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Objective: This paper aims to explore the role of factors pertaining to trust in real-world automation systems through the application of observational methods in a case study from the railway sector. Background: Trust in automation is widely acknowledged as an important mediator of automation use, but the majority of the research on automation trust is based on laboratory work. In contrast, this work explored trust in a real-world setting. Method: Experienced rail operators in four signaling centers were observed for 90 min, and their activities were coded into five mutually exclusive categories. Their observed activities were analyzed in relation to their reported trust levels, collected via a questionnaire. Results: The results showed clear differences in activity, even when circumstances on the workstations were very similar, and significant differences in some trust dimensions were found between groups exhibiting different levels of intervention and time not involved with signaling. Conclusion: Although the empirical, lab-based studies in the literature have consistently found that reliability and competence of the automation are the most important aspects of trust development, understanding of the automation emerged as the strongest dimension in this study. The implications are that development and maintenance of trust in real-world, safety-critical automation systems may be distinct from artificial laboratory automation. Application: The findings have important implications for emerging automation concepts in diverse industries including highly automated vehicles and Internet of things.

Safety rules play an important role in any high-risk organization, and do so especially in the case of railway companies. Thus, like any such organization, the railways are faced with the challenge of striking a balance between standardization and flexibility. In this study, we contrast three different fields of work within a railway company (signalling, shunting, and construction and maintenance) in regard to a number of rule-related criteria. The results are used to drawconclusions about howdifferent settings require different forms of regulation.

Despite increased implementation of computer control systems in managing and regulating rail networks, mechanical signal boxes using lever operation will be in place for years to come. A rolling risk assessment programme identified a number of levers in mechanical signal boxes within the UK rail network which potentially presented unacceptable personal safety risk to signallers. These levers operate both points and signals and the risk is primarily the weights which have to be moved when pulling and pushing the levers. Operating difficulties are often compounded by the design and condition of lever frames, the linkages to the points/signals, maintenance regimes, the workspace and the postures and strategies adopted by signallers. Lever weights were measured as from 15 kg to 180 kg at over 160 boxes, using a specially designed and constructed device. Taken together with examination of injury and sickness absence data, interviews and field observations, and biomechanical computer modelling, the measurement programme confirmed the potential risks. A risk management programme has been implemented, comprising lever weight measurement, training of operations staff, a structured maintenance regime and renewal or redesign for boxes/levers where, after maintenance, a criterion weight level is still exceeded. For a feasible management programme, the first alert (or 1st action) value for further assessment is 55 kg, a second action level requiring specified maintenance is 80-99 kg, and a third action level requiring the lever to be signed out of use is 100 kg.

Alarm management is a key component of the successful operation of a prognostic or health-monitoring technology. Although alarms can alert the operator to critical information, false alarms and alarm flooding can cause major difficulties for successfully diagnosing and acting upon infrastructure faults. Human factors approaches seek to design more-effective alarm systems through a deep understanding of the contextual factors that influence alarm response, including strategies and heuristics used by operators. This paper presents an extensive analysis of alarm-handling activity in the setting of an Electrical Control Room on the rail network. The analysis is based on contextual observation, and the application of a time-stamped observation checklist. Functions, performance requirements, and general operating conditions that influence alarm handling are presented, delineating the typical operational constraints that need to be considered in the design and deployment of asset-based alarm systems. The analysis of specific alarm-handling incidents reveals the use of specific strategies that may bias operator performance. Implications for the design of health-monitoring systems are discussed.

The supervision of engineering work on the railways has received relatively little examination despite being both safety---critical in its own right and having wider implications for the successful running of the railways. The present paper is concerned with understanding the factors that make different engineering works perceived as easier or harder to manage. We describe an approach building on notions of `span of control', through which we developed the TOECAP inventory (Team, Organisation, Environment, Communication, Activity and Personal). This tool was validated through both interviews and questionnaires. As well as identifying the physical factors involved, the work also emphasised the importance of collaborative and attitudinal factors. We conclude by discussing limitations of the present work and future directions for development.

Renewals and especially enhancements of rail signalling and control systems are increasingly including a strong programme of human factors integration. One contribution to the human factors work that is required is work analysis – the understanding of what tasks and functions exist in current work systems, the artefacts (controls and displays used) and the strategies employed by skilled operators. One increasingly common approach to such work systems analysis is cognitive work analysis (CWA), used to develop understanding of a work domain and tasks in a structured fashion and as a basis for new design recommendations. The purpose of this paper is to explain, for an engineering and systems developer audience, the basis for and use of CWA. This is done in the context of rail electrical control rooms and especially the use made of various information display elements including alarms.

In air traffic management (ATM) knowledge of the impact of human factors on performance is critical to address safety incidents. Previous research has largely focused on the effects of single factors on performance which has resulted in a comprehensive understanding of single factor effects. In current control environments however, the residual threats for incidents often result from the interaction of multiple human factors and the resulting cumulative impact on performance. This research uses a literature review, an analysis of over 400 European aviation incident reports and finally a survey of ATM professionals to assess the need for a multifactorial model of performance. Literature findings suggest that Human Factors approaches are fundamentally single-factor in nature, which is out of step with real ATM working contexts. An incident report analysis, supported by a survey of air traffic experts, suggests that multiple factor incident causation exists. This discrepancy suggests the need for a new approach to looking at how incidents occur, and their factors managed, on a day-to-day basis. The proposed solution is a multifactorial model of human performance.

Human factors/ergonomics (HFE) has great potential to contribute to the design of all kinds of systems with people (work systems, product/service systems), but faces challenges in the readiness of its market and in the supply of high-quality applications. HFE has a unique combination of three fundamental characteristics: (1) it takes a systems approach (2) it is design driven and (3) it focuses on two closely related outcomes: performance and well-being. In order to contribute to future system design, HFE must demonstrate its value more successfully to the main stakeholders of system design. HFE already has a strong value proposition (mainly well-being) and interactivity with the stakeholder group of `system actors¿ (employees and product/service users). However, the value proposition (mainly performance) and relationships with the stakeholder groups of `system experts¿ (experts fromtechnical and social sciences involved in system design), and `system decision makers¿ (managers and other decision makers involved in system design, purchase, implementation and use), who have a strong power to influence system design, need to be developed. Therefore, the first main strategic direction is to strengthen the demand for high-quality HFE by increasing awareness among powerful stakeholders of the value of high-quality HFE by communicating with stakeholders, by building partnerships and by educating stakeholders. The second main strategic direction is to strengthen the application of high-quality HFE by promoting the education of HFE specialists, by ensuring high-quality standards of HFE applications and HFE specialists, and by promoting HFE research excellence at universities and other organisations. This strategy requires cooperation between the HFE community at large, consisting of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), local (national and regional) HFE societies, and HFE specialists. We propose a joint world-wide HFE development plan, in which the IEA takes a leadership role.

This article reports the results of a qualitative study investigating attitudes towards and opinions of an advanced automation system currently used in UK rail signalling. In-depth interviews were held with 10 users, key issues associated with automation were identified and the automation's impact on the signalling task investigated. The interview data highlighted the importance of the signallers' understanding of the automation and their (in)ability to predict its outputs. The interviews also covered the methods used by signallers to interact with and control the automation, and the perceived effects on their workload. The results indicate that despite a generally low level of understanding and ability to predict the actions of the automation system, signallers have developed largely successful coping mechanisms that enable them to use the technology effectively. These findings, along with parallel work identifying desirable attributes of automation from the literature in the area, were used to develop 12 principles of automation which can be used to help design new systems which better facilitate cooperative working.The work reported in this article was completed with the active involvement of operational rail staff who regularly use automated systems in rail signalling. The outcomes are currently being used to inform decisions on the extent and type of automation and user interfaces in future generations of rail control systems.

Modularity – the notion that individual components can be described as self-contained units and composed in different combinations – is a concept integral to synthetic biology. In vitro, it is embodied by the notion of BioBrickTMparts: standardised DNA sequences of defined structure, function, and common interfaces that can be composed and integrated into living cells. A similar modularity in the modelling of such systems, however, has not been explored until much more recently. In the course of the 2010 International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) competition, the University of Edinburgh team adopted an iterative rule-based approach to developing a BioBrick model of light-based communication in Escherichia coli. The system was modelled in the Kappa stochastic rule-based biological modelling language, allowing for the modular development and analysis of a complicated biological system. It also utilised newly developed spatial extensions to aid in the depiction of intercellular communication via light emitting and light sensing pathways, demonstrating the extensibility of the language as a whole. This paper provides a case study of modelling synthetic biology projects using the rule-based techniques outlined above, documenting the benefits of this modular iterative approach.

Spatial information is one of the most commonly used items of information for rail maintenance workers and providing this information to track workers while mobile offers potential advantages in terms of efficiency and communication accuracy. However, displaying track diagrams and other rail-specific spatial information on the small screen of a handheld computer presents several human computer interaction challenges that need to be considered. Three experiments were conducted to investigate different aspects of presenting spatial information on handheld computers. These experiments were conducted with current job holders at their place of work. The first experiment aimed at investigating the differences between presenting rail-specific information on handheld computers compared with paper-based documents. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, the findings of this experiment demonstrate the potential for handheld computers to provide a more efficient and effective means of displaying rail spatial information. The second experiment aimed to discover the optimum amount of information that can be presented on the screen of a handheld computer device. The results of this experiment demonstrate that although different combinations of length of track and amount of information affect user's performance, the structure of spatial information displayed on the screen is also very important. The third experiment identified that although the type of information presented to the track workers did not have an effect on their performance, postexperiment interviews revealed the importance of the type of information for track workers depending on the type of task they perform. These findings have implications for the design of small screen representations of spatial information in future mobile devices.

Successful closed circuit television (CCTV) surveillance relies on the skill and competence of operators performing complex visual tasks. Techniques can be employed during the design of control rooms that facilitate performance by increasing the probability of operators noticing an incident, maximising viewing comfort and reducing workload. This article describes an exploratory study in which two experiments were developed to simulate a multiplexed CCTV security monitoring task of a specific area. The experiments investigated the effectiveness of techniques for facilitating operator performance: mapping the images presented on CCTV according to the layout and logical viewing process of multiple images. The findings suggested that manipulating the layout of images improved task efficiency and provided novel insights into strategies and behaviours that participants adopted. Further consideration was given to suspicious activities within the context of a university campus and raised interesting questions regarding the generalisation of suspicious acts across different locations.

Cognitive work analysis (CWA) is a comprehensive and in-depth framework for analyzing cognitive work. In recent years, the framework has received much attention in human factors research and particularly in aviation, air traffic control (ATC) and defense. This article presents the application of CWA in 2 industrial contexts—rail signaling and ATC. The utility of 2 different stages of CWA—work domain analysis and control task analysis—is considered and compared for these contexts. The aim is to show what analyses can be of use to systems designers and operation managers through the application of CWA, in particular how CWA can help in the analysis of the cognitive demands experienced by operators in rail signaling and en-route ATC. We discuss methodological and practical benefits of parallel applications of CWA in 2 transport environments.

This paper is concerned with the interpretation and assessment of mental workload, and in particular assessment of the load imposed by the work system. It highlights a framework created to direct the development of workload assessment tools capable of assessing the dimensions most relevant to the population being studied, in our case railway signallers. A tool to capture the operational demands on the rail signaller was required to evaluate the load from the system they operated. This paper justifies the need for, and describes the development of, the Operational Demand Evaluation Checklist (ODEC), using techniques like repertory grid with active signallers. The practical experience of the development, evaluation, live use and validation of ODEC is discussed and the paper concludes by suggesting that the approach could be adopted to interpret the concept of workload in other work domains.

A recent requirement to increase train capacity of the UK rail system has resulted in a significant rise in the amount of rail engineering work. The need for staff and machines to access the track in a safe and more efficient way has thrown out a number of challenges to the industry, not least in terms of the planning and scheduling of larger amounts of work. Human factors related research has been carried out to understand the human and organisational factors that affect performance in the planning of work. We describe the development and application of a visual scenario based approach which has been used to understand both engineering work planning generally, and to identify the human and organisational factors which influence plans. We report on the specific development of a tool which has been used within workshops to identify potential risks of a proposed new system for protecting workers and discuss its potential as a decision support tool to be integrated into the planning process.

Rail signalling is typical of a complex control task where situation awareness (SA) has been thought to play a significant role. Taking into account the main theoretical positions, and through reviewing cognitive accounts of signalling, it is apparent that SA is a useful construct in describing and understanding rail signalling at both a cognitive and a system level. Development and maintenance of SA is complex, requiring much expertise and knowledge on the part of the signaller to extract and synthesise relevant information from the environment. The display and other artefacts and actors in the system also play a major role in the construction and maintenance of SA. This suggests that it is not sufficient to consider SA purely as an individual's product of knowledge. Instead, the active use of SA, such as in design, must reflect the distributed nature of the signalling environment, as found in other command and control-type domains. Rail signalling has not yet been subjected to in-depth analysis in terms...

Cognitive Work Analysis is an approach to understand work in complex socio-technical environments. Despite the promising advantages of framing cognitive tasks within this model most of the published research is limited to first stages of CWA and developed an abstract understanding rather than tangible design recommendations. In this paper alarm handling in rail electrical control room was chosen as the case study which conducts CWA in order to understand its potential and limitations and to determine the challenges in doing so.

Identifying the errors that frequently result in the occurrence of rail incidents and accidents can lead to the development of appropriate prevention and/or mitigation strategies. Nineteen rail safety investigation reports were reviewed and two error identification tools, the Human factors analysis and classification system (HFACS) and the Technique for the retrospective and predictive analysis of cognitive errors (TRACEr-rail version), used as the means of identifying and classifying train driver errors associated with rail accidents/incidents in Australia. We aimed to identify the similarities and differences between the techniques in their capacity to identify and classify errors and also to determine how consistently the tools are applied. The HFACS analysis indicated that slips of attention (i.e. ‘skilled based errors’) were the most common ‘unsafe acts’ committed by drivers. The TRACEr-rail analysis indicated that most ‘train driving errors’ were ‘violations’ while most ‘train stopping errors’ were ‘errors of perception’. Both tools identified the underlying factors with the largest impact on driver error to be decreased alertness and incorrect driver expectations/assumptions about upcoming information. Overall, both tools proved useful in categorising driver errors from existing investigation reports, however, each tool appeared to neglect some important and different factors associated with error occurrence. Both tools were found to possess only moderate inter-rater reliability. It is thus recommended that the tools be modified, or a new tool be developed, for complete and consistent error classification.

Much of the human factors contribution in risk assessment and risk management has been focused on systems or product safety; the profession has a much smaller research base regarding risks to do with regulation, certification and public policy, for example. This paper discusses an explicitly human factors contribution to understanding and managing risk for the inspection and export certification of grain and plant products in Australia. Training and awareness workshops, incorporating elements of focus groups, were run for 12 groups of staff and managers from the government department concerned. As well as training in risk management the workshops were used to come to an understanding of the work of the inspectors and other staff, to identify the sources of risk to the successful completion of their work and to develop the basis for a risk assessment framework and tool. The paper is methodological in focus and describes the development and running of the workshops and explains how a human factors oriented risk register was developed on the basis of identification of potential threats and errors in the system. Whilst the contribution of ergonomics is increasingly important as regards safety risk assessment, professionals have been less active as regards business, public policy and even engineering risk. This paper describes an approach within which a new domain was studied and the risks of all kinds identified, preparatory to development of a risk assessment tool.

Forty rail safety investigation reports were reviewed and a theoretical framework (the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System; HFACS) adopted as a means of identifying errors associated with rail accidents/incidents in Australia. Overall, HFACS proved useful in categorising errors from existing investigation reports and in capturing the full range of relevant rail human factors data. It was revealed that nearly half the incidents resulted from an equipment failure, most of these the product of inadequate maintenance or monitoring programs. In the remaining cases, slips of attention (i.e. skilled-based errors), associated with decreased alertness and physical fatigue, were the most common unsafe acts leading to accidents and incidents. Inadequate equipment design (e.g. driver safety systems) was frequently identified as an organisational influence and possibly contributed to the relatively large number of incidents/accidents resulting from attention failures. Nearly all incidents were associated with at least one organisational influence, suggesting that improvements to resource management, organisational climate and organisational processes are critical for Australian accident and incident reduction. Future work will aim to modify HFACS to generate a rail-specific framework for future error identification, accident analysis and accident investigation.

Nineteen Australian safety investigation reports and 13 UK safety reports were reviewed and a human error identification technique (the Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors: TRACEr-rail version) adopted as a means of identifying and classifying errors associated with rail incidents and accidents. In the Australian sample, it was revealed that most driver errors occurred when drivers were driving or stopping their train and that these errors consistently resulted in two consequences: speeding and signals passed at danger (SPADs). In the UK, errors occurred while drivers were performing a whole range of tasks, including driving, stopping, train assembly, and failed train operations. In Australia, most ‘train driving errors’ were ‘violations’ while most ‘train stopping errors’ were errors of ‘perception’. In the UK, a more varied range of errors was observed. Overall, the TRACEr-rail framework proved useful in categorizing driver errors from existing investigation reports and in highlighting recurring errors associated with incidents and accidents. However, the tool appeared to neglect some organizational factors contributing to driver error, and, preliminary inter-rater reliability testing revealed that some category descriptions may require further refinement. Future work will aim to develop a more Australian-friendly and reliable version of TRACEr for use in Australian rail.

Rail network control is a function which depends upon the expertise of controllers for successful performance, and this expertise is situated in social skills and interactions as much as technical knowledge. A work analysis framework has been established which gets around some of the difficulties found in using cognitive work analysis, and allows structured investigation at the environment, domain, activity, scenario and expertise levels. Within this major research programme a video ethnography study was carried out to explore the work and work systems of the rail controllers in more detail, with specific reference to social interactions. Discussion centres around the strategies, communications, social relationships, learning and development and inter-team differences that were identified in the video ethnography.

High-quality engineering and operations management are key to meeting all the requirements of a successful railway-quality of service, reliable and safe performance, and maximum possible use of capacity. However, the railway is a socio-technical system and therefore has human factors at its core, which requires a strong integrated ergonomics contribution. Moreover, this contribution must be at a systems level rather than providing point solutions to particular equipment, interface, workplace, or job problems. This paper draws from the first two human factors projects in the EPSRC Rail Research UK programme, interpreting them for an engineering audience. The paper first emphasizes and gives examples of the need for a systems ergonomics contribution to engineering an improved railway. Then the available literature is summarized in a structured fashion. Finally, a short summary is provided of the research which has started to develop a distributed cognition model of work on the railways, especially across functional groups of signalling, control, and train driving.

Methods in the Understanding of Human Factors, J.R. Wilson General approaches and methods Designing Ergonomics Studies, C.G. Drury Applications of Archival and Observational Data, A.B. Bisantz and C.G. Drury Participative Assessment, M.A. Sinclair Qualitative Methodology, S. Hignett Task Analysis, A. Shepherd and R.B. Stammers Verbal Protocol Analysis, L. Bainbridge and P. Sanderson Eliciting Expertise, N. Shadbolt Simulation and Modeling as a Tool for Analyzing Human Performance, R. Laughery Techniques in Design Systems Analysis, J. Wilson and G. Morrisroe Involving People in Design, I. McClelland and J. Fulton Suri Is This Chapter Any use? Methods for Evaluating Text, J. Hartley Evaluation in Human -Computer Interaction, C. Baber Control Facilities Design, J.A. Rajan, J.R. Wilson, and J. Wood Consequences of work activities Dynamic Work Assessment, V. Louhevaara and A. Kilbom Static Muscle Loading and the Evaluation of Posture, E.N. Corlett Biomechanical Methods for Task Analysis, P. Dempsey and M. Munro The Definition and Measurement of Mental Workload, T. Megaw The Nature and Measurement of Work-Related Stress: Theory and Practice, T. Cox and A. Griffiths Vision and Visual Work, P.A. Howarth and M. Bullimore Practical Measurement of Psychophysiological Functions for Determining Workloads, M. Kumashiro Assessment and design of the physical workplace The Environmental Ergonomics Survey, K. Parsons Ergonomics Assessment of Thermal Environments, K. Parsons Assessment of the Visual Environment, P.A. Howarth Auditory Environment and Noise Assessment, C.M. Haselgrave Anthropometry and the Design of Workspaces, S.T. Pheasant and L.P.A.(Bea)St

Purpose: The aim of this study was to document adequacy of training, career plans after residency, use of the in-service examination, and motivation for choice of radiation oncology as a specialty. Methods and Materials: In 2004, the Association of Residents in Radiation Oncology (ARRO) conducted a nationwide survey of all radiation oncology residents in the United States. Results: The survey was returned by 297 residents (response rate, 54%). Of the respondents, 29% were female and 71% male. The most popular career choice was joining an established private practice (38%), followed by a permanent academic career (29%). Residents for whom a permanent academic career was not their first choice were asked whether improvements in certain areas would have led them to be more likely to pursue an academic career. The most commonly chosen factors that would have had a strong or moderate influence included higher salary (81%), choice of geographic location (76%), faculty encouragement (68%), and less time commitment (68%). Of respondents in the first 3 years of training, 78% believed that they had received adequate training to proceed to the next level of training. Of those in their fourth year of training, 75% believed that they had received adequate training to enter practice. Conclusions: Multiple factors affect the educational environment of physicians in training. Data describing concerns unique to resident physicians in radiation oncology are limited. The current survey was designed to explore a variety of issues confronting radiation oncology residents. Training programs and the Residency Review Committee should consider these results when developing new policies to improve the educational experiences of residents in radiation oncology.

There is an increasing prevalence for work to be analysed through naturalistic study, especially using ethnographically derived methods of enquiry and qualitative field research. The relatively unexplored domain of railway control (in comparison to signalling) in the UK is described in terms of features derived from observations and semi-structured interviews. In addition, task diagrams (a technique taken from the Applied Cognitive Task Analysis toolkit) are used to represent controllers' core elements of work, i.e. to manage events or incidents, and to identify the challenging steps in the process. The work features identified, the task diagrams, and the steps identified as challenging form a basis from which future ergonomics studies on railway controllers in the UK will be carried out.

Virtual reality (VR) systems and the virtual environments (VEs) experienced within them have presented challenges to human computer interaction over many years. The sheer range of different interfaces which might be experienced and of different behaviours which might be exhibited have caused difficulties in general understanding of participants' performance within VR/VE and in providing coherent guidance for designers. We have recently completed a European Information Society Technologies (IST) project, Virtual and Interactive Environments for Workplaces of the Future (VIEW of the Future), which has made great strides in developing improved VR systems and interaction concepts and devices, based upon good understanding of participation in VEs. Particular emphasis in the VIEW of the Future project has been upon mobility and multiple active collaboration in use of VR/VE. This paper introduces a special issue devoted to this project and overviews the project as a whole. In doing so it also reviews some of the human factors issues defined for VR/VE over the years and the contribution of VIEW of the Future to addressing these.

Interactive visualizations such as virtual environments and their associated input and interface techniques have traditionally focused on localized single-user interactions and have lacked co-present active collaboration mechanisms where two or more co-located users can share and actively cooperate and interact with the visual simulation. VR facilities such as CAVEs or PowerWalls, among many others, seem to promise such collaboration but due to the special requirements in terms of 3D input and output devices and the physical configuration and layout, they are generally designed to support an active controlling participant-the immersed user-and a passive viewing only audience. In this paper we explore the integration of different technologies, such as small handheld devices and wireless networks with VR/VEs in order to develop a technical and conceptual interaction approach that allows creation of a more ad hoc, interaction rich, multimodal and multi-device environment, where multiple users can access certain interactive capabilities of VE and support co-located collaboration.

Network Rail, who own the railway infrastructure in the UK, have been interested in the assessment of mental workload (MWL) of signallers and control staff for some years. A new model of MWL has been proposed within which to develop a suite of new MWL analytical and empirical assessment tools. One of these is the Integrated Workload Scale (IWS), developed and tested for signallers. This paper describes the development of the IWS and its subsequent testing within two full-scale simulator trials with an NX (entry/exit) panel and an Integrated Electrical Control Centre (IECC) system, and then in the field at signal boxes. The IWS has proven to be a valuable measure of individually experienced peaks and troughs in workload over a period of time or within a particular set of scenarios. It is acceptable to signallers and maps well onto assessments of expected workload on the basis of timeline analysis and subject matter expert commentaries.

In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in rail human factors. The sometimes conflicting requirements of safety, reliable performance, quality of operations and effective use of limited capacity have meant that managers and engineers across all companies in the rail network have realized the importance of understanding and designing for human factors in train driving, signalling and control, maintenance, planning, etc. One key concern has been with workload, particularly mental workload, and especially in signalling and driving. This paper is concerned with a fundamental examination of what workload means in relation to the railways and especially signalling work and with a need to develop an appropriate suite of tools for the practical assessment of workload. In order to do this, the basic literature has been revisited in order to propose a conceptual framework of mental workload in the rail industry. Subsequently, a suite of workload tools has been proposed and is being used in practice;...

This paper discusses the practical problems of understanding and addressing unsafe behaviour and negative safety culture in rail maintenance. A well grounded qualitative approach informed the research methodology. Analysis of interviews with staff enabled identification of forty main factors that influence safe behaviour and safe culture. These factors ranged in proximity of their connection to the unsafe event, from those that could be found at trackside and which directly influence the behaviour of the track workers on the day (e.g. weather), to more medium term and distanced factors (e.g. supervisors’ style of management), to those at considerable distance in terms of where they emanate and can be changed, such as contradictory rules. As a result of this deep, structured qualitative enquiry, the maintenance company most concerned has disseminated findings throughout the organisation and has set a strategy to improve both safety systems and behaviour.

ObjectivesWe sought to assess the relationship between survival, peak exercise oxygen consumption (Vo2), and heart failure survival score (HFSS) in the current era of heart failure (HF) therapy.BackgroundBased on predicted survival, HF patients with peak Vo214 ml/min/kg (p = 0.04). Of the patients with peak Vo2of 10 to 14 ml/min/kg, 55% had low-risk HFSS and exhibited 88% one-year event-free survival. One-year survival after transplantation was 88%, which is similar to the 85% rate reported by the United Network for Organ Sharing for 1999 to 2000.ConclusionsSurvival for HF patients in the current era has improved significantly, necessitating re-evaluation of the listing criteria for heart transplantation.

More companies are understanding the benefits of designing work to enhance, rather than minimise, the contributions of their employees within human-centred systems. To do this, they require their supportive subsystems (such as training, job, and team design, performance measurement and information) to provide people with the ability, motivation and opportunity to become increasingly involved. Opportunity for involvement will require different communication interfaces, providing data and background information both personally and at the work site or process. In the past few years, the media available for visualisation and communication have become much more numerous and have much greater capabilities. This paper examines the information requirements of certain features of modern manufacturing enterprises—local control, skills, knowledge and training, function allocation and team communications. It then assesses the utility of three broad types of information display—Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), Multimedia/Closed-circuit Television (CCTV) and Virtual Environments (VEs)—for shopfloor systems.

This paper presents results of the longitudinal usability and network trials that took place throughout the COVEN (COllaborative Virtual ENvironments) Project. To address the lack of understanding about usability design and evaluation for collaborative virtual environments (CVEs), a deductive analysis was used to systematically identify areas of inquiry. We present a summary of the analysis and the resulting framework through which various complementary methods were utilized during our studies. The objective of these studies was to gain a better understanding about design, usability, and utility for CVEs in a multidisciplinary setting. During the studies, which span four years, we undertook longitudinal studies of user behavior and computational demands during network trials, usability inspections of each iteration of the project demonstrators, consumer evaluations to assess social acceptability and utility of our demonstrators, and continuous preparations of design guidelines for future developers of CVEs. In this paper, we discuss the need for such activities, give an overview of our development of methods and adaptation of existing methods, give a number of explanatory examples, and review the future requirements in this area.

Background: Although β-blockers were well-tolerated by heart failure (HF) patients in clinical trials, tolerability of these drugs in a general population of HF patients is not well-described. Methods: We studied a total of 308 encounters with β-blockers therapy in 268 ambulatory HF patients. Side effects and frequency and predictors of discontinuation of therapy were studied. Independent predictors of discontinuation were assessed. Results: Weight gain (59%), fatigue (56%), dizziness (41%), and dyspnea (29%) were the most common side effects. Fifty-one patients (19%) were discontinued on therapy with any 1 particular β-blocker. Fatigue (30%) and hypotension (28%) were the most common reasons for discontinuation. Forty (78%) of these were given a trial with a different β-blocker. Of these, 22 (55%) attempts with a different β-blocker were tolerated. Thus the overall absolute discontinuation rate was only 7% for patients who were given a trial with different β-blockers or 11% for the entire study population. Independent predictors of discontinuation of therapy included advanced symptoms, nonischemic etiology, history of pulmonary disease, and higher diuretic doses. Conclusion: Side effects with β-blockers in a general population of HF patients are common; however, with changes in medical management, most patients can tolerate them eventually. In case of intolerance to one kind, a trial with a different β-blocker is indicated.

__Abstract__ Our paper ‘A strategy for human factors/ergonomics: developing the discipline and profession’ (Dul et al. 2012) was intended to suggest directions for and to stimulate discussions in the human factors/ergonomics (HFE) community on the future of our field. We believe that discussing the future is an urgent endeavour, as – after decades of existence – in many parts of the world HFE is often under-recognised, ill-understood and underutilised. In some parts of the world, there is even a risk of decline for HFE. We are glad that several IEA federated societies have picked up the challenge of organising discussions about our paper with their members. We are also glad that Ergonomics provides a forum for debate, and we welcome Nathanael and Marmaras’ Commentary on our paper.

John R. WilsonSan Jose StateUniversity FoundationSan Jose, CABecky L. HooeyMontereyTechnologies, Inc.Monterey, CADavid C. FoyleNASA Ames ResearchCenterMoffett Field, CAJennifer L. WilliamsSan Jose StateUniversity FoundationSan Jose, CAThis study investigated pilots' taxi performance, situation awareness and workload while taxiingwith three different head-up display (HUD) symbology formats: Command-guidance, Situation-guidance and Hybrid. Command-guidance symbology provided the pilot with required controlinputs to maintain centerline position; Situation-guidance symbology provided conformal, scene-linked navigation information; while the Hybrid symbology combined elements of bothsymbologies. Taxi performance was assessed with average taxi speed and root mean square error(RMSE) from the centerline. Situation awareness and workload were assessed using a 3-Dimension SART and a 7-point scale, respectively. Taxi speeds were highest and RMSE fromcenterline lowest with Situation-guidance and Hybrid symbologies. Situation awareness washighest and workload lowest with Situation-guidance and Hybrid symbologies. These results arethought to be due to cognitive tunneling induced by the Command-guidance symbology.Situation-guidance (and Hybrid) HUD symbologies provided a common reference with theenvironment, which may have supported better distribution of attention.

This paper discusses a 3 year research project in which a virtual enviroment (VE) to teach radioactivity was developed and tested in a number of schools. Many software packages currently developed for schools tend to be fairly generic, covering a topic quite broadly. There has been a lack of attention to teachers' requirements and needs. This research emphasised the importance of involving teachers through the development process, from specification to evaluation. It also confirmed the importance of school-based evaluation studies in the development and evaluation of educational software. Through carrying out school-based evaluation studies a number of key considerations were identified. These "contextual considerations" covered three areas seen to be important in the design and development of an educational VE: facilities and equipment available, intended use in school and individual learner characteristics. Lessons learnt from this research may prove to be useful guidelines for future researchers. As such, a framework has been developed as a recommendation for a suitable method for the design, development and evaluation of virtual environments for education, and more generally other educational software applications.

At a time of change for the railway networks of Europe we have been developing tools to assess ergonomics aspects of railway network control. This is within the Railway Ergonomics Control Assessment Package (RECAP). Among the developments have been an audit instrument (REQUEST), tools to assess situation awareness (RESA) and staff loading (RELOAD), and workshops to predict opportunities for human error and organisational failure across rail network operations. This research is discussed with respect to the context of UK railway operations and the need for an expanding tradition of cognitive ergonomics fieldwork. From the findings we draw some conclusions about the roles filled by signallers, electrical controllers and zone controllers within a perspective of distributed cognitive/social networks.

During the past decade teamwork in manufacturing, as in other sectors, has become the organisational form of choice. In contrast to earlier manifestations such as autonomous workgroups some 30 years earlier, this appears to have been largely for business and production reasons rather than being directly aimed at improving the quality of work life. Taken from part of a larger study of teamworking in several different manufacturing companies this paper draws upon a retrospective analysis of cases of self-managed team implementation in UK manufacturing. Examples of good and bad practice and consequent guidance have been identified where the weight of evidence gives confidence in their general applicability. A basis for benchmarking is provided, related to preparation, implementation and maintenance of self-managed teams in manufacturing. Key gaps identified are for tools to assist in early functional analysis, leadership decisions and boundary setting, and appropriate team performance measurement and reward systems.