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The use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) to move natural gas efficiently from producer to consumer is a major industry. This chapter discusses the hazards associated with LNG. The properties of LNG are covered and unique hazards such as stratification and rollover are discussed. More common hazards such as flammability, pressure rise and oxygen deficiency are described. The phenomenon of rapid phase transition is also covered. Reference to existing codes and standards is emphasized. A list of best practices is included.

Cryogenics plays an important role at the European Spallation Source, a world class neutron science center, currently under construction in Lund, Sweden. Three principal applications of cryogenics are found at ESS. The SRF cryomodules of the ESS proton linac require cooling at 2 K, 4.5 K and 40 K; the hydrogenmoderator surrounding the target that produces neutrons, requires cooling via 16.5 K helium and LHe is required for many of the scientific instruments. These needs will be met by a set of three cryogenic refrigeration/liquefaction plants and an extensive cryogenic distribution system. Significant progress has been made on the ESS cryogenic system in preparation for the expected first beam on target in 2019. This work includes: funding of industry studies for the accelerator cryoplant, preliminary design of the cryogenic distribution system, investigation of possible in kind contributors and release of the invitation to tender for the accelerator cryoplant.This paper describes the requirements, design solutions and current status of the ESS cryogenic system. The planned recovery of waste heat from the cryogenic plants, a unique aspect of ESS, is described. The procurement of the cryogenic system, expected to be done via a combination of purchase via competitive bids and in kind contributions is also discussed.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration at Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV, with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. The superconducting part of the accelerator is about 300 meters long and contains 43 cryomodules. The ESS accelerator cryoplant will provide the cooling for the cryomodules and the cryogenic distribution systeminterconnecting cryoplant and cryomodules. The cryoplant will cover three cryogenic circuits: bath cooling for the cavities at 2 K, the thermal shields at around 40-50 K and 4.5 K forced helium cooling for the power couplers. This paper describes project stages,the cryogenic architecture andthe design basis including cooling capacity, operation modes and interfaces. The important design choices comprising no liquid nitrogen pre-cooling,one integrated cold box, waste heat recovery and process control system strategy as well as the principles of evaluation are presented. All the topics above are implemented and addressed in the technical specification, which has been finished and issued in June 2014. That is a very important step in the development of the ESS cryogenics system.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration at Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.5 GeV, with a nominal current of 50 mA. The superconducting section of the ESS accelerator consists of a total of 208 SRF cavities in cryomodules (CMs) cooled with superfluid helium to 2 K. The CM contains one thermal radiation shield operating from 40 to 50 K. Additionally, 4.5-K gas helium is used to provide forced cooling to the fundamental power couplers for the cavities. The cryogenic cooling for these CMs is provided by one cryogenic plant connected to CMs via a cryogenic distribution line. This article describes the requirements and preliminary design decisions for the ESS accelerator cryoplant. The expected capacity, temperature levels and operating modes are given. Design choices to address important issues of turn-down capability, high availability, and timely restart after pla...

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is an intergovernmental project building a multidisciplinary research laboratory based upon the world's most powerful neutron source to be built in Lund, Sweden. The ESS will use a linear accelerator which will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.5 GeV with a nominal current of 50 mA. The superconducting part of the linac consists of over 150 niobium cavities cooled with superfluid helium at 2 K. A dedicated cryoplant will supply the cryomodules with single phase helium through an external cryogenic transfer line. The elliptical cavity cryomodules will undergo their site acceptance tests at the ESS cryomodule test stand in Lund. This test stand will use a 4.5 K cryoplant and warm sub-atmospheric compression to supply the 2 K helium. We will show the requirements for the test stand, a layout proposal and discuss the factors determining the required cryogenic capacity, test sequence and schedule.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron science facility funded by a collaboration of 17 European countries currently under design and construction in Lund, Sweden. The centerpiece of ESS is a 2.5 GeV proton linac utilizing superconducting RF cavities operating at 2 K. In addition to cooling the SRF cavities, cryogenics is also used at ESS in the liquid hydrogen moderators surrounding the target. ESS also uses both liquid helium and liquid nitrogen in a number of the planned neutron instruments. There is also a significant cryogenic installation associated with the site acceptance testing of the ESS cryomodules. The ESS cryogenic system consists of 3 separate helium refrigeration/liquefaction plants supplying the accelerator, target moderators and instruments. An extensive cryogenic distribution system connects the accelerator cryoplant with the cryomodules. This paper describes the preliminary design of the ESS cryogenic system including the expected heat loads. Challenges associated with the required high reliability and turn-down capability will also be discussed. A unique feature of ESS is its commitment to sustainability and energy recovery. A conceptual design for recovering waste heat from the helium compressors for use in the Lund district heating system will also be described.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is an intergovernmental project building a multidisciplinary research laboratory based upon the world's most powerful neutron source to be built in Lund, Sweden. The ESS will use a superconducting linear accelerator which will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. A cryomodule test stand will be supplied with helium for the site acceptance tests. The target will have two moderators using supercritical hydrogen to cool down the neutrons. The neutron instruments and the experiments' sample environment will use liquid helium and liquid nitrogen to cool detectors and samples. The ESS cryogenic system is designed to deliver cryogenic cooling capacity to all three client system. A first concept of the ESS cryogenic system was developed in 2010 and 2011 with a limited amount of input from the clients as well as from site infrastructure (i.e. buildings and utilities). The design had to be flexible enough to accommodate future changes in scope, schedule and available infrastructure. Over the following years the design has evolved together with these parameters to achieve a maturity today which allowed us to order the accelerator cryoplant and to start procurement of many of the other parts of the ESS cryogenic system. This paper presents the evolution of the design throughout the years and the factors influencing certain design choices.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility funded and supported in collaboration with 17 European countries in Lund, Sweden. Cryogenic cooling at ESS is vital particularly for the linear accelerator, the hydrogen target moderators, a test stand for cryomodules, the neutron instruments and their sample environments. The paper will focus on specific process design criteria, design decisions and their motivations for the helium cryoplants and auxiliary equipment. Key issues for all plants and their process concepts are energy efficiency, reliability, smooth turn-down behaviour and flexibility. The accelerator cryoplant (ACCP) and the target moderator cryoplant (TMCP) in particular need to be prepared for a range of refrigeration capacities due to the intrinsic uncertainties regarding heat load definitions. Furthermore the paper addresses questions regarding process arrangement, 2 K cooling methodology, LN2 precooling, helium storage, helium purification and heat recovery.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration in Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV, with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. The superconducting part of the accelerator is about 300 meters long and contains 43 cryomodules. The ESS accelerator cryoplant (ACCP) will provide the cooling for the cryomodules and the cryogenic distribution system that delivers the helium to the cryomodules. The ACCP will cover three cryogenic circuits: Bath cooling for the cavities at 2 K, the thermal shields at around 40 K and the power couplers thermalisation with 4.5 K forced helium cooling. The open competitive bid for the ACCP took place in 2014 with Linde Kryotechnik AG being selected as the vendor. This paper summarizes the progress in the ACCP development and engineering. Current status including final cooling requirements, preliminary process design, system configuration, machine concept and layout, main parameters and features, solution for the acceptance tests, exergy analysis and efficiency is presented.

The full exploitation of the physics potential of future linear colliders such as the JLC, NLC, and TESLA will require the development of polarized positron beams. In the proposed scheme of Balakin and Mikhailichenko [1] a helical undulator is employed to generate photons of several MeV with circular polarization which are then converted in a relatively thin target to generate longitudinally polarized positrons. This experiment, E-166, proposes to test this scheme to determine whether such a technique can produce polarized positron beams of sufficient quality for use in future linear colliders. The experiment will install a meter-long, short-period, pulsed helical undulator in the Final Focus Test Beam (FFTB) at SLAC. A low-emittance 50-GeV electron beam passing through this undulator will generate circularly polarized photons with energies up to 10 MeV. These polarized photons are then converted to polarized positrons via pair production in thin targets. Titanium and tungsten targets, which are both candidates for use in linear colliders, will be tested. The experiment will measure the flux and polarization of the undulator photons, and the spectrum and polarization of the positrons produced in the conversion target, and compare the measurement results to simulations. Thus the proposed experiment directly tests formore » the first time the validity of the simulation programs used for the physics of polarized pair production in finite matter, in particular the effects of multiple scattering on polarization. Successful comparison of the experimental results to the simulations will lead to greater confidence in the proposed designs of polarized positrons sources for the next generation of linear colliders. This experiment requests six-weeks of time in the FFTB beam line: three weeks for installation and setup and three weeks of beam for data taking. A 50-GeV beam with about twice the SLC emittance at a repetition rate of 30 Hz is required.« less