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Background: Understanding how drinking water is managed in rural households that lack access to improved water sources is necessary for designing effective strategies that can meet their drinking water requirements. This study aimed to assess the drinking water management practices of rural households in two selected communities of Plateau State.Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in Plateau State among 202 female caregivers of under-five children residing in households of two rural communities who were selected using a multistage sampling technique. An interviewer-administered questionnaire and an observational checklist were used to obtain information on water sources, collection, storage and treatment practices. Data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0. Bivariate analysis was done to identify factors associated with household water treatment practice followed by logistic regression to determine predictors. Level of significance was set at p

We investigated the abundance of microplastics in freshwater, treated water, and household tap water from the drinking water supply chain in Changsha, China. The abundance was 2173-3998 (mean = 2753), 338-400 (mean = 351.9), and 267-404 (mean = 343.5) particles L-1 in freshwater, treated water, and tap water, respectively. Fibrous and fragments made up the majority (> 70%) in all water samples, and most polymers were composed of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. Microplastics in tap water were related to materials of transportation pipelines in drinking-water supply chain. Although plastics are corrosion-resistant, the slight fragmentation and abrasion may occur during drinking water treatment transportation. This study provided a proof for the occurrence of microplastics in drinking water, which may offer a reference for microplastic removal during drinking water treatment, and the formulation of standards for microplastic content in drinking water.

Decommissioning efforts are underway at the reactor where the accident occurred, namely the damaged Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP). However, a large amount of groundwater flowing into the site has become contaminated with radioactive substances and is stored in tanks on site, which has hampered the decommissioning work. Although the inflow of groundwater has been greatly reduced through measures such as the construction of frost walls, approximately 170 m3 of water treated by the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS) is being stored in tanks, each day. The tanks used to store this treated water are expected to become full by around the summer of 2022. It is not easy to get people to understand the efforts of all concerned parties, and providing clear information to these concerned parties is also a challenge. Questions have also been raised regarding whether other alternatives have been fully explored in the ALPS subcommittee. Some people have commented that the answers to the questions raised regarding the biological effects of tritium transmutation are inadequate. Some suspect that the answers are too detailed and incomprehensible, and that the respondents may be manipulating the public with some malicious intent. In any case, each possible plan presents both advantages and disadvantages, depending on the people who are involved. That makes it an ethical and vexing issue that can sway decisions, as perspectives change. While the environmental release plan is scientifically safe, it may represent a painful alternative. On the other hand, a more careful and imaginative approach to the idea of continued storage in tanks or other forms of storage may reveal some troublesome hidden disadvantages. Under these circumstances, experts must be prepared to answer people's questions in a comprehensive and robust manner.

Background and study aim: Inadequately treated water supply and unhygienic food consumption are the major sources of contracting feco-orally transmitted viral pathogens, including Rotavirus. This prospective study aimed to assess the presence of Rotavirus in sewage, underground and surface waters collected from different locations within Maiduguri Metropolis, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A total of 170 sewage and water samples (underground and surface waters) were collected from various sources in high-density and low-density areas of the Maiduguri metropolis. A modified adsorption- elution method for concentration of enteric viruses in sewage and water samples and detection of the presence of rotavirus (if present) was done using Enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA). The viruses in water were concentrated by negatively charged membrane filtration, eluted with 0.05M Glycine at pH 11.5, and re-concentrated by centrifugation at 12,000rpm for one hour. Results: Out of the 60 domestic sewage samples collected from high-density areas, 8.3% were positive for rotavirus antigen, whereas none of the samples from low-density areas were positive. In addition, rotavirus antigen was not detected in underground and surface water samples. The temperature range of the 5 rotavirus positive samples was 23-30oC. All the 5 positive samples had alkaline pH that ranged between 8 and 9. Conclusion: This study has demonstrated the persistence of rotavirus in sewage and its possible transmission through contaminated food and poor treated water

Introduction Acute viral gastroenteritis is a major public health concern, especially among children younger than 5 years of age. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of human astrovirus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis. Methods Stool specimens were collected from 506 children under 5 years of age hospitalized with acute diarrhoea (289 male and 208 female), and human astrovirus was investigated by RT-PCR. Associations of socio-demographic, clinical, and behavioural conditions with infection were analysed. Results The overall prevalence of human astrovirus was found to be 10.3%. The mean age of positive cases was 12.41 ± 6.21 months and this was associated with infection (p = 0.013). Children >18 months of age were at three times the risk of infection when compared to those aged 0–6 months (odds ratio (OR) 3.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15–8.88; p = 0.026). Children living in houses with more than one room (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.28–0.96; p = 0.036) and mothers using treated water (OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.25–0.86; p = 0.015) were associated with reduced infection. Conclusions In this study, infection with astrovirus was common in acute gastroenteritis cases among children younger than 5 years of age. Drinking treated water and living in non-crowded environments protected the children from infection.

The application of magnetic technology to agricultural productions is considered new breakthroughs to the enhancement of food production. However, studies about its application on the hydroponic system of production on high valued crops are limited. Hence, the present study assessed the effect of magnetically-treated water on the growth and yield parameters of lettuce in hydroponic system. Magnetic device with different number of permanent magnets was used to magnetize irrigation water in the hydroponic system. Uniform and healthy seedlings are transplanted and arranged completely randomized design. Magnetically treated water enhanced the growth and yield parameters of lettuce such as weekly height, leaf area, fresh weight, and root length. The height, leaf area, fresh weight, and root length increased up to 44.30%, 199.93%, 50.72%, and 37.00%, respectively vs. the control. Results revealed that magnetic treatment for water in hydroponic system has potentials to increase the growth of lettuce and consequently its yield.

Intestinal parasitic infections continue to be a major health problem in children in developing countries. The present study attempted to assess the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in primary school children aged 8-13 years in a primary school. It was a cross-sectional study including 58 primary school children, out of which 35 were boys and 23 were females. Out of the 58 subjects examined 6 (11%) had intestinal parasite infection. The prevalence of infection was maximum in the age group of 10-11 years, followed by almost equal prevalence in age group of 8-9 years and 12-13 years. Among the parasites, the prevalence of ascaris lumbricoides was highest (83%), followed by hymenolepsis nana (16%). The prevalence of parasitic infestation was seen higher in those who consumed untreated water, and, in those who had open sanitary habits. Health education regarding hygienic practices in the school at primary levels can have significant effect in prevention of intestinal parasites infection among the children. Keywords: Parasitic infection, Open sanitation, Treated water, Ascaris.

Cold plasma has been a potent energy-efficient and eco-friendly advanced oxidation technology which has gained attention in recent decades as a non-thermal approach in diverse forms of applications. This review highlights a comprehensive account of the implementation of this technology in the field of wastewater treatment to resolve certain issues regarding the degradation of numerous aqueous pollutants and water-borne pathogenic microorganisms including viruses up to a significant level. The paper addresses plasma chemistry sources and mechanisms on wastewater treatment and impact on various physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of treated water. Furthermore, studies have revealed that this emerging technology is effective in inactivating SARS-CoV-2 or coronavirus, which serves as a transmission channel for this lethal virus in wastewater. Despite these benefits, the development of cold plasma as a wastewater treatment technique is still hampered by a lack of information like capital investment, proficient application, liveability, and operating cost, thus necessitating additional research for its booming commercialization, as this can be an emerging approach to solving water crises and meeting the demand for fresh or potable water resources.

Hundreds of thousands of children continue to die each year from diarrhea. We piloted a low-cost liquid chlorine point-of-use (POU) water treatment among elementary school children in Bangladesh. We began the 1-month intervention in four schools (two urban and two rural) by introducing POU drinking water hardware and behavior change communication. We trained teachers to deliver sessions encouraging students to drink chlorinated water from their own small plastic bottles to avoid disease transmission. We used cue cards and flip charts as visual aids. We evaluated the acceptability, feasibility, and potential for sustainability after 1 month and after 14 months of the intervention. During 1-month follow-up, among 141 drinking events observed, 141 students (100%) drank chlorinated water. In 93 or 66% of events, students used their own bottles, and in 43 (30%) of the events, they used common cups or hands washed before drinking. During the 14-month follow-up, we observed 732 drinking events. In 653 of 732 events (89%), students drank chlorinated water; in 78 events (11%), they consumed water from untreated drinking water sources. Among those who consumed chlorinated water, 20% (131/653) used their own bottles to drink water, 72% (467/653) used common cups, and 8% (55/653) used both hands to drink water. Most stated that they drank chlorinated water because it is safe, it has health benefits, and treatment reduces germs. Introduction of specific hardware, weekly hygiene sessions, and education materials enabled schools to treat water at POU and students to consume treated water.

Small scale ultrafiltration (UF) systems have been increasingly used in rural areas for drinking water supply, but their effectiveness in guarantying microbiological water safety at household level has rarely been assessed. Therefore, this study surveyed six representative villages where UF was utilized for full-scale drinking water supply for at least four years. At each village, the influent and the effluent from every stages of the treatment, as well as household tap water, were sampled and analyzed for microbiological indicating parameters, including total coliform count, Escherichia coli count, and heterotrophic plate count. The results were further assessed against current drinking water quality guidelines and standards. It was found that: (1) the qualification rate of household tap water samples varied substantially in the studied villages (0-75%), mainly due to the lack of post-disinfection and the occurrence of fecal contamination during water distribution; (2) UF appeared to be effective in controlling microbial contamination for small-scale systems with high-quality source water, while for systems using inferior source water, fecal contamination during water distribution necessitated continuous post-disinfection; and, (3) existing monitoring of membrane operational parameters cannot ensure microbial quality of treated water, and therefore, routine monitoring of microbial indicators in household water is recommended.

With the interest to reuse and recycle the wastewater for technological use, this project aims to test the treatment of wastewater from poultry slaughterhouse industry from three main sections of the poultry slaughtering process, defeathering, eviscerating and cooling processes. The samples for the project were obtained from Izhevskoe a Kazakhstani company. The technology used is a combination of electrocoagulation, ultrafiltration, and photochemical system and its goal is to provide treated water that can be re-utilized in the poultry industry for sterilization of technical equipment without contaminating and affecting the quality of the poultry products. The treatment of wastewater samples lasted in total for 40 min. From the results, it was found that indicators such as BOD, COD, and phosphates had removal efficiency of almost 100%, while the microbiological colonies were all eradicated from then wastewater making the treated water microbes free. Hence, proving this system to be effective for the treatment of poultry slaughterhouse wastewater and safe for technological reutilization.

A pilot-scale sustainable hydrogen production system using reverse electrodialysis (RED) technology was launched. The system is based on direct conversion of salinity gradient energy (SGE) between seawater (SW) and sewage treated water (STW) to hydrogen production by water electrolysis. The hydrogen production rate was almost the same as the theoretical value. This indicates that the RED hydrogen production system can convert SGE between SW and STW to hydrogen energy at high current efficiency.

The study assessed whether using clean containers that had been disinfected with chlorine at a water kiosk in the Kangemi slum in Nairobi reduced recontamination of treated water during drinking transport and storage. At the same time, the impacts of container handling and hygiene conditions at the household level on water quality changes during storage were evaluated. Data were collected during interviews with 135 households using either new, clean Maji Safi containers (MSCs) that had been disinfected with chlorine or normal uncleaned jerrycans (NJCs). Bacteriological water quality and free chlorine levels in both types of containers were measured after container filling at the kiosk and in the same containers after 24 h storage in households. The use of MSCs significantly reduced the risk of recontaminating the treated water. After water filling at the kiosk, none of the MSCs contained Escherichia coli bacteria, and 2.8% were contaminated after 24 h storage. In contrast, 6.2% of NJCs were contaminated after filling, and 15.2% after 24 h storage. Multivariate logistic regression indicated that the use of a clean water container and sufficient chlorine and the frequency of cleaning the container in the household mitigated recontamination. We suggest further investigation of water container designs that facilitate cleaning.

We report a case series of seven patients with nonfermentative Gram-negative bacteria infections in a single dialysis center; four patients with Ralstonia pickettii and three patients with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Two of the seven patients were admitted to hospital for intravenous antibiotic treatment, while the rest were treated with oral antibiotics at home. Both the admitted patients had temporary vascular catheter infections from the aforementioned pathogens. We conclude that the outbreak is due to colonization of treated reverse osmosis water, presumably through contamination via polluted filters and compounded by the usage of reprocessed dialysers in the dialysis center. This is especially relevant because contaminated treated water is directly introduced into the blood compartment of the dialysers during reprocessing. In addition, there seems to be a propensity for both organisms to cause prolonged febrile reactions in patients with temporary vascular catheters, likely through the early development of biofilm. Intensification of general sterilization procedures, servicing and replacement of old decrepit components of the water treatment system and temporary cessation of dialyser reuse practice seem to have halted the outbreak. Due to the virulent nature and difficult resistant profile of nonfermentative Gram-negative bacteria, we strongly recommend meticulous vigilance in the surveillance of culture isolates in routine microbiological specimens from dialysis centers, especially if there is a senescent water treatment system and a practice of reprocessing dialysers.

A new technological scheme of water treatment is proposed, combining reagent methods with hydrodynamic activation of coagulation, flocculation and sorption processes, with baromembrane methods of purification. A method of organizing the process of filtering water after treatment with reagents using a tangential filter made using self-propagating high-temperature synthesis technology is proposed. Jet agitators – ejectors were developed and investigated, the efficiency of using ejectors as devices for dosing and mixing of reagents with treated water was shown. An experimental model of the installation was created and it was successfully tested on model as well as real polluted waters. Purified water obtained on an experimental sample of the installation fully complies with the hygienic requirements and standards established for drinking water.

Chlorination is an effective disinfection method of drinking water treatment. Optimizing this process poses certain challenges, as the objectives of reaching the required disinfection effect and limiting the formation of disinfection by-products must be met simultaneously. These need adjusting the chlorine dosage in real time to cope with fluctuations in water quality and maintaining a free chlorine residual at the clear-water reservoir outlet that does not exceed regulatory limits. This paper proposes a composite control scheme that combines disturbance observer (DOB) and model predictive control (MPC) to meet the aforementioned objectives. MPC is employed for the feedback control of post-chlorine dosage, and DOB is adapted to monitor fluctuations in influent water quality. The estimated value from the DOB is applied in the feed-forward control of post-chlorine dosage. Both simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed DOB-MPC composite control scheme provides a better disturbance rejection effect against fluctuations in influent water quality than MPC-only and PID-only control schemes, and it can effectively stabilize the quality of treated water.

Chlorination is an efficient and low-cost technique in disinfecting water for public water supply. However, during the process, the formation of undesirable by-products called halogen compounds, such as trihalome-thanes (THMs), occurs. Some of these compounds are proven to be carcinogenic to laboratory animals. The goal of this study was to investigate the occurrence of THMs in household reservoirs and the influence of cleaning time of these reservoirs on the formation of THMs. A total of 103 households were investigated in the city of Maringa, State of Parana, Brazil. The residences were classified according to the cleaning time of the reservoir into: up to one year, one to two years and more than two years. Samples were taken from the reservoirs and total trihalomethanes (THMt) were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC-MS), total organic carbon (TOC) by means of a Hach kit for low concentrations and free residual chlorine (CLres) by means of a kit for in loco determination. According to the results, the highest concentrations of THMt were observed in the reservoirs with cleaning time of more than 2 years. However, no amount has exceeded the maximum limit allowed by law. In general, the longer the time for cleaning the reservoir, the greater the degradation of water quality in THMt.

The study was conducted to determine the occurrence of risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst pregnant and non-pregnant women at Sabratha Teaching Hospital and Surman Clinic. The study included cities from the Western region of Libya (Sabratha, Surman, El-Ajelat, Motred, Abo essa, Al-Sabreya and Tripoli). A total of 65 women, 41 pregnant and 24 non-pregnant with the average age from 20 and over 41 years were included in this study. Interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire survey. The water consumed level originated from treated water (50.8%), mineral water (36.9%), wells water (10.8%) and taps water (1.5%). The majority (87.7%) consumed Chicken meat more often, whilst (53.8%) consumed Beef, thoroughly cooked meat was preferred by (87.7%). Few (1.5%) used gloves when dealing with meat. All respondents washed fruits and vegetables before consumption, consumed milk was (66.2%) of the women, while (10.8%) preferred unpasteurized milk. Only (4.6%) of women owned cats, whilst 6.2% handling them, and 33.8% were in contact with soil. (47.6%) has O blood type. 63.1% of total respondents were pregnant women, of them 70% were aborted previously one time and 14.8% were aborted two times, 11% were aborted three times and 3.7% were aborted four times. The majority of them had some knowledge about toxoplasmosis but few known of the transmission mechanism. Also the study revealed that (3.70%) of aborted respondents was owning cats or dogs, 40.7% of them were dealing with soil and all previously aborted respondents were not using gloves while handling meat. Comparison between previous abortion incidences and consumption of milk showed that 70.4% of aborted women were consumed milk daily, and regarding water sources 55.6% of aborted respondents consumed treated water and 18.5% of them consumed wells or taps water. Knowledge of these risk factors will help to reduce and prevent toxoplasmosis. The study needs further health education to increase awareness of risk factors of toxoplasmosis.

In recent years, sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation has received increasing attention for the treatment of water and wastewater. However, the chemical oxygen demand (COD), a common measure of gross organic contamination, is subject to interference from residual persulfate in the treated water. In this study, a new method, based on addition of sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) and heating, has been developed to eliminate the interference of remaining potassium persulfate (PSk) on COD analysis. Results of batch experiments show that potassium persulfate can be efficiently removed with molar ratio of Na2SO3/potassium persulfate ≥ 2 and heating at 90 °C for 60 min. This method (Na2SO3–heating treatment) was further tested in a phenol wastewater and a coal industry wastewater. The deviation of COD values of Na2SO3–heating treatment was lower than 5%, which was much lower than the deviation of the calibration curve method, of more than 14%. This new method could be applied to water samples containing persulfate and organic substances and help researchers to accurately evaluate performance of sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes.

This Viewpoint calls for a greater understanding of the role that water plays in the transmission of anti-microbial resistance and covid-19 in protracted urban armed conflict, in order to develop a ‘pathogen-safe’ practice. It argues that dealing with the twin threats is difficult enough in the best of circumstances, and is so little understood in war zones that surgeons and water engineers now question if their practice does more harm than good. Experience suggests that the known transmission routes are complicated by a great number of factors, including the entry of heavy metals through bullets in patients’ wounds, hospital over-crowding, mutation in treated water or wastewater, and other threats which endure long after the bombing has stopped. The skeleton research agenda proposes greater sewage surveillance, testing of phages and monitoring of treatment designed to dispel or substantiate these assertions.

A low-tech water treatment system with a novel configuration is described which delivers safe water (>3 log-removal of E. coli), has low cost, provides safe water in quantities for a household for substantial time periods, is easy to maintain, robust against breakage, and avoids recontamination. Due to the unique design, the Guelph Water Filtration system (Guelph Water Filter) remains functional for periods substantially longer than previous technologies, providing ~6 years for delivery of treated water at flow rates exceeding 1 L/hr (for low turbidity (0.05 ~ 1.00 NTU) source water). The ceramic filter components of the system are easily replaceable in the filter housing and the Guelph Water Filter is feasible as a village-level production/employment opportunity. The long-term performance of the ceramic filter component of the Guelph system improves longevity of performance by reducing clogging and enables two filter elements to be used in a single filter housing (doubling the surface area through which filtration occurs). Placing the filter in a large reservoir (pail) also significantly reduces the frequency of the need to refill raw water (alternative filter designs require refilling and monitoring multiple times per day).

Nowadays, membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology has been used as an effective approach for wastewater treatment due to its benefits, such as the high quality of treated water and the durability of the system. This technology could be recommended to encourage the reuse of treated wastewater for so many purposes except for drinking water, such as toilet cleaning and irrigation purposes. Interestingly, MBR technologies are able to remove various types of viruses and phages. In addition, MBRs are widely applied in the removal of heavy metals, hydrocarbons, dye molecules in textile industry wastes, dangerous micropollutants such as phenolic compounds, phthalates, and estrogen, rare organic compounds such as surfactants, pharmaceutically active compounds, micropollutants, and hormones. Based on this, the current chapter emphasizes the approach of applying MBR technology for water treatment options and explains the different types of MBR systems, showing the hydrodynamic efficiency of these MBR systems. It will also give an insight into some problems such as dirt and nutrient removal. On application of membranes with conventional biological therapy, it is proved that MBR is a very promising technique and effective in microcontaminant removing compared to other conventional methods undertaken in most wastewater treatment plants. Currently, it is used in treating both municipal and industrial wastewaters. The MBR systems under anaerobic conditions are recently getting much attention as a potential solution of water reuse to secure fresh water for other purposes and a proposed source for renewable energy to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Techniques using membranes for the treatment of wastewaters usually promote higher quality of treated water when compared to other processes. Among them, pervaporation has advantages in terms of selectivity in addition to low working pressure, which can prevent clogging problems. Polysulfone and polyurethane have complementary characteristics and are interesting in the context of membranes for industrial applications. In this sense, the aim of this work was to prepare and characterize polysulfone/polyurethane-based membranes and tested them with a simulated wastewater containing the reactive black dye and sodium chloride by pervaporation. In their manufacture, thermal treatment (at 60°C) and photo-radiation treatment (using ultraviolet light) were also applied. The characterizations were performed using different analytical tools. In general, it was possible to verify that all membranes have a dense layer. The thermal analysis allowed to define that the indicated working temperature is below 50°C. With respect to the simulated wastewater treatment, all membranes reached 100% selectivity. Concerning the saline solution, the mean selectivity was around 98.5%. Moreover, the permeate flow values were within the range presented by commercial membranes ranging from 1.6 to 2.4 kg m

The Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) is responsible for supplying drinking water to Phnom Penh. It was formally established in 1959 under a Royal Decree as a state-controlled business under the direct supervision of the Phnom Penh Municipality. However, the piped drinking water supply in Phnom Penh started well before 1959. In 1895, Compagnie des Eaux d’Electricite de l’Indonchine (CEEI), a French water and electricity authority in Indochina, started distributing treated water to many of the Phnom Penh residents.

Thailand is one of the largest contributors to plastic waste in the oceans. Since mismanaged plastic waste can enter the ocean via inland waterways, microplastic contamination in freshwater used for tap water production has been raised as a potential issue. This study was conducted to determine the abundance and characteristics of microplastics in freshwater and treated tap water in Bangkok. Freshwater and treated water were collected from the eastern and western water supply systems in the dry and wet seasons. The source waters of the eastern and western water supply systems are the Chao Phraya River and Maeklong River, respectively. Approximately 0.40–2.40 particles/L microplastics was determined in the freshwater samples. No significant differences in microplastic abundance with respect to water supply system or season were found. Approximately 82.1% of the total microplastics found in the freshwater were smaller than 300 µm in size. The percentage contribution of various microplastic size ranges decreased with increasing size. The majority of microplastics found in freshwater were fragments (90.2%), colorless (64.3%), and made of polyethylene polymer (45.1%). Only the eastern water supply system was capable of removing microplastic particles (27.7%) from freshwater. The identification of microplastics larger than 100 µm in size in the treated tap water indicated potential contamination from microplastics in the treatment system, particularly after the sand filtration unit. The major characteristics of the microplastics found in treated tap water were similar to those found in freshwater, with 85.6% fragments, 85.1% colorless, and 47.9% made of polyethylene polymer.

The presence of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking waters poses a high risk to a human’s health. The study aimed to monitor the level of THMs and to develop a mathematical model to predict the same in the water supply system of five cities (Varanasi, Dhanbad, Raipur, Bhubaneswar, and Kolkata) of India. The concentration range of total THMs (TTHMs) (348 and 414 μg/L) was observed approx. 2 times higher than the prescribed guideline value of Bureau of Indian standard. Raw water contained a comparatively higher amount of THMs precursors than treated water. The adopted conventional treatment technology in the existing unit was found marginal for removal of these THMs precursors (TOC 34% and DOC 37%). A machine learning predictive model viz. Support vector machine (SVM) was developed using MATLAB 9.5. Validation results confirmed the prediction precision of SVM models is good, which can provide immense help to WTP manager for the pre-knowledge of THMs in the water for its better management and control.

Shimla city is the capital of the hilly state, Himachal Pradesh. It is situated in the south of river Satluj. The drinking water supply to major portion of the city is met through Ashwani Khad and Dhalli water supply schemes. Ashwani Khad water treatment plant (WTP) receives water from a natural stream, Malyana sewage treatment plant (STP) treated water, and three open drains. During lean period, the treated water is supplemented with bore well water to fulfill the demand and is supplied to consumers after chlorination. Dhalli WTP receives water from Churat Nallah and Sayog catchment, and supplied to consumers after treatment. A mass level jaundice was reported in the Sanjauli-Malyana area of Shimla City during 2006–2007. In view of this, study of contamination in drinking water sources of Shimla City was carried out using hydrological and water quality data analysis. In the present paper, the causes of contamination in drinking water supply and options for ameliorative measures have been identified and discussed.

The drinking water supply for the Geneva area comes partly (80%) from the Lake of Geneva and partly (20%) from a large aquifer called Genevois aquifer. During the 1970’s, overpumping lowered the groundwater level by more than 7 m. Artificial recharge has been carried out from the Arve river into the Genevois aquifer in order to maintain the groundwater level and enable water resources management. Located near the Arve river, this artificial recharge plant started its activity in 1980. For the last 20 years the artificial recharge system of Geneva has brought over 200 M m3 of treated water into the Genevois aquifer. The impacts of the recharge on the Genevois aquifer and on the aquifer management are described in this paper.

Vadavucode – Puthencruz water supply system is a combined gravity and pumping system with an intermittent mode of supply. The source of the system is Ramamangalam River from where raw water is taken to Choondy treatment plant and the treated water is being sent to a booster pump house at Pannikuzhi to serve the benefited population. A household survey is conducted to find out the effectiveness of the existing system. It is found that users at higher elevated points and tail end colonies do not receive water with adequate pressure, especially during summer seasons. Analysis of the existing network is carried out using the WaterGEMS Software and critical problems were identified.

Global Water and Sewage Utilities must manage a wide variety of essential infrastructure assets while meeting complex social and environmental challenges, and this is especially true in Brazil, where according to SNIS Institute only 53% of the population has sewerage coverage and 17% still does not have access to treated water [16].

Background: Globally, around 150 million people are still supplied with arsenic contaminated drinking water. The groundwaters effected often contain problematic concentrations of natural organic matter (NOM), which plays an important role in releasing As into the aquifer. Thus, this review explores the recent literature relating to the application of various nanomaterials to solve these drinking water supply problems and highlights the work that still needs to be done. Methods: After an extensive initial search patent papers were selected based on their quality and relevance to the topic of this review: the use of magnetic nanomaterials based on pure magnetic materials, magnetic composites of carbon/graphene/biochars, polymeric matrices, metal-organic frameworks and mixed-oxide magnetic nanocomposites, as As adsorbents and as photocatalysts for NOM removal. Results: 160 papers relating to the application of nanomaterials for As removal were reviewed and 38 papers covering photocatalysts for NOM removal. These papers were organised by type of nanomaterial, and their important findings summarised. Although many authors have demonstrated effective solutions in the laboratory, the following areas still need to be addressed: the challenges posed by larger pilot and full scale continuously operated processes; the treatment of complex natural water matrices; which technologies will be required to economically separate nanoparticles from the treated water; whether the nanoparticles will be more economically and environmentally sustainable than other techniques available. Conclusion: Despite these significant gaps in the literature, the body of work carried out thus far, as summarised in this review paper, strongly suggests that full scale treatment solutions applying (magnetic) nanomaterials may prove highly effective in the future for both arsenic and NOM removal.

International audience; In this paper, a new flexible wastewater treatment scheme is proposed to be used within the framework of wastewater reuse (REUSE). From a configuration where the water is treated to guarantee normative constraints, we propose a flexible configuration able to adapt, in minimal time, the quality and the quantity of water to usage. In other terms, the proposed scheme is able to treat water for purpose. Using model analysis and simulations, we show how a simulation platform may be used to demonstrate the flexible characteristics of the scheme, in particular when dealing with the decoupling of water fluxes and the different forms of nitrogen contents in the output treated water.

Needless to say, the safety of treated water for potable reuse must be definitively ensured. Numerous methods are available for assessing water quality; it's important to understand their challenges and limitations.

Introdução: Feiras livres são espaços onde podem ser encontrados produtos orgânicos. A feira contribui na alimentação saudável para a população, uma vez que essas pessoas vão à feira em busca de alimentos de melhor qualidade. As feiras livres são caracterizadas pela presença dos produtores e pela venda de produtos não processados ou minimamente processados, oriundos do campo. Objetivo: descrever o perfil e as preferências alimentares dos consumidores que adquirem produtos em feiras livres na cidade de Chapecó (SC). Métodos: Caracteriza-se como estudo transversal, de caráter descritivo com abordagem quantitativa. Foram abordadas 100 pessoas, maiores de 18 anos, de forma aleatória, que realizaram compras nas feiras da cidade no período entre fevereiro e abril de 2019. A análise do perfil utilizou perguntas relacionadas ao sexo, idade, escolaridade, moradia, renda, composição familiar, abastecimento de água, os motivos que as levam frequentar as feiras, produtos mais consumidos e preferências alimentares. Resultados: Mulheres acima de 45 anos foram as mais frequentes na amostra. O ensino médio completo, moradia própria, renda entre dois a cinco salários mínimos, composição familiar de apenas duas pessoas e água tratada em casa caracterizaram o perfil. Conclusão: Os consumidores de produtos das feiras livres de Chapecó são na maioria mulheres, com mais de 45 anos, com ensino médio completo, moradia própria e que buscam, principalmente, produtos orgânicos, dentre eles, as verduras e alimentos não industrializados. Recomenda-se o estímulo e o incentivo à população e aos agricultores para fomentar o mercado de produtos orgânicos na região.

The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in water supply systems has been generating great concern about their effects on the environment and human health. Twenty-eight PhACs were monitored during one year in four Brazilian water sources, aiming to understand the factors that influence their occurrence and removal in conventional drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and to assess the environmental and human health risks. Trace levels of PhACs were detected in surface and drinking water in all assessed water sources. Effects of seasonality and socioeconomic aspects were observed in PhACs occurrence, like their higher concentrations during winter and in locales with higher values of gross domestic product per capita and human development index. Betamethasone, prednisone, and fluconazole were the most commonly detected PhACs, and also presented the highest concentrations. However, they were not related to toxicological risks. Nonetheless, all surface waters were subject to toxicological risk owing to at least one PhAC. PhACs related to the highest toxicological risks were loratadine, atorvastatin, norfloxacin, caffeine, and ranitidine, however, all these PhACs presented low quantification frequency. DWTPs capacity to remove PhACs was only partial, so treated water was still contaminated with these compounds. Furthermore, atorvastatin presented a margin of exposure below 100, indicating possible risk for public health. Thus, additional advanced treatment steps should be considered to improve PhACs removal during drinking water treatment.

At 11:46 A.M. local time on April 25, 2015, a destructive earthquake with a moment magnitude (Mw) 7.8 struck central Nepal. The epicentral region of the earthquake was located in the Gorkha region. Due to this event, more than 8000 people were killed and 22,000 were injured. Following this destructive earthquake, some affected areas including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Gorkha and Pokhara were visited by the first two authors during 6-11 May 2015 in order to assess the performance of disaster management and emergency responses to the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Based on the observational assessments, the physical damages to buildings and historical monuments are pointed out briefly. The logistics, disaster management performance, along with emergency responses such as the shelters, health, food, treated water and medical supplies are also described. Meanwhile, several key lessons learned from the 2015 Nepal earthquake response are highlighted. In addition, a new design of emergency tents is proposed which is suitable for earthquake-prone areas specifically in south Asian regions like Nepal.

Исследован способ проращивания зерна гречихи с применением ультразвуковой обработки воды для замачивания. Для замачивания зерна использовали водопроводную воду контрольный образец и водопроводную воду, обработанную ультразвуком на лабораторной установке с плотностью звуковой энергии 15 кДж/м3 и частотой 21 кГц в течение 10, 20 и 30 мин, опытные образцы. Каждый из образцов замоченных зерен выдерживали при температуре (20 2)С при варьировании времени замачивания 1,5 2 и 2,5 ч. Затем лишнюю воду удаляли и проращивание продолжали в термостате, оценивая энергию прорастания зерен гречихи через 4, 8 и 12 ч. Установлено, что ультразвуковая обработка воды для замачивания в течение 20 мин позволяет интенсифицировать процесс проращивания на 6,5 по сравнению с контрольным образцом и не влияет на изменение элементного состава зерна, повышая в пророщенном зерне гречихи по сравнению с нативным зерном этой же культуры содержание натрия на 15, магния на 44, фосфора на 19, калия на 28, кальция на 30 и массовую долю незаменимых аминокислот на 636 в зависимости от аминокислоты., Method of of buckwheat grain with the use of ultrasonic treatment of water for soaking study. Tap water was used for soaking the control sample grains, and tap water treated with ultrasound in a laboratory unit with a sound energy density of 15 kJ/m3 and a frequency of 21 kHz for 10, 20, and 30 minutes was used for experimental samples. Samples of soaked grains were kept at a temperature of (20 2)C with varying soaking times 1,5 2 and 2,5 hours. Then the excess water was removed and sprouting continued in the thermostat. The sprouting energy of buckwheat grains was estimated after 4, 8 and 12 hours. It was found that ultrasonic treatment of water for soaking for 20 minutes allows to intensify the germination process by 6,5 compared to the control sample, does not affect the change in the elemental composition of the grain, increasing in the sprouted grain of buckwheat in comparison with the native grain of the same culture the content of sodium by 15, magnesium by 44, phosphorus by 19, potassium by 28, calcium by 30 and the mass fraction of essential amino acids by 636, depending on the amino acid., №373 (2020)

Background. Malnutrition is a major public health problem and most enveloping cause of morbidity and mortality among children and adolescents throughout the world. This study was aimed at assessing the nutritional status and associated factors among 6-10-year-old children in selected earthquake-affected areas of Gorkha district, Nepal. Methods. A community-based cross-sectional study among 420 mothers having children of age groups 6-10 years (with anthropometric measurement among children) was conducted using a mixed method in selected earthquake-affected areas of Gorkha district, Nepal, from October 2015 to April 2016. Gorkha was selected purposively from 14 earthquake-affected districts. Two village development committees were selected randomly among 6 having severe impact. Randomly, 5 wards were selected from each of the 2 village development committees. As the sample was 420, 42 children were selected randomly from every ward. Result. Among the 420 children, 31.9% were underweight, 51.9% were stunted, and 2.9% were wasted after the earthquake. Children who were more prone to being underweight were the following: male children (RR=1.34 95% CI: 1.01-1.78) and children from illiterate mothers (RR=2.49, 95% CI: 1.85-3.36), illiterate fathers (RR=1.73, 95% CI: 1.32-2.27), and homemaker mothers (RR=0.28, 95% CI: 0.20-0.38); children whose families were using nonimproved sources of water (RR=2.60, 95% CI: 1.07-6.60); and households having food insecurity (RR=12.97, 95% CI: 3.29-51.18). Similarly, children of illiterate fathers (RR=1.67, 95% CI: 1.41-1.97), children of illiterate mothers (RR=2.32, 95% CI: 1.91-2.83), children of homemaker mothers (RR=0.59, 95% CI: 0.49-0.70), children whose family were using treated water (RR=0.32, 95% CI: 0.15-0.67), and children from food insecure households (RR=10.52, CI: 4.05-27.33) were found to be stunted. After adjustment, children from households consuming nonimproved water were 6 times more likely (OR=6.75; 95% CI: 1.59-28.62) to be wasted. Conclusion. Illiterate mothers, illiterate fathers, mothers engaged in occupation other than household work, and food insecure households were found to be independent predictors of underweight and stunting. Nonimproved source of drinking water was found to be independent predictors of wasting.

The hospital wastewater (HWW) treatment is a necessary process that aims to reduce the concentration of emerging contaminants such as trichloropropane, antibiotics, β-blockers, and pathogens in treated water to the accepted level. The treatment of HWW is required to protect the receiving water bodies from pharmaceutical pollution. The examination, fast detection of pathogens in HWW, allows the elimination of these pathogens most effectively and reduces possible side effects posed on public health due to excessive pathogens and contaminants present in HWW. The occurrence of pathogens and viruses in HWW has been recognized as one of the critical issues that need attention. Because directly emitted HWW into environment affects the public health negatively. This chapter focuses on in-depth analysis of pathogenic microbes, high-risk clones with resistance genes present and associated with HWW treatment process such as whole genome sequencing. Furthermore, this chapter also focuses on recent techniques such as viromic analysis tools, xenosurveillance, and many more that are available for pathogen monitoring and analysis in the treated water.

Background: Provision of adequate water supply, sanitation, hygiene and waste management in schools has a number of positive effects. The study focuses on children because disease related to water; sanitation and hygiene are the leading cause of mortality and morbidity among children. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study comprised of 220 students. Participants involved were Government school students of grades 9-10 in Sindhupalchowk and Bhaktapur. Data consisted of hygiene and hand washing practices, knowledge about sanitation and personal hygiene characteristics. Results: This study revealed that knowledge regarding water borne disease was high among Urban school students 86.5% but knowledge regarding transmission route seemed inadequate in both urban and rural students (35% and 16% respectively). The practice on hand washing was found high (94.4%).There was significant difference in the knowledge of students regarding WASH in urban and rural settings of the school (P value Conclusions: The knowledge and practice of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) among secondary school students is still poor. The knowledge of WASH in secondary school students when compared to the rural areas, urban areas had better on the basis of knowledge score.Keywords: hygiene; knowledge; practice; water; sanitation.

The conventionally treated drinking water supplied to the Ahmadu Bello University community was assessed for its levels of regulated halo-acetic acids. This is because the Ahmadu Bello University water treatment plant uses calcium hypochlorite in the chlorinated disinfection of its treated water during the treatment process. Longitudinal sampling was undertaken along the treatment and distribution stages of drinking water supply in the community. Between 2008 and 2010, 252 samples were collected and analysed for the regulated halo-acetic acids in accordance with USEPA Method 551.1 (1995) using Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) as extractant and a calibrated Agilent Gas Chromatograph measured their concentrations. All the regulated halo acids recorded their highest concentrations in the chlorinated water sample and these decreased towards house-level water sample except for dichloroacetic acid which increased from the booster station sample with 3.2500E-03±5.8452E-03 mg/L to the house level sample with 3.2511E-03±9.1256E-05 mg/L. The total regulated halo-acetic acid (THAAs) concentrations also decreased from the chlorinated sample concentration of 1.8324E+00±8.1252E-02 mg/L. to the house level concentration of 4.8826E-01±2.8735E-02 mg/L, a situation likely attributable to the turbulent flow during distribution resulting in the increased volatility of the acids in the distribution system. Although not specifically regulated by the Nigerian National Standards, the concentrations of these acids at house level (4.8826E-01±2.8735E-02 mg/L) drinking water is more than the maximum permissible limits of these regulated acids under the USEPA drinking water standard’s maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 0.060 mg/L. In view of their implication in increased risk of cancer and other effects including problems of the reproductive system, these acids’ concentration in household drinking water need to be rigorously monitored and regulated to minimize their risk to health.turbulent flow during distribution resulting in the increased volatility of the acids in the distribution system. Although not specifically regulated by the Nigerian National Standards, the concentrations of these acids at house level (4.8826E-01±2.8735E-02 mg/L) drinking water is more than the maximum permissible limits of these regulated acids under the USEPA drinking water standard’s maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 0.060 mg/L. In view of their implication in increased risk of cancer and other effects including problems of the reproductive system, these acids’ concentration in household drinking water need to be rigorously monitored and regulated to minimize their risk to health.

We investigated the operating conditions of a baffled membrane bioreactor (B-MBR) under which long-term stable operation can be achieved through the continuous operation of a pilot-scale B-MBR. Under appropriate operating conditions, the B-MBR was capable of achieving excellent treated water quality in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and concentration of total nitrogen. Excellent removal of total phosphorus was also achieved. In addition, the degree of membrane fouling was acceptable, indicating that stable continuous operation of a B-MBR is possible under the operating conditions adopted in the present study. Estimation of the specific energy consumption in hypothetical full-scale B-MBRs operated under the conditions recommended by the findings was also performed in this study. The results suggest that energy consumption in full-scale B-MBRs would be in the range of 0.20–0.22 kWh/m3. These results strongly suggest that energy consumption in MBR operation can be significantly reduced by applying the concept of a B-MBR.

The paper shares the architectural design concepts, the construction technique and innovative strategies used in developing the 90 Sq. m self-sustaining, eco-responsive Solar house ‘BAITYKOOL’. This prototype was designed, constructed, tested and assembled at Solar park Dubai for the Solar Decathlon Middle East (SDME 2018). The study explains the principles used in the house from the architectural concept developed in response to the culture and climate of the region. A biologic ecosystem has been created for the habitat with improved thermal comfort conditions in the patio and the interior spaces with an effective use of active and passive strategies. A smart water management & monitoring system adds value to every drop of water used in the house and helps conserve it. A biological filter has been developed for the project to treat the used water and the treated water is used efficiently to add freshness and life in to the spaces. The house has a composite wall system enhancing the performance of its envelope developed using ecofriendly material with compactness to create comfort conditions within the indoor spaces and reduces the load on the HVAC and lighting system. The sky radiative cooling systems reduces the cooling load of HVAC system taking advantage of the night temperature with sky acting as a heat sink. The efficiency of the house has been further improved by making use of the energy produced by solar balanced with the optimization strategy to reduce the energy consumption. Innovative biomimetic cells mounted on glass PV panels integrated with the architecture of the house has been developed for higher efficiency and energy production. The house exhibits the potential innovative systems and strategies to develop an eco-responsive solutions for a healthy living and working suited to the climate of the region.

Refereed/Peer-reviewed Objective: Although typhoid fever is a major public health problem in Ethiopia, data is not available in the study area. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence, clinical presentation at the time of diagnosis and associated factors of typhoid fever among febrile patients visiting Shashemene Referral Hospital, southern Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1, 2016, to October 30, 2016. Socio-demographic and clinical data were collected using a structured questionnaire. A blood sample was collected and inoculated into Tryptic soy broth. Results: A total of 421 adult febrile patients suspected of typhoid fever were included in the study. Of these, the overall prevalence of culture-confirmed typhoid fever was 5.0% (21/421). The prevalence of typhoid fever was significantly associated with rural residence (8.4%). As compared to the urban resident, the rural resident was 3.6 times more likely found to have culture-confirmed typhoid fever. The prevalence of typhoid fever was significantly associated with those patients whose water source was spring 7 (12.3%) and river 7 (13.2%). All of those study participants who used treated water were culture negative. Fever for ≥ 5 days, abdominal pain, and skin rash independently predicted blood culture-confirmed typhoid fever.

The pollution of coastal regions worldwide has been of a great concern due to the presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). These chemicals find their way to the marine environment via the sewage treatment plants (STPs). Hence, this study was designed to investigate the status and sources of EDCs and their effect on fish in Kuwait's coastal areas, from the chemical and biological perspectives. The assessment of three STPs indicated the presence of significant levels of phthalates (19 and 31µg/l), alkylphenols (85 and 159ng/l), and estrogens (30 and 368ng/l) in both inflow and outflow samples. The analysis of samples from field exposure sites revealed significant levels of EDCs in seawater (phthalates: 2.1-4.6µg/l; alkylphenols: 1.2-16.4ng/l; estrogens: 0-36.2ng/l) and sediment (phthalates: 2.1-15.7mg/kg dry wt; alkyphenols: 2.5-15.1µg/kg dry wt.; estrogens: 4.1-214.2µg/kg dry wt.) samples. The biological perspective investigated through the exposure of fish to sewage outlets at five sites. The hepatosomatic index (HSI) revealed a higher level in winter samples 0.48-0.79%) in comparison to summer samples 1-1.5%). Histological observation of hepatic tissue of fish exposed during winter months in all sites, showed much less necrotic changes and hepatic vacuolation in the hepatic tissue of summer exposed fish. Imunnohistochemistry evidences revealed a significant level of positive signals and Vtg localization in the hepatic tissue as the results support the histopathological alterations observed. Results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed no significant difference between the plasma protein content of winter and summer samples. Overall, the study suggest that there is possible local source or a chronic input of untreated and/or partially treated water due to the significant levels of phthalates, alkyphenols, and estrogens detected in the Kuwait Bay. These levels were enough to initiate alteration in the hepatic tissue of fish exposed to the sewage outlets in Kuwait for two weeks.

Levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water from water treatment plants (WTPs) in Nigeria were studied using a gas chromatograph (GC Agilent 7890A with autosampler Agilent 7683B) equipped with electron capture detector (ECD). The mean concentrations of the trihalomethanes ranged from zero in raw water samples to 950 μg/L in treated water samples. Average concentration values of THMs in primary and secondary disinfection samples exceeded the standard maximum contaminant levels. Results for the average THMs concentrations followed the order TCM > BDCM > DBCM > TBM. EPA-developed models were adopted for the estimation of chronic daily intakes (CDI) and excess cancer incidence through ingestion pathway. Higher average intake was observed in adults (4.52×10-2 mg/kg-day), while the ingestion in children (3.99×10-2 mg/kg-day) showed comparable values. The total lifetime cancer incidence rate was relatively higher in adults than children with median values 244 and 199 times the negligible risk level.

Bottled water is perceived by many people of Pakistan and other countries as well a safer alternative to other sources of water such as tap water. This may be attributed to consumers disliking the taste of tap water or it’s organoleptic. Bottled water usage has increased even in countries where clean tap water is present such as in Germany, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia etc. The objective of present study was to compare the drinkable bottled water quality between different countries along with ZamZam water. Eleven different brands of bottled water including one un- bottled water (zamzam) collected from Pakistan, U.A.E, Kuwait, Germany and Saudi Arabia. They were analyzed for physiochemical and microbiological parameters for estimation of quality of water. For physio-chemical analysis, the pH meter, EC meter, Flame photometer and UV-Spectrophotometer were used respectively. For bacteriological parameters like Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliform and E. coli, filtration technique is adopted. In this study, comparison of mineral contents with labeled values mentioned on different brands of the countries like Rawdatain(Kuwait), Al- Ain(UAE), and Masafi (UAE) which have difference in actual measured values and labelled but all within WHO and IBWA standards. Bottle water companies claim, the water from different sources such as spring, deep ground and natural water but no doubt it may be taken from different natural sources and they are saying it a mineral water when it was not pass through any treatment processes. These bottles water are actually processed/treated water which does not contain sufficient amount of minerals necessary for the health.