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The highest currently recognised air temperature (33.3 °C) ever recorded in the Republic of Ireland was logged at Kilkenny Castle in 1887. The original observational record however no longer exists. Given that Ireland is now the only country in Europe to have a national heat record set in the 19th century, a reassessment of the verity of this record is both timely and valuable. The present analysis undertakes a fundamental reassessment of the plausibility of the 1887 temperature record using methods similar to those used to assess various weather extremes under WMO auspices over recent years. Specifically, we undertake an inter-station reassessment using sparse available records and make recourse to the new and improved 20CRv3 sparse-input reanalysis product. Neither surrounding available stations nor the reanalysis offer substantive support for the Kilkenny record of 33.3 °C being correct. Moreover, recent data rescue efforts have uncovered several earlier extreme values, one of which exceeds the Kilkenny value (33.5 °C on 16th July 1876 recorded at the Phoenix Park). However, the sparsity of early observational networks, a distinct lack of synoptic support from 20CRv3 for many of the extreme heat values, and the fact that these measurements were obtained using non-standard exposures leads us to conclude that there is grossly insufficient evidence to support any of these 19th Century extremes as robust national heat record candidates. Data from the early 20th Century onwards benefits from a denser network of stations undertaking measurements in a more standardised manner, many under the direct auspices of Met Éireann and its predecessors, adhering to WMO guidance and protocols. This enables more robust cross-checking of records. We argue that the Met Éireann recognised 20th Century heat record from Boora in 1976 verifies as the most plausible robust national temperature record based upon the synoptic situation and comparisons with nearby neighbouring stations. This measurement of 32.5 °C thus likely constitutes the highest reliably recorded temperature measurement in the Republic of Ireland. Ultimately, the formal decision on any reassessment and reassignment of the national record rests with the national meteorological service, Met Éireann.

Future climate projections for the 21st century generally do not include the effects of volcanic eruptions. While some attempt has been made to account for the integrated effect of multiple eruptions by incorporating a small continuous volcanic forcing, a recent study (http://nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/nclimate3394) has already shown that this approach is insufficient to resolve the increased climate variance caused by individual eruptions, especially on decadal timescales. Increased climate variance exerts stresses on ecosystems and society, thus resolving the impacts of plausible future volcanic eruptions is of importance for certain adaptation and mitigation decisions. While previous work has used a modelling approach to address this problem, in this talk we demonstrate a computationally inexpensive method to incorporate the effects of plausible volcanic eruptions into future climate projections. This method uses stochastic volcanic emulators based on 2,500 years of past volcanic activity and the characterization of the response of the climate system to individual eruptions. We will demonstrate not only this methodology, but also describe the requirements and potential for its application to the wider future projections of CMIP6.

Case Description A 61-year-old man presented, 7 months after deceased donor kidney transplantation, with 4 days of fever, hematuria, and dysuria. His immunosuppression regimen included tacrolimus 1.5 mg twice daily, prednisone 5 mg daily, and mycophenolate mofetil 500 mg twice daily. He was febrile to 101.6 and had tenderness to palpation in the right lower quadrant over his graft site. His serum creatinine on admission was 1.4 mg/dl from a baseline of 1.0 mg/dl. White blood cell count was 4.4×103/ µ l with 85.9% neutrophils. Tacrolimus trough level was 13.3 ng/ml. Urinalysis demonstrated 100 mg/dl protein, 109 white blood cells per high-power field, 344 isomorphic red blood cells per high-power field, and hyaline casts. Urine and blood …

A common challenge in citizen science projects is gaining and retaining participants. At the same time, the tertiary education sector is constantly being challenged to provide more meaningful and practical work for students. Can participation in citizen science projects be used as coursework with real practical experiential-learning benefits, without affecting the citizen science project outcomes? We seek to begin to answer this question via a case study analysis with Cyclone Center (CC), which asks participants to classify tropical cyclone characteristics through analysis of infrared satellite imagery. Skill of individual users has previously been shown to be obtainable once classifiers have looked at approximately 200 images using an expectation-maximisation likelihood approach. We use skill scores to determine if participation for course credit or altruism influenced skill for volunteers and students from two universities under three increasingly complex categories of classifications (eye or no eye; stronger, weaker, or the same; and which of six fundamental storm types). A bootstrap resampling approach was used to account for discrepancies between sample sizes. Overall, there is limited evidence for substantive differences in classification performance between credit awarded and altruistic participants, with only one finding of significance at

The accurate monitoring of climate change im- poses strict requirements upon observing systems, in partic- ular regarding measurement accuracy and long-term stability. Currently available data records of the essential climate vari- ables (temperature- T , geopotential- p , humidity-RH, wind, and cloud properties) in the upper-air generally fail to fulfil such requirements. This raises serious issues about the abil- ity to detect, quantify and understand recent climate changes and their causes. GCOS is currently implementing a Ref- erence Upper-Air Network (GRUAN) in order to fill this major void within the global observing system. As part of the GRUAN implementation plan we provide herein funda- mental guidelines for establishing and maintaining reference quality atmospheric observations which are based on prin- cipal concepts of metrology, in particular traceability. It is argued that the detailed analysis of the uncertainty budget of a measurement technique is the critical step for achieving this goal. As we will demonstrate with an example, detailed knowledge of the calibration procedures and data process- ing algorithms are required for determining the uncertainty of each individual data point. Of particular importance is the careful assessment of the uncertainties introduced by correc- tion schemes adjusting for systematic effects.

This briefing outlines the evidence from instrumental records that leads to an unequivocal finding that the world has warmed. It then goes on to address the underlying causes, showing that only through invoking the effects of humans can the last 50 years be adequately explained. Finally, it addresses the recent hiatus/pause in warming of global surface temperatures and the implications thereof.

The global tropical cyclone (TC) intensity record, even in modern times, is uncertain because the vast majority of storms are only observed remotely. Forecasters determine the maximum wind speed using a patchwork of sporadic observations and remotely sensed data. A popular tool that aids forecasters is the Dvorak technique—a procedural system that estimates the maximum wind based on cloud features in IR and/or visible satellite imagery. Inherently, the application of the Dvorak procedure is open to subjectivity. Heterogeneities are also introduced into the historical record with the evolution of operational procedures, personnel, and observing platforms. These uncertainties impede our ability to identify the relationship between tropical cyclone intensities and, for example, recent climate change. A global reanalysis of TC intensity using experts is difficult because of the large number of storms. We will show that it is possible to effectively reanalyze the global record using crowdsourcing. Through modifying the Dvorak technique into a series of simple questions that amateurs (“citizen scientists”) can answer on a website, we are working toward developing a new TC dataset that resolves intensity discrepancies in several recent TCs. Preliminary results suggest that the performance of human classifiers in some cases exceeds that of an automated Dvorak technique applied to the same data for times when the storm is transitioning into a hurricane.

In this chapter, we have surveyed some of the issues relating to the implementation of participatory research for livestock development. Participatory research is only one type of research paradigm, and we do not see it as a replacement for traditional research with a technological focus. However, it can often help to generate research outputs that are much more focused on the needs of end-users in the world’s least developed countries (LDCs). Many of the issues related to applying participatory research to livestock constraints and opportunities are similar to those for other household enterprises. There is, however, a number of unique features of the role that livestock play in households, such as their capacity to support other aspects of the farming system through the provision of draught power and high quality organic matter for soil amendment (manure/compost), as well as their contribution to rolling household incomes. In smallholder farm systems, livestock are normally highly integrated in the system, both deriving and conferring benefits on other enterprises within the system, and their contributions to livelihoods are diverse and not just related to the provision of food. Much has been made of the negative impacts of livestock on environmental parameters in recent years. While effective management of livestock is essential to mitigate against their potentially negative environmental effects, it can be argued that these have often been overstated, and that good livestock management can actively support good environmental outcomes. Livestock populations are likely to increase in LDCs over the coming decades, so well planned research is likely to continue to be very important in supporting this trend by identifying approaches for increasing the productive efficiency of livestock enterprises.

Problems with the risk management in medium to large software projects have been well documented. For major software projects to be completed successfully, an open and cooperative attitude towards risk must be maintained. Despite this significant incentive, project stakeholders frequently conceal risks. This article identifies reasons in three key areas for such behaviour, and suggests approaches that reduce the motivation for this behaviour thereby providing a basis for effective risk management. Examples drawn from a study, undertaken by the authors, of a medium-sized industry project are used to illustrate many of these issues.

A highly ruggedized infra-red sensor module has been developed which is suitable for a variety of fast framing applications in hostile fire detection and in scientific or industrial metrology. The sensor offers

Surface temperature is a key aspect of weather and climate, but the term may refer to different quantities that play interconnected roles and are observed by different means. In a community-based activity in June 2012, the EarthTemp Network brought together 55 researchers from five continents to improve the interaction between scientific communities who focus on surface temperature in particular domains, to exploit the strengths of different observing systems and to better meet the needs of different communities. The workshop identified key needs for progress towards meeting scientific and societal requirements for surface temperature understanding and information, which are presented in this community paper. A "whole-Earth" perspective is required with more integrated, collaborative approaches to observing and understanding Earth's various surface temperatures. It is necessary to build understanding of the relationships between different surface temperatures, where presently inadequate, and undertake large-scale systematic intercomparisons. Datasets need to be easier to obtain and exploit for a wide constituency of users, with the differences and complementarities communicated in readily understood terms, and realistic and consistent uncertainty information provided. Steps were also recommended to curate and make available data that are presently inaccessible, develop new observing systems and build capacities to accelerate progress in the accuracy and usability of surface temperature datasets.

The observational climate record is a cornerstone of our scientific understanding of climate changes and their potential causes. Existing observing networks have been designed largely in support of operational weather forecasting and continue to be run in this mode. Coverage and timeliness are often higher priorities than absolute traceability and accuracy. Changes in instrumentation used in the observing system, as well as in operating procedures, are frequent, rarely adequately documented and their impacts poorly quantified. For monitoring changes in upper-air climate, which is achieved through in-situ soundings and more recently satellites and ground-based remote sensing, the net result has been trend uncertainties as large as, or larger than, the expected emergent signals of climate change. This is more than simply academic with the tropospheric temperature trends issue having been the subject of intense debate, two international assessment reports and several US congressional hearings. For more than a decade the international climate science community has been calling for the instigation of a network of reference quality measurements to reduce uncertainty in our climate monitoring capabilities. This paper provides a brief history of GRUAN developments to date and outlines future plans. Such reference networks can only be achieved and maintained with strong continuing input from the global metrological community.

Since the 1990s a number of national institutions have developed and maintained global data sets of land surface air temperature [Peterson and Vose, 1997; Hansen et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2012; Menne et al., 2012]. These efforts have led to great advances in understanding how Earth's temperatures have varied and changed. They also serve as essential sources of a fundamental climate variable, which is crucial for interpreting climate evolution in response to the interplay of radiative forcing, climate feedbacks, and ocean heating [e.g., Hansen et al., 2011]. However, more can be done to improve global surface temperature collections while enhancing data management, access, and public transparency with which data are collected, processed, and converted into climate information. To address these needs, the International Surface Temperature Initiative (ISTI), which began through a partnership of scientists from around the world [Thorne et al., 2011], released its first beta version of a global land surface databank in October 2012.

SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd has developed a range of 3rd Generation infrared detectors based on HgCdTe grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) on low cost GaAs substrates. There have been four key development aims: reducing the cost especially for large arrays, extending the wavelength range, improving the operating temperature for lower power, size and weight cameras and increasing the functionality. Despite a 14% lattice mismatch between GaAs and HgCdTe MOVPE arrays show few symptoms of misfit dislocations even in longwave detectors. The key factors in the growth and device technology are described in this paper to explain at a scientific level the radiometric quality of MOVPE arrays. A feature of the past few years has been the increasingly sophisticated products that are emerging thanks to custom designed silicon readout devices. Three devices are described as examples: a multifunctional device that can operate as an active or passive imager with built-in range finder, a 3-side buttable megapixel array and an ultra-low noise device designed for scientific applications.

The performance of the current high speed near infrared HgCdTe sensors operating in fringe trackers, wavefront sensors and tip-tilt sensors is severely limited by the noise of the silicon readout interface circuit (ROIC), even if state-of-the- art CMOS designs are used. A major improvement can only be achieved by the amplification of the photoelectron signal directly at the point of absorption by means of avalanche gain inside the infrared pixel. Unlike silicon, HgCdTe offers noiseless avalanche gain. This has been verified with the LPE grown 320x256 pixel λ c =2.5 μm HgCdTe eAPD arrays from SELEX both on a prototype ROIC called SWALLOW and on a newly developed ROIC, specifically designed for AO applications, called SAPHIRA. The novel features of the new SAPHIRA ROIC, which has 32 parallel video channels operating at 5 MHz, will be described, together with the new high speed NGC data acquisition system. Performance results will be discussed for both ROICs. The LPE material on the SWALLOW prototype was excellent and allowed operation at an APD gain as high as 33. Unfortunately, the LPE material of the first devices on the SAPHIRA ROIC suffers from problems which are now understood. However, due to the excellent performance of the SAPHIRA ROIC even with the limitations of present HgCdTe material, it is possible with simple double correlated sampling to detect test patterns with signal levels of 1 electron. An outlook will be given on further developments of heterojunctions grown by MOVPE, which eventually may replace eAPD arrays grown by LPE.

SELEX Galileo are developing 12μm arrays focal plane arrays fabricated from Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) MCT grown on GaAs substrate arrays for use with megapixel array programmes. We report on a 256 x 256 format 12μm pixel pitch test array and provide an update on our HD1920 x 1080p format 12μm pixel pitch MW program. An overview of some of the technical challenges is given along with a summary of the low power device showing the 3-side buttable design approach, ROIC floor plan, preliminary results and the formation of larger mosaic arrays.

This paper describes the current state of the art HgCdTe grown by metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy on GaAs substrates, and progress in the development of dual-band (MW / LW) infrared detectors. We have described full-TV dual-band arrays of 640 x 512 pixels on 24μm and 20μm pitches. The latest development is a 20μm pitch 860 x 480 pixel array in 'widescreen' 16:9 format incorporating a new Read-Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC) designed in 0.35μm CMOS. The detector can be operated in multiple imaging modes: dedicated LW or MW, or both LW and MW wavebands per frame. The ROIC includes stable on-chip voltage references and a serial digital control interface. It supports integrate-then-read, integrate-while-read, binning and windowing readout modes. A proximity electronics board has been developed and is now offered to allow a range of detectors to be operated easily. Detector operation at higher operating temperatures has been demonstrated with a Hawk detector producing very high quality imagery up to 160K and useful imagery up to 175K.

There is considerable interest in sensors which are optimised for detecting infrared radiation outside the normal thermal bands (3-12μm). This paper presents the development of photodiode arrays in Hg1-xCdxTe (MCT) that are sensitive in the very long wave (VLW) band to 14μm or in the visible and SWIR band below 2.5μm wavelength. The VLW arrays are heterostructure diodes fabricated from MCT grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE). These are staring, focal plane arrays of mesa-diodes bump bonded to silicon read-out circuits. Measurements are presented demonstrating state-of-the-art performance over the temperature range 55-80K, for detectors with a cut-off wavelength of up to 14μm (at 77K). The SWIR/Visible detectors consist of an array of loophole photodiodes fabricated using MCT grown by Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE). The technology is suited to imaging LIDAR, NIR/Visible imaging, spectroscopy or hyperspectral applications. The diodes operate as avalanche photodiodes (APDs) which provides near-ideal gain in the pixel. Measurements are presented demonstrating state-of-the-art performance in the range 80K-200K from arrays with a cut-off below 2.5μm. Supporting technologies are also discussed. Silicon circuitry must be implemented in the SWIR and VLW bands that is appropriate to avalanche operation or copes with the low photon flux or low photodiode impedance. Trade-offs between conventional direct injection (DI), buffered direct injection (BDI), pixel capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) and source-follower per detector (SFPD) are presented. Work is in progress to increase the MOVPE wafer size to 6" which will enable large area arrays to be produced in the SW, MW, LW and VLW bands.

This paper describes the design, fabrication and performance of dual-band MW/LW infrared detectors made from HgCdTe (MCT) grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE). The detectors are staring, focal plane arrays consisting of HgCdTe mesa-diode arrays bump bonded to silicon read-out circuits. Each mesa has one connection to the ROIC and the bands are selected by varying the applied bias. Arrays of 320x256 pixels on a 30 µm pitch have performed exceedingly well. For example, arrays with a cut-off wavelength of 5 µm in the MW (mid-wave) band and 10 µm in the LW (long-wave) band have median NETDs of 10 and 17 mK and defect levels of 0.3% and 0.05%, in the MW and LW bands respectively. Interestingly the LW defect level is often lower than the MW defect level and the defects are not correlated; i.e. a pixel that is defective in the MW band is usually not defective in the LW band. Arrays of 640x512 pixels on a 24 µm pitch have been developed. These use a read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) that has two capacitors per pixel and the ability to switch bands during a frame giving quasi-simultaneous images. The performance of these arrays has been excellent with NETDs of 14mK in the MW band and 23mK in the LW band. Dual band-pass filters have been designed and built into a detector. A method of converting the existing dual band structure to perform true temporally simultaneous imaging is also described.

Active systems, using a near-infrared pulse laser and a fast, gated detector, are now adopted for most long range imaging applications. This concept is often called laser-gated imaging (LGI) or burst-illumination LIDAR (BIL). The SELEX solid state detector is based on an array of HgCdTe avalanche photodiodes, and a custom-designed CMOS multiplexer to perform the fast gating and photon signal capture. This paper describes two recent developments. The first is aimed at reducing the size, weight, power and cost of steerable platforms which often have to contain a large number of electrooptic tools such as lasers, range finders, BIL, thermal imaging and visible cameras. A dual-mode infrared detector has been developed with the aim of shrinking the system to one camera. The detector can be switched to operate as a passive thermal imager, a laser-gated imager or a solar flux imager. The detector produces a sensitivity in the MW thermal band of 16-18mK and a sensitivity in the BIL mode as low as 10 photons rms, in other words close to the performance of dedicated imagers. A second development was to extend the current BIL capability to 3D. In complex scenes, with camouflage and concealment, the ability to generate 3D images provides a signal-to-clutter advantage. Also in airborne applications, especially, it is useful to have 3D information to provide agile, feedback control of the range gating in a dynamic environment. This report describes the development of the 3D detector and camera, and the results of field trials using a prototype system.

The rapid pace of development in the field of long-range imaging is illustrated by two new detector technologies for passive and active imaging. Active systems, using a near-infrared pulse laser and a fast, gated detector, are now adopted for most long range imaging applications. This concept is often called burst-illumination LIDAR or BIL. The SELEX solid state detector is based on two major components: an array of HgCdTe avalanche photodiodes, and a custom-designed CMOS multiplexer to perform the fast gating and photon signal capture. These hybrid arrays produce sensitivities as low as 10 photons rms, due largely to very high, almost noise-free avalanche gain in the HgCdTe diodes. The sensitivity, dynamic range and image quality is now such that the camera performance is usually limited by coherence and scintillation effects in the scene. With this strong sensor capability, it has been possible to launch the next generation of multiplexers to satisfy systems of the future. For instance, most laser-gated imaging systems use a suite of passive infrared and visible cameras to complement the BIL channel. It is highly advantageous to combine these functions into one electro-optic system, leading to a simpler, smaller, lower power and lower cost system. The key technical steps are to find solutions for the difficult multifunctional detector and the dual-wavelength optic. A detector has been developed to image passively in the medium and short wavebands, and actively in BIL mode. The performance of the detector and optic is described. Another major systems enhancement is to be able to generate 3D images, particularly in complex scenes, to further improve background clutter rejection and provide agile, feedback control of the range gating in a dynamic environment. Here the detector senses the range, as well as the laser pulse intensity, on a pixel-by-pixel basis, providing depth context for each laser pulse. A prototype detector has been successfully demonstrated and shown to provide good quality 2D and 3D data for each laser pulse.

Since the seminal eCash paper by Chaum, Fiat and Naor [4], there have been many improvements to the original protocol. However, a protocol constitutes only a single layer of a production system. We examine the feasibility of using some of these new eCash protocols in a more massive system that replaces our current physical cash system. Our examples are taken from the Australian economy, but should be applicable to other developed nations.

A program is described which produces syntactic analyses of English sentences with respect to a transformational grammar. The main features of the analyzer are that it uses only a limited dictionary of English words and that it pursues all analysis paths simultaneously while processing the sentence from left to right. The form of representation used for the dictionary and the grammar is indicated and an outline account is given of the analysis procedure. Techniques for keeping the size of the analysis record within reasonable limits and for avoiding the need for dynamic application of certain transformational rules are described. A number of examples of output produced by the program are given. The output includes timing information.