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Aquaculture, the farming of fish and seafood, is recognized as a highly efficient system for producing protein for human consumption. In contrast, many terrestrial animal protein production systems are inefficient, impacting land use and exacerbating climate change. Humankind needs to adopt a more plant-centric diet, the only exception being fish consumed as both a source of protein and essential dietary nutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids. Here we consider the implications of such a transition, and the challenges that aquaculture must overcome to increase productivity within planetary boundaries. We consider how agriculture, specifically crops, can provide solutions for aquaculture, especially the sectors that are dependent on marine ingredients. For example, agriculture can provide experience with managing monocultures and new technologies such as genetically modified crops tailored specifically for use in aquaculture. We propose that a closer connection between agriculture and aquaculture will create a resilient food system capable of meeting increasing dietary and nutritional demands without exhausting planetary resources. Aquaculture must develop within planetary boundaries. Experience from agriculture, such as in managing monocultures and using genetically modified crops, can inform sustainable solutions for aquaculture.

In South Africa's experience, compartmentalisation has been extremely effective in maintaining an animal subpopulation of a specific health status, based on segregation and biosecurity management. Compartmentalisation promotes animal disease control and underwrites a national official assurance system that provides zoosanitary trade guarantees for animals and animal products. South Africa started to develop the concept of compartmentalisation during the 1950s for the pig sector, due to African swine fever being endemic in wildlife in the north of the country, where certain biosecurity measures were used to protect domestic pigs. Compartmentalisation protocols were formalised and officially published from 2001 as voluntary systems, first for the pig industry and later for the poultry (chicken and ostrich) industry. South Africa uses five basic principles for animal health compartmentalisation, namely, segregation, biosecurity, record-keeping, surveillance and official inspection. These are applied in line with the World Organisation for Animal Health Terrestrial Animal Health Code guidelines. Industry and the farmer bear the costs of compartmentalisation and, in turn, obtain not only animal disease protection but also trade advantages due to health assurances. Compartmentalisation ensures optimal use of government resources as the expenses for animal disease control are shared with private industries. International acceptance and standardisation of compartments is advocated as a measure to provide assurances for disease freedom, based on risk-specific mitigation measures.

With the expansion and intensification of international trade in animals and animal products in the last decades, the risk of the spread of transboundary animal diseases has increased. Veterinary Authorities may take legitimate measures at import to protect their territories' animal and human populations, and may require official assurances for imported animals or animal products. These measures have often led to overly stringent restrictions or even wide embargoes that may have a counterproductive effect. In order to avoid unjustified barriers to trade, the World Trade Organization's Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures recognises the standards of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) as the international references to be followed for animal health measures. The OIE standards provide for scientifically based recommendations for risk mitigation measures before and after international movements, depending on the disease and the commodity. They also provide for import risk analysis and bilateral equivalence methodologies, as well as certification rules and border inspection procedures. In order to provide confidence that trade requirements are met, exporting countries' Veterinary Authorities need to implement national assurance systems. For that reason, OIE Members should primarily follow the OIE standards for quality Veterinary Services. Veterinary Authorities are invited to use the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Terrestrial Code), Aquatic Animal Health Code, Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, and Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals to build capable services and implement sound and effective measures. The User's Guide of the Terrestrial Code lists the elements that are essential to achieving this.

International trade in animals and animal products results in economic, social and scientific benefits. The risk of the transmission of diseases that affect both animal and human health through the movement of animals and animal products can be controlled by import health requirements. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is recognised by the World Trade Organization as the standard-setting body for international animal health standards covering the safe trade of animals and animal products. To ensure the safe trade of animals and animal products, without unnecessary restrictions, countries should harmonise their import health requirements with OIE standards. Governments should refer to the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code, Aquatic Animal Health Code, Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, and Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals, standards that have been robustly developed to account for countries' differences in animal health status. Nevertheless, any determination of equivalence or requirement to achieve a higher level of protection should be based on risk analysis. Even though the use of OIE standards in veterinary certificates has benefits, there are several challenges that countries may encounter, such as legislative processes or inter-agency controls slowing down the flexibility of adopting import standards. Some countries may also encounter difficulties in meeting the standards due to operational practicalities. Although private standards have not been significantly involved in regulating animal health, this may present challenges to the universality and fairness of international standards in the future. Lastly, it is important to stay up to date with technology, such as electronic certification, that enhances the certification system for international trade to ensure the authenticity and efficiency of certification.

The IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C highlights the potential for dietary shifts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from livestock. Reductions in the consumption of terrestrial animal protein require increases in the consumption of other food categories, to maintain food security, balanced dietary patterns, and protein intake. Aquaculture has long been suggested as one way to meet future food security needs, and marine and estuarine aquaculture in particular is associated with comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions. However, marine and freshwater aquaculture is affected by factors including harmful algal blooms (HABs), which have been increasingly documented around the world, correlated to increases in worldwide aquaculture. In this study, we applied a global multi-region input-output model to capture the direct effects as well as the indirect and induced effects HABs might pose to a global dietary transition from terrestrial livestock to increased seafood consumption from marine and estuarine aquaculture sources. We found that marine and estuarine aquaculture has a substantial potential to replace meat consumption from terrestrial livestock sources, as increases in CO2 emissions from aquaculture were more than offset by reductions in emissions from mainly cattle grazing and associated land clearing. HABs were found to have a minor monetary impact, but the impact on protein supply was found to be potentially sizeable. For example, in a future setting where 40% of terrestrial protein sources were replaced by aquaculture, a HAB-caused global loss of 5% would set in motion numerous supply-chain cascades, affecting industries auxiliary to aquaculture, indirectly and ultimately reducing protein intake by 10–20%. Such reductions have the potential for pushing parts of Sub-Saharan populations into protein-energy malnutrition. Nevertheless, there remains a significant potential for a dietary transition to increased aquaculture seafood to contribute to reductions in GHG.

Marine tropical carnivorous (MTC) fish are less tolerant to high dietary lipid compared with cold and temperate climate fish. However, insufficient n‐3 long‐chain (≥C 20 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC‐PUFA) compromises MTC fish health and growth which requires attention when choosing lipid sources in aquafeed formulations. Fish oil (FO) has been the major lipid source for feeding key MTC fish. We estimated that more than 200 thousand tonnes of FO were used to feed farmed MTC fish in 2016, representing nearly 25% of global FO production. Nevertheless, recent increases in FO prices and demand, and the foreseen inability of wild fisheries to produce sufficient FO in the future, have created a need for cheaper and more sustainable alternatives. Meta‐analysis showed that feeding vegetable oils (VO) to MTC fish can slightly reduce their growth, with a marked decrease in n‐3 LC‐PUFA content in the fish tissues corresponding with the increased replacement of FO and fishmeal in the diet. Rendered terrestrial animal fat or modulating the bioconversion of n‐3 LC‐PUFA precursors in VO can be utilised further in MTC fish nutrition with more research recommended on these approaches. Oils and oil‐rich meals from non‐food marine organisms are rich in n‐3 LC‐PUFA and represent an underutilised alternative to FO for tropical aquaculture. With oils rich in n‐3 LC‐PUFA produced from transgenic plants presently gaining regulatory approvals and becoming available as a renewable alternative to FO, aquaculture in the tropics and around the globe is ready to leap into a new phase of sustainable expansion.

Aquaculture is a rapidly growing industry that currently accounts for almost half of the fish used for human consumption worldwide. Intensive and semi-intensive practices are used to produce large stocks of fish, but frequent disease outbreaks occur, and the use of antimicrobials has become a customary practice to control them. The selective pressure exerted by these drugs, which are usually present at sub-therapeutic levels for prolonged periods in the water and the sediments, provides ideal conditions for the emergence and selection of resistant bacterial strains and stimulates horizontal gene transfer. It is now widely recognized that the passage of antimicrobial resistance genes and resistant bacteria from aquatic to terrestrial animal husbandry and to the human environment and vice versa can have detrimental effects on both human and animal health and on aquatic ecosystems. A global effort must be made to cease antimicrobial overuse in aquaculture and encourage stakeholders to adopt other disease-prevention measures. Shaping a new path is crucial to containing the increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance.

Wild aquatic food is typically regarded as a more suitable alternative for reducing water footprints compared with terrestrial animal-derived food. However, some aquatic production in China is dominated by farmed fish that requires water-intensive feed associated with large water footprints. In this study, the average feed and growth parameters of 22 species of popularly farmed fish are summarized, the von Bertalanffy growth model is used to calculate the feed-associated water footprints during the farming period, and Monte Carlo simulations are run to quantify the uncertainties. The results show that the production-weighted average water footprint is 3.11 L g−1 (SD: 0.37; [95% CI: 2.43, 3.87]) and the average blue, green and grey components are 0.74, 1.93 and 0.44 L g−1, respectively. The water footprint of marine fish is 1.49 L g−1 (0.19; [1.15, 1.88]) less than that of freshwater fish, which is 3.16 L g−1 (0.38; [2.47, 3.95]). A sensitivity analysis shows that the feed ingredients, feeding rates, fry and harvest fish weights are the key factors for potentially reducing the water footprint in the future. The feed-associated water footprints of different fish are highly variable compared with those of terrestrial animal-derived foods. Therefore, dietary policy makers should be cautious when promoting fish consumption in China for environmental benefits because not all farmed fish outperform other terrestrial animal food products in terms of water resource consumption. The water footprint of wild fish is zero. Many wild fish stocks are however on the brink of collapse, and therefore this analysis should not lead to the fact that fisheries are redirected to wild fisheries.

The number of aquatic species animal research facilities have been steadily growing in the 21st century. While aquatic research facilities share many commonalities with facilities for their terrestrial animal counterparts, there are many unique features to their design and construction. This chapter serves as a fundamental guide to design issues and options for facilities to house zebrafish and other aquatic species.

Background The number of rabid terrestrial animals in Ontario has decreased markedly since the 1970s and 1980s. However, the number of recommended rabies postexposure prophylaxis (RPEP) courses has not decreased proportionally. The decision to recommend RPEP for terrestrial animal exposures should be based on a risk assessment that considers the prevalence of rabies in these animals within a jurisdiction, among other factors. Objective To explore trends in RPEP recommendations for exposures to terrestrial animals in Ontario in relation to the recency of terrestrial animal rabies cases by public health unit (PHU) jurisdiction. Methods RPEP recommendation data for the 36 Ontario PHUs were obtained from the Ontario integrated Public Health Information System and animal rabies data by PHU were obtained from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. We calculated the annual RPEP recommendation rates for terrestrial animals by PHU for 2014 to 2016, and plotted the 2016 rates in relation to the year of the most recently identified rabid terrestrial animal in the PHU. Results Between 2014 and 2016, the annual RPEP recommendation rates for terrestrial animal exposures by PHU ranged from 3.0 to 35.2 per 100,000 persons, with a median of 11.9 RPEP recommendations per 100,000 persons. In 2016, ten PHUs had not identified a rabid terrestrial animal in their jurisdiction for more than15 years. Five of these PHUs had RPEP recommendation rates above the provincial median. Conclusion Along with other factors, consideration of the occurrence of rabies in terrestrial animals in a jurisdiction can assist in the risk assessment of dogs, cats or ferrets that are not available for subsequent observation.

Diagnostic tools for the identification and confirmation of animal diseases have been evolving rapidly over the last decade, with diseases of aquatic animals being no exception. Hence, case definitions used in surveillance may now include molecular and genomic components and ultimately be based on the entire genome of a pathogen. While the opportunities brought on by this change in our ability to define and differentiate organisms are manifold, there are also challenges. These include the need to consider typing tool characteristics during sampling design, but also the re-thinking of diagnostic protocols and standards for the meaningful interpretation of the increasingly complex data presented to surveillance managers. These issues are illustrated for aquaculture using the example of multi-country surveillance of antimicrobial resistance of Aeromonas spp. strains isolated from rainbow trouts (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Europe. In order to fully exploit the opportunities of molecular and genomic information, a multi-disciplinary approach is needed to develop harmonised diagnostic procedures and modified surveillance designs for aquaculture as well as for terrestrial animal production. This will require adjustments in the relevant standards applicable to assess food safety and trade risks.

The role of food-producing environments in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in EU plant-based food production, terrestrial animals (poultry, cattle and pigs) and aquaculture was assessed. Among the various sources and transmission routes identified, fertilisers of faecal origin, irrigation and surface water for plant-based food and water for aquaculture were considered of major importance. For terrestrial animal production, potential sources consist of feed, humans, water, air/dust, soil, wildlife, rodents, arthropods and equipment. Among those, evidence was found for introduction with feed and humans, for the other sources, the importance could not be assessed. Several ARB of highest priority for public health, such as carbapenem or extended-spectrum cephalosporin and/or fluoroquinolone-resistant Enterobacterales (including Salmonella enterica), fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter spp., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus faecium and E. faecalis were identified. Among highest priority ARGs blaCTX-M, blaVIM, blaNDM, blaOXA-48-like, blaOXA-23, mcr, armA, vanA, cfr and optrA were reported. These highest priority bacteria and genes were identified in different sources, at primary and post-harvest level, particularly faeces/manure, soil and water. For all sectors, reducing the occurrence of faecal microbial contamination of fertilisers, water, feed and the production environment and minimising persistence/recycling of ARB within animal production facilities is a priority. Proper implementation of good hygiene practices, biosecurity and food safety management systems is very important. Potential AMR-specific interventions are in the early stages of development. Many data gaps relating to sources and relevance of transmission routes, diversity of ARB and ARGs, effectiveness of mitigation measures were identified. Representative epidemiological and attribution studies on AMR and its effective control in food production environments at EU level, linked to One Health and environmental initiatives, are urgently required. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

It’s difficult to process the number of fish killed annually by the fishing industry. Nevertheless, governments are encouraging people to eat even more fish—see, e.g., the USDA dietary guidelines—and although animal advocates certainly don’t concur with this advice, they generally haven’t prioritized fish in their lobbying efforts. Given the influence of utilitarianism on animal advocacy, the odds are good that this is motivated by an expected utility calculation. For those concerned about fish, is there any way to defend them against this calculation? I argue for an affirmative answer: once you factor in an asymmetry between fishing and terrestrial animal agriculture, the expected utility calculation comes out in favor of devoting resources to reducing fishing.

Atlantic salmon’s (Salmo salar) annual aquaculture production exceeds 2 M tonnes globally, and for the UK forms the largest single food export. However, aquaculture production is negatively affected by a range of different diseases and parasites. Effort to control pathogens should be focused on those which are most “important” to aquaculture. It is difficult to specify what makes a pathogen important; this is particularly true in the aquatic sector where data capture systems are less developed than for human or terrestrial animal diseases. Mortality levels might be one indicator, but these can cause a range of different problems such as persistent endemic losses, occasional large epidemics or control/treatment costs. Economic and multi-criteria decision methods can incorporate this range of impacts, however these have not been consistently applied to aquaculture and the quantity and quality of data required is large, so their potential for comparing aquatic pathogens is currently limited. A method that has been developed and applied to both human and terrestrial animal diseases is the analysis of published scientific literature using the H-index method. We applied this method to salmon pathogens using Web of Science searches for 23 pathogens. The top 3 H-indices were obtained for: sea lice, furunculosis, and infectious salmon anaemia; post 2000, Amoebic Gill Disease (AGD) replaced furunculosis. The number of publications per year describing bacterial disease declined significantly, while those for viruses and sea lice increased significantly. This reflects effective bacterial control by vaccination, while problems related to viruses and sea lice have increased. H-indices by country reflected different national concerns (e.g. AGD ranked top for Australia). Averaged national H-indices for salmon diseases tend to increase with log of salmon production; countries with H-Indices significantly below the trend line have suffered particularly large disease losses. The H-index method, supported by other literature analyses, is consistent with the nature and history of salmon diseases and so provides a useful quantitative measure for comparing different diseases in the absence of other measures.

Simple Summary Our knowledge of fish welfare is still scant relative to the enormous demands created by aquaculture expansion and focuses primarily on preventing poor health without considering provision of environments conducive to positive experiences. We are far from understanding what individuals of the different species classified under the umbrella term “fish” need to experience good lives. The aquaculture industry has been expanding swiftly, and fishes belonging to hundreds of very different species are now farmed by the billions. Informed by terrestrial animal welfare science, this article aims to set a framework for making progress in investigating how to provide farmed fish with good welfare. Abstract This article aims to use contemporary (terrestrial) animal welfare science as a lens to evaluate the state of knowledge concerning welfare in fish species, focusing on farmed fishes. We take advantage of the vast expertise—including previous pitfalls and accomplishments—in the investigation of welfare in terrestrial vertebrates, borrowing questions and methodologies from terrestrial animal welfare science in order to (1) better understand the challenges and opportunities in the study of welfare in fish species, and (2) propose strategies for filling knowledge gaps.

Antibacterial agents are commonly present in aquatic environment at low concentrations. Terrestrial animal farms, human medicine and aquaculture are main sources of water contamination with antibacterials. Antibiotics were proved to be directly toxic to fish causing oxidative stress, general stress response, histopathological lesions, hematological, metabolic, and reproductive disorders, as well as immunosuppressive and genotoxic effects. Environmentally realistic low concentrations of antibiotics also disturb aquatic bacterial communities causing alterations in fish symbiotic microbiota and induce emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria by exerting selective pressure on spread of antibiotic-resistance genes.

Aquaculture remains the world's fastest-growing sector producing food of animal origin. Unlike in terrestrial animal agriculture, in aquaculture both farmed and wild aquatic animals in the same water column experience the same virus challenges. Additionally, the burgeoning international aquaculture expansion and expanding global trade in live aquatic animals and their products have been accompanied by long distance geographical redistribution of aquatic animal species and their viruses. The outcome is a continuous emergence of viral diseases in aquaculture, which may be driven by virus factors, animal host factors, environmental factors, and/or anthropogenic factors. Examples of emerging viruses in aquaculture include viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus, infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus, infectious salmon anaemia virus, piscine orthoreovirus, Tilapia lake virus, Covert mortality nodavirus, Shrimp hemocyte iridescent virus, and Abalone herpesvirus.

In this paper, the authors review the impacts of diseases facing salmon aquaculture, drawing lessons from terrestrial animal diseases. They discuss the implementation of current control strategies, taking into account transmission patterns (vertical versus horizontal), disease reservoirs, and interactions with wild fish. In addition, the decision-making context of aquatic disease control and the institutional organisation of control strategies are considered, with particular emphasis on the roles and responsibilities of regulatory authorities and the private sector. Case studies on the emergence and control of infectious salmon anaemia worldwide and pancreas disease in Norway are used to examine some of the controversies that may influence decision making and provide lessons for the future.

Objectives Bourewa, on the southwest coast of Viti Levu in Fiji, is a multi-period site that contained burials dated to the later Vuda Phase (750–150 BP), a period of climatic fluctuations that potentially impacted the availability of food resources. We aim to investigate diet and movement at this site during a time of possible ecological pressure and political change. Materials and Methods We analyzed δ13C, δ15N, and 87Sr/86Sr of these Vuda Phase individuals (n = 25) interred at the site. By analyzing dentin and bone, both childhood diet and the diet within the past few years of adults' lives were examined. Results The paleodietary results suggested that adult diets consisted largely of low trophic level marine organisms. Dentin and bone isotopic values differed significantly: childhood diet involved consumption of more higher trophic level terrestrial foods. Most individuals displayed 87Sr/86Sr ratios expected of people living along a marine coastline. However, a few individuals displayed 87Sr/86Sr ratios and paleodietary values (δ13Cdentin, δ15Ndentin) suggestive of living further inland or consuming a more terrestrial-based childhood diet. Discussion The results are compared with past studies of sites from Fiji and nearby archipelagoes, placing our interpretations into a wider regional context. The Bourewa community appears to have consumed more low trophic level marine foods than any nearby site, possibly because terrestrial foods were more difficult to acquire. Interpreting the childhood diet is challenging due to the paucity of ethnohistoric literature on Fijian childhood; small meals outside of communal mealtimes or feeding children terrestrial animal protein as a means of cultural buffering are potential explanations. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This paper provides a description of the international standards contained in the TerrestrialAnimal Health Code of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) that relate to the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases. It identifies the rights and obligations of OIE Member Countries regarding the notification of animal disease occurrences, as well as the recommendations to be followed for a safe and efficient international trade of animals and their products.

The aim of the study was to gather and analyse available data concerning the presence of terrestrial animal constituents in feeds in Poland. A microscopic method of identification of the contaminants was used. Between 2012 and 2013, overall 16 139 samples of feeds were analysed, from which 282 (1.75%) contained elements from terrestrial animals. The percentage of feeds contaminated with such elements was lower in 2013. In 2012, among 8 499 samples analysed, 203 (2.39%) contained ingredients of animal origin, and in 2013, the elements were found in 79 (1.03%) out of 7640 samples. The percentage of feed samples positive for processed animal protein was relatively low and steadily decreasing. Furthermore, the microscopic method demonstrated to be a very sensitive technique for the detection of constituents of animal origin. Keywords: feeds, animal protein, contamination, microscopic method. Introduction Processed animal proteins (PAP) as well as meat and bone meal (MBM) of terrestrial animals are banned for use in animal feed in European Union (6, 9). The ban was implemented to eliminate the risk of TSE (transmissible spongiform encephalopathy) transmission in livestock and subsequent transmission to humans (2, 3, 22). The detection of animal proteins is based on the microscopic method (7). The current official description of the method is published in Commission Regulation (EU) No 51/2013 (8). The strength of the microscopic method is the combination of the relatively fast detection of animal proteins, sufficient detection of contamination levels as low as 0.02% (11, 24), indication of the type of the detected materials, insensibility to sterilisation temperature, and well established distinction between prohibited (

Marine macroalgae are considered as promising sustainable alternatives to conventional terrestrial animal feed resources. The advantages include high growth rate, potential cultivation in saltwater, and no occupation of arable land. Macroalgae are broadly classified as brown (Phaeophyta), red (Rhodophyta) and green (Chlorophyta) algae, and are a diverse group of marine organisms. The nutritional value of macroalgae is highly variable. The protein and essential amino acid content can be low, especially in brown species, and indigestible polysaccharides adversely affect the energy value. Optimal use of macroalgae in feeds requires suitable processing, and biorefinery approaches may increase protein content and improve nutrient availability. Macroalgae are rich in unique bioactive components and there is a growing interest in the potentially beneficial health effects of compounds such as laminarin and fucoidan in different macroalgal and macroalgal products. This review summarizes current literature on different aspects of the use of macroalgae as sources of protein and health‐promoting bioactive compounds in feed for monogastric animal species. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) prescribes standards for the diagnosis and control of avian influenza, as well as health measures for safe trade in birds and avian products, which are based on up-to-date scientific information and risk management principles, consistent with the role of the OIE as a reference standard-setting body for the World Trade Organization (WTO). These standards and recommendations continue to evolve, reflecting advances in technology and scientific understanding of this important zoonotic disease. The avian influenza viruses form part of the natural ecosystem by virtue of their ubiquitous presence in wild aquatic birds, a fact that human intervention cannot change. For the purposes of the Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Terrestrial Code), avian influenza is defined as an infection of poultry. However, the scope of the OIE standards and recommendations is not restricted to poultry, covering the diagnosis, early detection and management of avian influenza, including sanitary measures for trade in birds and avian products. The best way to manage avian influenza-associated risks to human and animal health is for countries to conduct surveillance using recommended methods, to report results in a consistent and transparent manner, and to applythe sanitary measures described in the Terrestrial Code. Surveillance for and timely reporting of avian influenza in accordance with OIE standards enable the distribution of relevant, up-to-date information to the global community.

A quantitative risk assessment was carried out to estimate the likelihood of introducing bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in Danish dairy herds per year and per trimester, respectively. The present study gives important information on the impact of risk mitigation measures and sources of uncertainty due to lack of data. As suggested in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code was followed for a transparent science-based risk assessment. Data from 2010 on imports of live cattle, semen, and embryos, exports of live cattle, as well as use of vaccines were analyzed. Information regarding the application of biosecurity measures, by veterinarians and hoof trimmers practicing in Denmark and in other countries, was obtained by contacting several stakeholders, public institutions and experts. Stochastic scenario trees were made to evaluate the importance of the various BVDV introduction routes. With the current surveillance system, the risk of BVDV introduction was estimated to one or more introductions within a median of nine years (3-59). However, if all imported animals were tested and hoof trimmers always disinfected the tools used abroad, the risk could be reduced to one or more introductions within 33 years (8-200). Results of this study can be used to improve measures of BVD surveillance and prophylaxis in Danish dairy herds.

In developing countries and tropical regions, earthen ponds have become an alternative for farming fish inland. Farmers usually restrict diet to compound feed, which is a relevant source of environmental impact. In the conditions described above, the motivation of this study was to evaluate the environmental impact of fish farming developed with different species. We evaluated systems producing the exotic Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), the local hybrid Patinga (Piaractus mesopotamicus x Piaractus brachypomus) and local hybrid Surubim (Pseudoplatystoma sp. x Leiarius marmoratus). Species were bred separately, in the same farm and in similar conditions. The study was also inspired by the opportunity to properly pinpointing the most relevant reasons to explain variability of environmental performance among fish species. For this goal, we used the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technique, preparing our inventory by collecting realistic data, on farm, and restricting the evaluation from cradle-to-farmgate. Distinctive to many simulations in literature, we properly determined the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content of fish and feed in a bromatology Lab. To produce 1 ton of live weight, the exotic Tilapia performed considerably better than the Surubim in all impact categories evaluated. Compared to Patinga, Tilapia performed considerably better in two impact categories: water dependence and land occupation. No considerable differences were observed between the two local hybrids. For the global warming potential, the acidification potential and the eutrophication potential, feed production and fish farming were the stages that contributed the most. In general, the source of protein in feed was the predominant source of environmental impact. Indeed, terrestrial animal co-products have more embodied resources in their tissue, due to diversifying and reasonably low feed conversion rates among fish species. However, the discussion spans towards trade-offs and the puzzling situation for decision making. This includes tunneling waste for aquaculture feed instead of dumping it on the landfill, or increasing the demand for terrestrial or marine ingredients by overbalancing in some direction. At the same time, the pathway towards sustainability of fish farming systems relies on finding alternative ingredients and managing genetic resource in order to improve feed conversion rates, empower and speed up production. For sure, these tasks demand efforts to meet the nutrient requirements of fish and offer feed with suitable composition. Overall, the methodology presented in this study can be used to compare and demystify environmental performances among local and exotic genetic resources.

Temperature is one of the most important physical factors influencing fish growth. Under optimal temperatures, food energy partitioned into fish growth can be maximized. However, when a marine carnivorous species is cultured in an environment where temperature falls outside the optimal range of a fish, growth will be affected. The nutrient–environment interaction is important for optimizing a fish’s nutritional requirements throughout the grow-out period. The most current global issue for the aquaculture industry is the inclusion of alternative ingredients into formulated diets to produce a sustainable seafood product. This requires the substitution of fish meal and fish oil with alternative ingredients from plant and terrestrial animal sources. This review discusses the changes in nutritional requirements (protein, lipid and energy) and physiology of some commonly cultured marine fishes as a consequence of seasonal changes in temperature during the grow-out period. This review also discusses the effects of replacing fish meal and fish oil with alternative protein and lipid sources on the nutritional–environmental interactions of fish performance at different temperatures.

Terrestrial animal tourism has become increasingly popular. Wildlife tourism is typically perceived as a relatively innocuous activity, but studies show that it may negatively impact wildlife and both the communities and ecosystems in which they live. We will describe some of the main negative effects of terrestrial animal tourism and the management actions to mitigate them. Some negative impacts, such as animal-vehicle collisions or disease transmission from humans, lead to direct mortalities and are evident to tourists. However, there are other, less perceptible, impacts that nevertheless may negatively impact populations. These entail disruptions of animals’ normal behavior, physiology, and distribution, as well as the habitat degradation that may be associated with tourism. These negative effects must, however, be traded-off against the important positive impacts of wildlife tourism. These include the creation of protected areas, the support of conservation programs, the sustainable development of local communities, and the promotion of pro-environmental attitudes. By being aware of the negative impacts and potential mitigation measures, we hope to encourage better practices in the future that ensure the long-term coexistence between wildlife and tourism.

Australia has implemented a through-chain regulatory framework to address animal welfare issues in the livestock export trade. The framework places the responsibility for ensuring that the welfare of exported animals meets internationally accepted standards on those who hold the licences issued for the export of Australian livestock. It applies to all livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, camels) exported from Australia, either for immediate slaughter or for feeding and eventual slaughter. The development of the framework began when the Australian Standards for the Export of Livestock were implemented in December 2004, to safeguard animal welfare from the point when the animals are selected for export up until the moment when they are offloaded in the destination country. The framework has recently been extended to incorporate animal welfare requirements through to the point of slaughter in the destination country. The requirements draw on, and are consistent with, the animal welfare chapters of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Animal Health Code.

This paper proposes a method based on near-infrared hyperspectral imaging for discriminating between terrestrial and fish species in animal protein by-products used in livestock feed. Four algorithms (Mahalanobis distance, Kennard-Stone, spatial interpolation, and binning) were compared in order to select an appropriate subset of pixels for further partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). The method was applied to a set of 50 terrestrial and 40 fish meals analyzed in the 1000-1700 nm range. Models were then tested using an external validation set comprising 45 samples (25 fish and 20 terrestrial). The PLS-DA models obtained using the four subset-selection algorithms yielded a classification accuracy of 99.80%, 99.79%, 99.85%, and 99.61%, respectively. The results represent a first step for the analysis of mixtures of species and suggest that NIR-CI, providing valuable information on the origin of animal components in processed animal proteins, is a promising method that could be used as part of the EU feed control program aimed at eradicating and preventing bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and related diseases.

Summary Since its founding in 1924, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has facilitated safe trade in animals and animal products by developing effective standards to prevent the spread of animal diseases across the globe. A protocol for recognising the disease-free status of countries is an integral part of this process and has been adopted and advanced through the years to assist OIE Member Countries in placing disease-free animals and their products on the international market. Options such as trade from disease-free zones and disease-free compartments are now available to Members and have proven to be a positive mechanism for facilitating trade. A further option is trading in safe commodities, i.e. animals and animal products that have been identified as safe to trade even in the presence of disease, either with or without applying risk mitigation measures before export. Although most Members have incorporated the acceptance of disease-free countries or zones into their animal health policies and sanitary measures, there still appears to be a reluctance to trade in commodities from infected countries, despite clear, scientifically based risk management standards that can be applied if needed. This paper offers some examples reflecting the apparent reluctance to trade in commodities and discusses how the standards in the OIE’s Terrestrial Animal Health Code could be used to apply scientifically based risk management practices to review outdated policies.

Since 1987, the use of antibacterial drugs in Norwegian fish farming has been drastically reduced from about 48 tonnes to approximately 1 tonne annually, varying slightly from year to year. The 649 kg active substance prescribed in 2007 corresponds to approximately 0.03% of the produced biomass being treated once with an antibacterial drug. This is an exceptional figure, particularly when compared with antibacterial drug use in terrestrial animal production or humans. It is therefore highly unlikely that this limited use of antibacterial drugs in farmed fish poses a significant risk to human medicine via the development of antibacterial drug resistance. Among the factors contributing to this favourable situation are: (a) a unique government–industry initiative adopted in the early 1990s to facilitate vaccination against classical furunculosis; (b) development of high-quality vaccines by the pharmaceutical industry; (c) the continuing predominance of vaccination strategies for disease control among fish farmers; (d) adoption of ‘all-in-all-out’ production systems, with mandatory fallowing periods between year classes; and (e) zoning and the spatial re-arrangement of marine production sites to minimize horizontal spread of infections. In Norway, targeted and flexible governance has allowed the rapid implementation of mass vaccination as well as zoo-sanitary measures. The limited use, however, also tends to limit the availability of licensed veterinary drugs in the marketplace. This creates a dilemma that should be addressed as a strategic issue for further long-term development of sustainable industrialized aquaculture.

Aquaculture is receiving increased attention from a variety of stakeholders. This is largely due to its current role in the global food system of supplying more than half of the seafood consumed, a ...

Aim Body size often plays a significant role in community assembly through its impacts on the life history and ecological attributes of species. Insight into the importance of size in structuring communities can be gained by examining the distribution of sizes of individuals [i.e.the individual size distribution (ISD) or size spectrum] in a community. ISDs have been studied extensively in aquatic and tree communities, but have received little attention in terrestrial animal communities. Here, we conduct the first macroecological analysis of ISDs in terrestrial animal communities to determine whether they show broad-scale consistency in shape. Location North America, north of Mexico. Methods Using likelihood-based methods and Gaussian mixture modelling, coupled with data from the Breeding Bird Survey and Christmas Bird Count, we determine whether the ISDs for thousands of breeding and wintering North American bird communities are: (1) monotonically decreasing, (2) unimodal or (3) multimodal. Results We find that avian ISDs are consistently multimodal, with most characterized by more than five modes in both breeding and wintering communities from local to continental scales. In addition, the positions of these modes along the size axis are remarkably consistent. Main conclusions The striking consistency in the ISD within bird communities, as with tree and aquatic communities, indicates that the ISD is an important and informative characterization of resource utilization within an ecological assemblage. The differences in shape of the ISD among these groups also suggest that differences in body size-related constraints affect interactions within a group and with the environment.Our results confirm that avian assemblages do exhibit structure along the body size axis, and therefore it will be fruitful to explore this pattern in greater detail.

Although species-specific aquaculture production systems typically operate over reduced geographical ranges relative to many other terrestrial animal production systems, it is nonetheless often necessary to transport live fish between facilities by road to permit on-growing or finishing. Road transport is therefore common in Australian salmonid (trout and salmon) production and is a particularly significant feature of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) culture in Tasmania, where it is necessary to transport juvenile fish (smolts) from inland freshwater hatchery facilities to coastal marine farms for grow-out to slaughter. The most obvious respect in which road transport of live fish differs from that of terrestrial livestock is the requirement to provide a life-support system for the duration of the process. Aside from an inherent requirement for water, it is essential to provide oxygenation to support basic respiration. Thereafter, water quality must be managed to limit the accumulation of potentially toxic metabolites. Among these, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is of particular concern. Without appropriate management, CO 2 can rapidly accumulate to levels as high as 80 mg/L -1 and result in hypercapnia, respiratory dysfunction, narcosis, and ultimately death. Current life-support systems typically function to maintain CO 2 at acceptable levels of 20-30 mg/L -1 . Water temperature changes during and at the end of the transport process may also be an issue but are typically only a relatively minor consideration. In common with other livestock transport systems, the loading process and associated handling can evoke a physiological stress response which, though intended to be adaptive, may interact synergistically with aspects of the life-support system. Increased rates of oxygen consumption and CO 2 excretion place additional demands on the life-support system while, from the fish's perspective, the changes in gill perfusion and circulation that facilitate such alterations in gas exchange can also operate to increase solute loss and result in diuresis and ionoregulatory dysfunction. As a consequence, once a suitable life-support system has been provided, the efforts of salmon farmers are focused on the need to minimize handling stress. The majority operate sophisticated pumping and counting systems that are intended to minimize aerial exposure of fish and, in a manner consistent with the natural behavior of the animal, mimic as far as is practicable the process of being washed downstream.

Animal-borne video and environmental data collection systems (AVEDs) are integrated sensor systems that collect video from the animal's perspective and combine it with data from other sensors, including audio, location, temperature, acceleration, and other data. By placing sensor data within the context of video, AVEDs provide a unique perspective not offered by other methods and facilitate research into animal behavior and foraging tactics, animal energetics, wildlife damage issues, and inter- and intra-specific interactions. Marine AVEDs have outpaced their terrestrial counterparts in technological sophistication and store all data onboard. Terrestrial systems have been transmission-based and thus have been deployed on species that are easily tracked or habituated to humans. We present the first terrestrial, store-onboard AVED developed for large mammals and demonstrate the utility of our AVEDs by quantifying and describing contacts among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Our system was largely developed from commercially available equipment and included a camera, microcomputer, and a sensor board attached to a neck collar with affixed battery packs. We deployed the system on 2 semi-wild and 2 free-ranging deer. We collected 12.2, 12.3, 30.3, and 41.6h of video during our deployments; the 2 lowest recording durations were the result of blown fuses in the battery packs. We observed 11 contacts among white-tailed deer during 4 deployments. Contacts comprised a total of 22.8min (x@?=2.1min/contact, SE=0.7). Our AVEDs revealed several behaviors during contacts between individual white-tailed deer, including inspection, avoidance, and grooming. These data are not captured by other techniques (e.g., radio telemetry) and demonstrate the utility of continuous video and other sensors from the animal's perspective. Although AVEDs are a powerful new tool for wildlife research and management, their use should be preceded by careful formulation of research and management objectives.

The vascular plants known as duckweeds have been the subject of intense interest during the past decade as an aquacultural crop, part of waste management systems, and as a feed supplement for aquatic and terrestrial animal stocks. Yields in high nutrient lagoons in regions with nine-month growing season average about 10 metric tons (dry)/hectare, with maximum yields of 12 metric tons projected from .04 hectare lagoons. Crude protein for duckweeds cultured on animal waste lagoons has ranged from 35 to 45% of the dry weight and all essential amino acids are present. Lysine is present in sufficient concentration to meet FAO reference standards for animal feeds, and methionine equals or exceeds recommended standards in specific clones of Lemna turionifera, L. minor, and Spirodela polyrrhiza. Minerals, fat, fiber, and carbohydrate levels are not excessive for most animal diets. Successful feeding trials have been conducted with several species of fish, ducks, swine, poultry, and cattle. A review of research indicates this family of plants holds high promise for producing high quality animal and human food world-wide, but the technology for controlled production under full-scale systems is incomplete.

Recognising how difficult it is for some countries to fully eliminate animal diseases from their territory as a whole or to maintain an animal disease free status in parts of their national territory, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has introduced the concepts of 'zoning' and 'compartmentalisation' for the purposes of disease control and international trade. Full definitions of these terms are contained in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code. Compartmentalisation is based on a functional separation by biosecurity measures, whereas zoning is based on a geographical separation. In both cases, relevant animal subpopulations should be clearly defined, recognisable and traceable and should be epidemiologically separated from other subpopulations. Veterinary Authorities as well as the private sector have important responsibilities in establishing and maintaining zones and compartments.

Summary Following a major pilchard (Sardinops sagax) mortality event in 1995, Australia recognised the need for a national approach to aquatic animal health, particularly with respect to disease response. Cooperation between industry and government led to the development of AQUAPLAN, Australia’s National Strategic Plan for Aquatic Animal Health. Under AQUAPLAN, institutional arrangements for the national technical response to aquatic animal health emergencies were developed based on existing arrangements for terrestrial animal health. The number and range of Australian Aquatic Veterinary Emergency Plan (AQUAVETPLAN) manuals are rising steadily; these are manuals that outline Australia’s approach to national disease preparedness and propose the technical response and control strategies to be activated. Additional resources include standard diagnostic techniques and a disease field identification guide. Simulation exercises provide training to respond to aquatic emergency animal disease events. While resource issues and addressing governance remain priorities for the further implementation of AQUAPLAN, the highest priority is the development of a formal arrangement between governments and private sectors on the response to an aquatic emergency animal disease event.

A thorough understanding of host-microbe interactions is crucial for more efficient disease management in the marine larviculture industry. As demonstrated in terrestrial animal research, gnotobiotic systems (involving animals cultured in germ-free conditions or inoculated with known microorganisms) are excellent tools to extend our understanding of the mechanisms involved in host-microbe interactions and allow the evaluation of new treatments for diseases. In this study, we introduce a germ-free European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax larval model, independent of the continuous addition of antimicrobial agents. This model has an experimental set-up that allows addition of live feed to the larvae without compromising the germ-free status. This model will facilitate and render aquaculture research more effective in terms of mitigation fish larval diseases.

All slaughter animals are examined before and after slaughter by an Official Veterinarian. Findings of diseases and conditions that could affect public health or animal health have to be reported to the management of the abattoir and the private veterinarian as well as the farmer of the farm of origin. The abattoir provides a vast amount of information on zoonotic and notifiable diseases, as well as diseases relevant for animal husbandry or on-farm animal health. Notifiable diseases can be identified through clinical signs (e.g. foot-and-mouth disease), but in specific cases samples are taken for serological surveillance (e.g. Aujeszky's disease). Surveillance and monitoring schemes are generally based on the Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the World Organisation for Animal Health. Bovine tuberculosis is another example of a disease for which monitoring and surveillance is often entirely based on abattoir detection. For transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) abattoir sampling constitutes an important proportion of all samples taken. Monitoring of public health threats, including diseases such as trichinellosis and cysticercosis, remains an important element of the inspection practices in the abattoir. Monitoring of trichinellosis can be risk based: only pigs expected to be at a higher risk of infection are included in the testing regimen. Abattoir sampling is also used for assessment of compliance with legislation on residues of antimicrobial drugs in meat. The number of samples is small, but the sampling itself has a preventive effect. An important category of diseases are those relevant for the performance on farm. Some examples are lung and heart lesions, as well as several parasitic diseases such as liver fluke. Indicators for welfare problems on-farm may also appear at slaughter. Foot lesions in poultry and tail biting in pigs are some examples. Abattoir information is easy and cheap to come by and is underutilised at the moment, particularly to feed into animal health management on farm. It would be advisable to design a feedback system in which post-mortem findings are described with the interest of the farmer and her/his veterinary surgeon in mind.

Terrestrial animal welfare has been a matter for exploration for many years. In contrast, approaches towards improving the welfare and humane treatment of aquatic animals are relatively new, as is the thinking behind them. Several issues complicate the process of addressing the welfare of aquatic animals in a consistent manner. These include the following: - the huge diversity among aquatic animals, the majority of which are poikilothermic vertebrates and invertebrates - understanding the practices involved in fisheries, aquaculture and aquatic animal production, and their purpose - the relative paucity of scientific information - understanding the philosophical approaches, policies, guidance and regulations that may influence the provision of optimal welfare and humane practices for aquatic animals. In this paper, the authors attempt to provide an overview of all these elements, relating what is known and understood about these issues for the primary group used in aquaculture and fisheries, finfish, and exploring the factors that may influence the concepts and practices of aquatic animal welfare. These factors seem to be the foundation of all welfare approaches and include: - ethical and moral concepts of animal welfare and humane treatment - whether animals experience suffering from the potentially adverse practices used in their maintenance, management and use - the public and institutional understandings of these issues and their results. These are discussed with the hope that future developments in, and approaches to, aquatic animal welfare will be of use to society, industries and the public.

This paper briefly describes the formation of the OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health) Ad hoc Group on Humane Slaughter of Animals, summarises its initial discussions and provides details of its recommendations. These recommendations were approved (with some amendments) at the 73rd General Session of the OIE International Committee and have been included in the 14th edition of the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (2005). The recommendations include some changes to current definitions of certain terminology, and guidelines pertaining to the commercial slaughter of animals for human consumption, designed to minimise avoidable pain and suffering at every stage of the pre-slaughter and slaughter processes. The main issues addressed by the Ad hoc Group were: general principles for slaughter, as related to personnel, animal behaviour, and the removal of distractions which can cause animals to stop or turn back; moving and handling animals following their arrival at the slaughterhouse; lairage design and construction; care of animals in lairages; and animal welfare issues associated with acceptable handling, restraining, stunning and slaughter methods applicable to various relevant species. The group acknowledged the significance of religious requirements as well as the cultural and ethnic factors associated with slaughter, and appropriate proposals were included in their final report. Important but less frequently occurring issues such as the management of foetuses during the slaughter of pregnant animals were also included in this work. Finally, the report of the Ad hoc Group also specified methods, procedures and practices that are unacceptable on animal welfare grounds.

Remediation of contaminated sites requires information on upper concentration limits of chemicals in environmental media that are protective of ecological receptors. These upper concentration limits can be considered ecological preliminary remediation goals (EcoPRGs). The motivation for developing EcoPRGs was to provide risk managers with a simple tool for evaluating remedial actions that would be protective of the environment. Hazard quotient calculations used to support ecological screening assessments were modified to derive soil EcoPRGs for terrestrial wildlife populations. The primary modification is a population area use factor that is the fraction of a terrestrial animal population potentially affected by the contaminated site. Wildlife assessment population boundaries are based on a receptor's dispersal distance; for mammals dispersal distance is strongly related to the linear dimension (square root) of home range. Assuming that wildlife are unlikely to disperse beyond some distance from ...

The annual production from global aquaculture has increased rapidly from 2.6 million tons or 3.9% of the total supply of fish, shellfish and mollusks in 1970, to 66.7 million tons or 42.2% in 2012, while capture fisheries have more or less leveled out at about 90 million tons per year since the turn of the century. Consequently, the future seafood supply is likely to depend on a further increase of aquaculture production. Unlike terrestrial animal farming, less than 10% of the aquaculture production comes from domesticated and selectively bred farm stocks. This situation has substantial consequences in terms of poorer resource efficiency, poorer product quality and poorer animal welfare. The history of biological and technical challenges when establishing selective breeding programs for aquaculture is discussed, and it is concluded that most aquaculture species may now be domesticated and improved by selection. However, the adoption of selective breeding in aquaculture is progressing slowly. This paper reports on a study carried out in 2012 to identify key issues to address in promoting the development of genetically improved aquaculture stocks. The study involved semi structured interviews of 34 respondents from different sectors of the aquaculture society in East and Southeast Asia, where 76% of the global aquaculture production is located. Based on the interviews and literature review, three key factors are identified: (i) long-term public commitment is often needed for financial support of the breeding nucleus operation (at least during the first five to ten generations of selection), (ii) training at all levels (from government officers and university staff to breeding nucleus and hatchery operators, as well as farmers), and (iii) development of appropriate business models for benefit sharing between the breeding, multiplier and grow-out operators (whether being public, cooperative or private operations). The public support should be invested in efforts of selective breeding on the most important and highest volume species, which may not be a priority for investment by private breeders due to, for instance, long generation intervals and delays in return to investment.

The paper analyses the social optimal management of terrestrial animal species where land-use costs, non-consumptive benefits of the wild species and nuisance costs, in addition to harvesting profit, are taken into account. When there is harvesting, it is demonstrated that increased profitability of the alternative land-use activities will result in less animals and habitat land in the long-term. It is also shown that the price effect of the harvesting works different compared to the traditional Clark-model of marine resources. Because most terrestrial species represent no harvesting profit and are not harvested, the non-harvesting case is also analysed. Also now will improved profitability in the competing activities of keeping animals be a threat to the wild species as it triggers land-use conversion. Moreover, in absence of harvesting profit, there are no potential counteracting forces due to the existence of harvesting profit.

In their article ‘Freshwater savings from marine protein consumption’ (2014 Environ. Res. Lett. 9 014005), Gephart and her colleagues analyzed how consumption of marine animal protein rather than terrestrial animal protein leads to reduced freshwater allocation. They concluded that future water savings from increased marine fish consumption would be possible. We find the approach interesting and, if they only considered marine capture fisheries, their analysis would be quite straightforward and show savings of freshwater. However, both capture fisheries and aquaculture are considered in the analysis, and the fact that marine aquaculture is assumed to have a zero freshwater usage, makes the analysis incomplete. Feed resources used in marine aquaculture contain agriculture compounds, which results in a freshwater footprint. To correct this shortcoming we complement the approach taken by Gephart and her colleagues by estimating the freshwater footprint (WF) for crops used for feeding marine aquaculture. We show that this is critically important when estimating the true freshwater footprint for marine aquaculture, and that it will be increasingly so in the future. We also further expand on aquaculture’s dependency on fish resources, as this was only briefly touched upon in the paper. We do so because changes in availability of fish resources will play an important role for feed development and thereby for the future freshwater footprint of marine aquaculture.

The international trade in animals and animal products presents a degree of risk to the importing country because of the presence of pathogens, which might threaten the resources (human, animal, or environmental) of the importing country. Animal health import risk analysis is a tool that provides an objective and defensible method of identifying and managing these risks. The World Organization for Animal Health’s (OIE’s) Terrestrial Animal Health Code provides guidelines for conducting transparent, objective, and defensible risk analyses. The four components of risk analysis described by the OIE (hazard identification, risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication) are discussed.

Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the following countries: Brunei or the Nation of Brunei; Cambodia or the Kingdom of Cambodia; Christmas Island (a territory of Australia); Indonesia or the Republic of Indonesia; Laos or the Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines or the Republic of the Philippines; Singapore or the Republic of Singapore; East Timor or Timor-Leste or the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste; Thailand or the Kingdom of Thailand; and Vietnam or the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. All these countries are members of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). The OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (the Terrestrial Code) sets out standards for the improvement of animal health and welfare and veterinary public health worldwide, including standards for safe international trade in terrestrial animals (mammals, birds, and bees) and their products. This is achieved through the detailing of animal health measures to be used by the veterinary authorities of importing and exporting countries to avoid the transfer of agents pathogenic for animals or humans, while avoiding unjustified trade barriers. The Terrestrial Code is a reference document for use by veterinary authorities, import/export services, epidemiologists and all those involved in international trade. Section 7 of the Terrestrial Code covers animal welfare and Chapter 7.1 is called, “Introduction to the Recommendations for Animal Welfare.” There is no specific overarching legislation applied for animal welfare relevant directly to laboratory animals for research, testing, and teaching in Southeast Asia. This chapter describes current laws, regulations, guidelines, and principles pertaining to laboratory animals used for research, teaching, and testing in some countries of Southeast Asia region including Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Singapore.

The main goal of aquaculture is to efficiently convert feed into fish and shellfish. Inherent to this practice is the generation of waste; however, from a waste management viewpoint, aquaculture differs in important respects from terrestrial animal farming. Measurement of actual feed intake is nearly impossible; consequently, unconsumed feed contributes a relatively large proportion of total waste output in most operations. Moreover, containment of wastes is difficult, and wastes are rapidly dispersed into the surrounding waters. Monitoring and estimating quantitative waste outputs in effluent directly is an inaccurate and costly process. Other methods of estimating the waste output from aquaculture operations should be used. Because most aquaculture wastes are dietary in origin, efforts to reduce waste should focus on nutrition and feeding, including the formulation of special diets, development of feeding systems, and improvement of the efficiency of nutrient utilization. Modern low-pollution o...