therefore, must be equally diverse, involving education, knowledge production, service delivery, public debate and embodiment (expressing the principles of the SDGs within the workings of the institution). The chapter also assesses existing evidence of the impact of universities in lower income countries and draws out implications for the changes needed in policy and practice.

The final chapter summarises the main arguments made in the book, in light of the cataclysmic prospects facing humanity in the twenty-first century. Heterogeneity in higher education is desirable, yet this diversity can cohere around a common set of principles including a commitment to human understanding through open-ended enquiry, fair access, a dialogue of knowledges, non-commodification and public good. Some proposals for change are put forward at the institutional, national and global levels.

The ability of universities to fulfil the developmental role is not only dependent on their internal workings, but also on the external policy environment. This chapter addresses three major global trends affecting higher education: status competition, manifesting itself principally through international university rankings; commodification, appearing through the expansion of the private sector but also marketisation within public sectors; and unbundling, the disaggregation of the various functions of the university and constituent parts of the teaching and learning process. While these three are complex and sometimes contradictory processes, they all have a potential negative impact on the ability of universities to promote the SDGs, through reducing the resources available for contribution to the public good, and encouraging exclusivity rather than inclusivity.

Understanding the role of education in development is highly complex, on account of the slippery nature of both concepts, and the multifaceted relationship between them. This chapter provides a conceptual exploration of these relationships, laying the groundwork for the rest of the book. First, it assesses the role of education as a driver of development, including aspects of economic growth, basic needs and political participation. Second, it looks at the constitutive perspective, involving education as national status, human right and human development. Finally, it assesses the ‘other face’ of education and its negative impacts, as well as the specificities of higher education in relation to other levels.

Employability is becoming increasingly central to the mission and functioning of universities, spurred on by national and supranational agencies, and the demands of marketisation. This article provides a response to the normative dimensions of the question, progressing through four stages: first, there is a brief consideration of the meaning and manifestations of employability and the historical conditions underpinning its emergence; second, the question is addressed of whether employability is a desirable societal and individual aim per se; third, there is a discussion of the fundamental purpose of the university, drawing on the well-known accounts of Newman and Collini, before – fourth – addressing the principal question of whether and in what way employability might fit within that purpose. It is argued that employability is a valid aim of universities only in so far as it is consistent with the central purpose of the institution to foster human understanding through open-ended enquiry. Further questions are discussed, namely, whether other social institutions are better equipped to promote employability, possible costs for the university, the ethical dimension and differences between public and private institutions.

Concerns over equity of access to higher education are widespread, but there is significant disagreement over what should constitute a fair system. This article assesses diverse conceptualisations of equity and explores the ways in which they embody themselves in the policies of three systems, those of England, Brazil and Kenya. While showing significant disparities of income level and enrolment ratio, all three have made concerted efforts to expand higher education access, accompanied by increasing stratification in terms of the quality and prestige of institutions. Analysis of policy options and outcomes leads to a proposal of three principles for understanding equity of access: availability, accessibility and horizontality. The third of these principles addresses the little-acknowledged safeguard that disadvantaged students should not be confined to lower-quality institutions, while at the same time allowing for diversity of ethos and disciplinary focus.

Opposition to university fees is often framed as a defence of higher education as a ‘right’ rather than a ‘privilege’. However, the basis and nature of this right is unclear. This article presents a conceptual exploration of the question, drawing on an initial analysis of international law. An argument is put forward for a right to higher education seen as one of a number of possible forms of post-school education, restricted only by a requirement for a minimum level of academic preparation.

While there has been widespread international attention paid to the promotion of citizenship in schools, the civic dimension of higher education study has been less prominent. This article assesses three cases of provision for the teaching of citizenship in English universities, encompassing both discrete modules and embedded approaches. The cases are analysed using the framework of ‘curricular transposition’, focusing on the problematic movements from underlying ideals to realisation in practice. Findings from the studies suggest that lecturer involvement is a key factor, and that top-down initiatives are unlikely to succeed. In relation to location in the curriculum, both dedicated taught courses and whole institution approaches are seen to present distinct challenges and opportunities. Finally, implications are drawn out for the prospects of promoting democratic citizenship in higher education.

After many years of relative neglect, development agencies and national governments across the developing world are now considering renewing their financial commitment to tertiary education. As a result, questions about the ways that tertiary education can impact society have returned to the discourse. This article summarizes the findings of a recent rigorous review on the topic commissioned by the UK Department for International Development (DFID). The review highlights a number of important social functions of the university, many of which have not been sufficiently emphasized in debates around public funding for tertiary education.

Higher education in Brazil has expanded rapidly over the last 20 years, reaching a total of over 7 million students and over 2000 institutions. However, the net enrollment ratio is still low at only 15%, and students are drawn mainly from the upper socio-economic groups, with particularly low participation of African Brazilian and indigenous communities. Issues around access to higher education have gained political prominence in recent years, leading to a heated national debate and a range of policy initiatives, driven primarily by the strength of social movements, particularly the Black Movement. In order to expand access in the private sector, the Prouni initiative has opened free-of-charge places for lower-income students in private institutions in exchange for tax breaks. This initiative has been highly successful in numerical terms, with over 1 million students benefiting from the program, though it has given rise to a range of critiques, in terms of the quality of institutions in question, and transfer of public funds to profit-making corporations. Another prominent policy development has been the introduction of quotas. Following a range of mobilizations and affirmative action policies in individual universities, the government has now passed a law guaranteeing places in federal universities for students of African Brazilian and indigenous origin from public schools. While these policies have had significant impact, the country is still far from fully addressing the challenge of widening participation. This chapter assesses the merits of existing initiatives, and draws out implications for institutional and governmental policy for the coming years, assessing the significance of the Brazilian experience for other contexts.

Access to higher education in Brazil is to a large extent restricted to the higher socioeconomic groups. Public universities have limited places and entry is determined by highly competitive exams, thereby excluding those who have not had a high quality secondary education or attended an expensive preparatory course. There has been considerable growth in the private sector to absorb the excess demand, but the majority of Brazilians cannot afford the fees. This paper develops a concept of equity in higher education in which, firstly, there should be sufficient places in the system as a whole and, secondly, all people should have a fair opportunity of attending the university of their choice regardless of socioeconomic background. Recent efforts to expand access are analyzed, including incentives for the growth of private universities, student loans and the new Prouni initiative, in which private institutions provide free places to low-income students in return for tax exemptions. While these initiatives have the potential to increase the total number of places, they will not lead to an equitable expansion, as disadvantaged students will still be confined to courses of lower quality or with lower subsequent value on the employment market. Initiatives aimed at the public sector such as the introduction of quotas and changes to entry examinations are also discussed. Finally, some implications for future policy development are outlined.

Despite the reforms of the last twenty years, education systems worldwide do not yet resemble the competitive markets in which most commodities are traded. Proponents of markets and privatization in education tend to advocate a system in which some state intervention is necessary, whether this be direct funding of schools (as in the UK quasi-market), indirect funding through vouchers, or simply quality assurance and regulation. Markets are frequently justifi ed on the basis of parents’ or students’ rights to choice, or by the greater effi ciency and quality ensured through competition. Privatization is also at times promoted as a means of reducing the state monopoly and achieving greater academic freedom, as was alleged in the case of Buckingham University (Geiger, 1986).

There has been a dramatic growth in private higher education in Brazil in recent years. The World Bank has promoted this expansion on the basis of the private providers" ability to ensure a rapid increase in enrolment, to improve quality through competition between institutions, and to secure benefits for society at little public cost. However, the charging of fees means that the majority of Brazilians do not have access, and that inequalities are reproduced due to the relation between course costs and the value of the final diploma. Equitable access is, therefore, far from being achieved and is unlikely even with an increase in student loans and government subsidies. The contribution of private universities to the long-term development of society is seen to be limited due to lack of investment in research and community service.

Higher education is increasingly acknowledged by national governments and international agencies as a key driver of development, and systems are expanding rapidly in response to rising demand. Moreover, universities have been attributed a central role in the post-2015 development agenda and the achievement of the sustainable development goals. Yet questions of institutional models and their differential impact on society have not received sufficient attention. This paper presents an analysis of the ‘anatomy’ of the university in order to identify the salient changes in the institution across time and location in relation to knowledge and relationships with society. A framework is proposed structured around three key dimensions: first, ‘value’—the extent to which knowledge is treated as intrinsically or instrumentally worthwhile; second, ‘function’—the role of the university in terms of storage, transmission, production or application of knowledge; third, ‘interaction’—the flow of ideas and actors between the university and society. This analytical framework is then utilised to assess two dominant tendencies in global higher education: commodification and unbundling. Finally, implications are drawn out for universities’ potential impact on development in low- and middle-income countries in the context of these contemporary trends.

The idea of the ‘developmental university’ was popularised on the African continent in the post- independence period, but has recently returned to view on account of the positioning of the university in the newly agreed United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The developmental model is characterised by service to society, application of knowledge, non-academic benefit and prioritising the most marginalised. Yet to what extent are these goals and characteristics coherent and viable given the nature of the university as institution? While the developmental model per seis limited to a few experiences, the implications of these questions are much broader, given the public service mission held by many if not most higher education institutions around the world. After outlining its historical emergence, this article presents a conceptual exploration of the model, highlighting three major limitations, in spite of its highly positive intentions: its positioning of the university as an ‘adaptable factory’, its encroachment on a distinctive space for the university in relation to society, and its particular and contested conception of development.

There has been a dramatic growth in private higher education in Brazil in recent years. The World Bank has promoted this expansion on the basis of the private providers’ ability to ensure a rapid increase in enrolment, to improve quality through competition between institutions and to bring benefits for society at little public cost. However, the charging of fees means that the majority of Brazilians do not have access, and that inequalities are reproduced due to the relation between course costs and the value of the final diploma. Equitable access is, therefore, far from being achieved and is unlikely even with an increase in student loans and government subsidies. The contribution of private universities to the long-term development of society is seen to be limited, due to lack of investment in research and academic staff.