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International audience; Pedometrics, the application of mathematical and statistical methods to the study of the distribution and genesis of soils, has broadened its scope over the past two decades. The primary focus of pedometricians has traditionally been on spatial and spatio-temporal soil inventories with numerical soil classification, geostatistical modelling of spatial variation and mapping. The rapid development of remote and proximal soil sensing as well as data-driven statistical modelling techniques have had a major impact on pedometrics over the past decades. During this time, a general demand for quantitative digital soil information for environmental modelling and management has compelled pedometricians to address other soil-related questions from a quantitative point of view: soil genesis and utility and quality of soil. While scientific progress is largely an autonomous process that is difficult to steer, research efforts could benefit from an agenda with pressing pedometric research topics. This paper defines and discusses ten recent or longstanding pedometrics challenges, with the attempt to identify knowledge gaps and suggest new concepts and methods to overcome them. The ten challenges were selected through a collaborative effort and may serve as a guidance for future pedometrics research and to foster collaboration among soil scientists. The challenges discussed in this paper are also indicators of the current understanding and state of knowledge from which progress can be measured in the future.

Long a rather abstract concept, sustainable development has since 2015 been defined by the United Nations in terms of goals (SDGs), specified by targets and indicators.Soils play an important role in several land-related SDGs by their contribution to ecosystem services that, in turn, contribute to biomass production (SDG2), water quality (SDG6), climate mitigation (SDFG13) and biodiversity preservation (SDG15). These goals have been adopted by the European Union when defining their Green Deal. However, sustainable development will only be achieved when stakeholders adopt appropriate management measures that result in a satisfactory level of all four ecosystem services. Adoption, however, is not only a function of technical considerations but is also highly affected by socioeconomic and even psychological factors. The soil security concept that considers both: “hard”and “soft” criteria, is therefore well suited to act as a roadmap towards a sustainable future, focusing soil contributions to ecosystem services and the SDGs. A storyline is proposed starting with connectivity, defining interaction processes among all partners involved in the sustainability debate, followed by condition, and capability that can be defined by a recently proposed quantitative expression of soil health. Soil Capitol expresses soil contributions to ecosystem services in financial terms and thus contributes to connectivity when examples show that non-soil contributions are much more expensive. Environmental laws and regulations, expressed by codification, ideally link soil performance to societal relevance but the tension between individual desires and societal demands requires modern forms of connectivity in terms of willingness to: “joint-learning”, supported by modern communication theory. Following the complete storyline of the 5C's, as proposed by the soil security concept, can make future soil research much more effective from a societal and political point of view.

This introductory chapter explains why organic waste composting is considered as one of the best examples to demonstrate the benefits of nexus thinking. Current literature is rich with information covering various aspects of composting process. However, it mainly represents two distinct fields: waste from the management point of view and soil/agriculture from the nutrient recycling point of view. It is hard to find information on how these two fields can benefit from each other, except for a few examples found within large agricultural fields/businesses. A policy/institutional framework that supports a broader integration of management of such resources is lacking: a structure that goes beyond the typical municipal or ministerial boundaries. There is a clear need to address this gap, and nexus thinking can help immensely close the gap by facilitating the mindset needed for policy integration. Good intention of being sustainable is not enough if there is no comprehensive plan to find a stable market for the compost as a product. Therefore, the chapter also discusses the strong need to have a good business case for composting projects. Composting can also support achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) proposed by the United Nations. While directly supporting SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production), and SDG 13 (Climate action), enhanced composting practices may also assist us reach several other targets specified in other SDGs. While encouraging waste composting as a sustainable method of waste and soil management, we should also be cautious about the possible adverse effects compost can have on the environment and public health, especially due to some non-traditional raw materials that we use nowadays such as wastewater sludge and farm manure. Towards the end, we urge for the improvement of the entire chain ranging from waste generation to waste collection/separation to compost formation and, finally, application to soil to ensure society receives the maximum benefit from composting.

The general concept of sustainable development has been specified in terms of goals, targets, and indicators by the UN Sustainable Development Goals, adopted in 2015, followed by the Green Deal of the European Union in 2019. The focus on targets and indicators does, however, not address the issue as to how these goals can be achieved for land-related SDGs in the real world, and attention in this paper is therefore focused on how land management can contribute to providing ecosystem services in line with the aims of the SDGs and the Green Deal. Agricultural production systems should at least produce healthy food (SDG2 and 3), protect ground- and surface water quality (SDG6), mitigate climate change (SDG13), avoid soil degradation, and support biodiversity (SDG15). The corresponding ecosystem services are discussed with particular emphasis on the role of soils, which are characterized in terms of soil health, defined as: contributing to ecosystem services in line with the SDGs and the Green Deal. Appropriate management, as developed and proposed by researchers working jointly with farmers in living labs, can only be realized when it is part of sound long-term business plans, supported by independent advice that is focused on farmers’ concerns based on the requirements for adaptive management. The research effort in living labs, addressing “wicked” problems, needs to be judged differently from classical linear research. As the development of successful ecosystem services requires an interdisciplinary research effort based on a systems analysis, SDG-oriented soil research in the future should be focused on: (i) presenting suitable data to the interdisciplinary effort beyond standard data to be found in existing databases; (ii) using soil types as “carriers of information” to allow extrapolation of results; (iii) providing data with a comparable degree of detail when analyzing the various ecosystem services, and (iv) revisit past experiences in soil survey and soil fertility research when contact with farmers was intense, as is again needed in future to realize ecosystem services in line with the SDGs and the Green Deal.

Our current information society, populated by increasingly well-informed and critical stakeholders, presents a challenge to both the policy and science arenas. The introduction of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offers a unique and welcome opportunity to direct joint activities towards these goals. Soil science, even though it is not mentioned as such, plays an important role in realizing a number of SDGs focusing on food, water, climate, health, biodiversity, and sustainable land use. A plea is made for a systems approach to land use studies, to be initiated by soil scientists, in which these land-related SDGs are considered in an integrated manner. To connect with policy makers and stakeholders, two approaches are functional. The first of these is the policy cycle when planning and executing research, which includes signaling, design, decision making, implementation, and evaluation. Many current research projects spend little time on signaling, which may lead to disengagement of stakeholders. Also, implementation is often seen as the responsibility of others, while it is crucial to demonstrate – if successful – the relevance of soil science. The second approach is the DPSIR approach when following the policy cycle in land-related research, distinguishing external drivers, pressures, impact, and responses to land use change that affect the state of the land in the past, present, and future. Soil science cannot by itself realize SDGs, and interdisciplinary studies on ecosystem services (ESs) provide an appropriate channel to define contributions of soil science in terms of the seven soil functions. ESs, in turn, can contribute to addressing the six SDGs (2, 3, 6, 12, 13, and 15) with an environmental, land-related character. SDGs have a societal focus and future soil science research can only be successful if stakeholders are part of the research effort in transdisciplinary projects, based on the principle of time-consuming "joint learning". The internal organization of the soil science discipline is not yet well tuned to the needs of inter- and transdisciplinary approaches.

Among natural resources, soils are often forgotten and poorly represented in ecosystem service frameworks and decision making processes, even though they are a non-renewable resource and the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems’ function and health. This study used a novel methodology to (i) quantify the ecosystem services provided by dairy-based agro-ecosystems on two contrasting soils in New Zealand using a process-based model, (ii) determine the economic value of each service using on-farm built capital substitutes, and (iii) explore the merits of incorporating an ecosystems approach into land evaluation and resource management. Ecosystem services quantification proved insightful in distinguishing and quantifying the inherent differences in the capabilities of two contrasting soils to contribute to service provision by translating them into differences in performance under the same use, before calculating economic values. The economic value of the services provided by the system with Horotiu was on average 35% greater than the economic value of the services provided by the same land use on the Te Kowhai soil, with differences in the provision of some services (provision of food, flood mitigation, and the filtering of nutrients and contaminants) more pronounced between the two soils than others (provision of support, recycling of wastes). Regulating services had greater economic values than provisioning services for both agro-ecosystems. Existing limitations of land evaluation processes can be addressed by an ecosystems approach through increased emphasis on inclusive, quantitative assessments that reflect society’s desired outcomes as informed by stakeholder input.

Last century, during the ‘Green Revolution’ the use of synthetic fertilizers contributed to increased agricultural production. However, their use did not reflect local soil and water conditions because recommendations were developed for larger agro-ecological zones. They only focused on increased productivity, neglecting any adverse environmental consequences. Largely, this legacy remains and recommendations are still made using ‘top-down’ procedures based on limited data and generic, empirical relations between soil nutrient contents, fertilization rates and yields. Using soil sensors in agriculture can fundamentally change this approach by allowing innovative ‘bottom-up’ approaches that characterize local soil and environmental conditions in space and time, improving the efficiency of production to maximize farm incomes and minimize environmental side effects. The sensed information can be used to build site-specific databases of relations between soil and plant condition and growth. Recent technological developments in sensing coupled with ongoing advances in information and communication technologies have given ground to a renewed interest in soil sensing and its use in different applications at different spatial scales. Soil sensing can facilitate the measurement and monitoring of the soil's physical and biochemical attributes (e.g. nutrients, water) to better understand their dynamics, their interactions with the environment while considering their large spatial heterogeneity. The new sensing methods can also be used to effectively monitor soil organic carbon and be central to the adoption of best agronomic practices that also allow carbon sequestration and a reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Thus, sensing can help us to better articulate the potential of soil to meet the world's needs for food, fiber, climate adaptation and environmental sustainability allowing the design and implementation of innovative management practices and policy aimed at sustainable development.

The soil genoform vs. soil phenoform distinction was suggested twenty years ago by Droogers and Bouma to recognize management-induced differences among pedons with the same long-term pedogenesis and included in the same soil map unit, these changes being sufficient to cause important and persistent differences in soil functions. To support the recent increased interest in soil change and soil health, we propose conceptual and operational definitions of soil genoforms and soil phenoforms, and suggest techniques to identify and map them. We define soil genoforms as soil classes as identified by the soil classification system used as the basis for detailed soil mapping in a given area. This avoids the difficulty of defining when human intervention has been sufficient to create new genoforms – by definition this is when new lowest-level classes are recognized in the classification system, based on diagnostic horizons and properties. We then define soil phenoforms as persistent variants of a genoform with sufficient physical or chemical differences to substantially affect soil functions. Soil phenoforms must be persistent enough that substantial management interventions are necessary to change them, thus seasonal and rotational variants are excluded from the concept. Soil phenoforms can be identified by measurements of indicator soil properties at locations within a soil genoform with different management and investigating if these are different enough to affect soil functions, notably soil hydrology and crop yield. Digital mapping of soil phenoforms will likely use maps of current and historical management as predictors. In areas with intensive or changed management, mapping should be repeated every few years to identify areas of changed soil phenoforms and new genoforms.

Soil security can only be achieved when the global soil resource is maintained and improved, requiring a reversal of current degradation processes. This demands a major effort by soil scientists in at least four directions by: (i) demonstrating the importance of soils in inter- and transdisciplinary programs focusing on food, water, climate, biodiversity and energy problems, which are environmental issues that are widely acknowledged to be important; (ii) focusing research on the seven soil functions to demonstrate the importance of soil for widely recognized Ecosystem Services (ES) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDG); (iii) reframing reporting of soil studies by not only including technical data but embedding this in human-interest storylines, building on the deep emotional links between soil and man, and (iv) educating and involving knowledge brokers that can link science with societal partners not only during a given project but also in the preparatory and implementation phase. Scientists c...

Accelerating future water shortages require development of operational water governance models, as illustrated by three case studies: (1) upstream–downstream interactions in the Aral Sea basin, where science acts as problem recognizer, emphasizing scoping policies; (2) impact and adaptation of climate change on water and food supply in the Middle East and North Africa, where science acts as a mediator between perspectives, emphasizing scoping and a start of implementation policies; and (3) green water credits in Kenya, where science acts as advocate, emphasizing scoping and implementation policies in close interaction with stakeholders, including impulses from applied to basic research.

Food production, water availability and energy production are important ecosystem services of the Upper Tana basin (Kenya) and they decline due to upstream erosion affecting downstream water users. The effect of 11 soil conservation measures on soil erosion and the three ecosystem services was estimated by a modelling approach to assess agro-ecological processes and benefit/cost relations. Soil water available for evaporation and transpiration (‘green water’) functioned as a unifying concept to express the effects of erosion and the impacts of soil and water conservation measures that result in: (1) increased water availability for crops; (2) increased fluxes towards aquifers, thereby increasing water supply and regulating streamflow, and (3) a reduction of erosion and siltation of reservoirs used for hydroelectricity. Modelling indicated that the three ecosystem services could be improved, as compared with the base level, by up to 20% by introducing appropriate conservation measures with benefit/cost relations of around 7. However, farmers were unable to make the necessary investments and much effort and many institutional studies were needed to achieve progress towards implementation by initiating the Green Water Credits (GWC) programme intended to arrange payments by downstream businesses to upstream farmers. A timeline analysis is presented to illustrate the slow, but persistent, development of transdisciplinary activities as a function of time using connected value development as a guiding principle.

The United Nations effort to define Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s), emphasizing local goals and capacity building, offers a unique opportunity for soil science to demonstrate the role it can play when focusing on these goals. Several strategic reports have presented key issues for sustainable development: food security, freshwater and energy availability, climate change and biodiversity loss are issues most frequently being listed, not soil degradation. Focusing on soil contributions towards interdisciplinary studies of these key issues, rather than emphasizing soils by themselves, is therefore bound to be more effective for the soil science profession. But this is still inadequate when studying land-related SDG’s, requiring a broader ecosystem approach that can be achieved by a direct link between soil functions and corresponding ecosystem services. Thus, the key issues are not considered separately but linked as part of a dynamic ecosystem characterization following a narrative as is demonstrated for food security, that can be well addressed by precision agriculture. As all key issues and at least five of the ten SDG’s are directly land-related, soil science can potentially play an important role in the suggested interdisciplinary studies. But in addition, the current information society with knowledgeable stakeholders requires innovative and interactive transdisciplinary scientific approaches by not only focusing on knowledge generation but also on co-learning with stakeholders and, important, on implementation. The soil science discipline can become more effective in the transdisciplinary context by: (1) reconnecting the knowledge chain, linking tacit with scientific knowledge both ways, (2) simplifying soil terminology, (3) learning to deal with “wicked” environmental problems for which no single solutions exist but only a series of alternative options for action, balancing economic, social and environmental considerations, (4) educating “knowledge brokers”, linking science with society in land-related issues, acting within a “Community of Scientific Practice”, and (5) modernizing soil science curricula. Transdisciplinary approaches are crucial to achieve SDG’s, linking science and society. There is a need for specific results on the ground illustrating with hard data the key role soils can play in realizing SDG’s.

Many studies convincingly document the importance of soils when dealing with the global environmental sustainability issues of today, such as food, water and energy security, climate change, ecosystem service delivery and biodiversity protection. Even though international agencies have supported the claims by the soil science community, recent strategic environmental reports hardly mention soils. Soils need to be “re-framed”, realizing that most issues are land-related. This includes introduction of the concept of “Soil Security”, including elements of safety, risk and anxiety, and the metaphor of soils as a possible “keystone” connecting the various environmental issues mentioned above. In addition, there is a need for active participation in interdisciplinary research programs, while particular opportunities can be found in transdisciplinary programs actively involving stakeholders and policy makers striving for connected value development. Soil scientists can be effective “knowledge brokers” (Extension 2.0, in which participatory joint learning replaces linear knowledge transfer in traditional extension). Current developments in the policy arena, with more focus on participatory rather than top-down approaches in environmental regulations also offer particular opportunities for soil science. Effective framing does not need more diagnostic studies nor alarming declarations or conceptual action plans, but should focus on the presentation of specific case studies demonstrating the l role of soils when confronting the major environmental issues of today. Benefit/cost analyses are essential to demonstrate that good soil management often represents good business. The “Green Water” study in Kenya is presented as an example of this approach.

Our current information society, populated by increasingly well informed and critical stakeholders, presents a challenge to both the policy and science arena's. The introduction of the UN Sustainable Development Goals offers a unique and welcome opportunity to direct joint activities towards these goals. Soil science, even though it is not mentioned as such, plays an important role in realizing a number of SDG's focusing on food, water, climate, health, biodiversity and sustainable land use. A plea is made for a systems approach to land use studies, to be initated by soil scientists, in which these land-related SDG's are considered in an integrated manner. To connect with policy makers and stakeholders two approaches are functional, following: (i) the policy cycle when planning and executing research, which includes signaling, design, decision, implementation and evaluation. Many current research projects spend little time on signaling which may lead to disengagement of stakeholders. Also, implementation is often seen as the responsibility of others while it is crucial to demonstrate – if successful – the relevance of soil science and (ii) the DPSIR approach when following the policy cycle in land-related research, distinguishing external drivers, pressures, impacts and responses to land-use change that affect the state of the land in past, present and future. Soil science cannot by itself realize SDG's and interdisciplinary studies on Ecosystem Services (ES) provide an appropriate channel to define contributions of soil science in terms of the seven soil functions. ES, in turn, can contribute to addressing the six SDG's (2, 3, 6, 12, 13 and 15) with an environmental, land-related character. SDG's have a societal focus and future soil science research can only be successful if stakeholders are part of the research effort in transdisciplinary projects, based on the principle of time-consuming "joint-learning". The internal organization of the soil science discipline is not yet well – tuned to the needs of inter – and transdisciplinary approaches.

The change in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union from product to producer support, including requirements for 'good agricultural and environmental conditions' and 'greening', is excellent. However, these requirements are now defined in rather general terms. Questions can be raised about suitable indicators, and there is a recognized need for effective management recommendations to support farmers in achieving the required 'good' conditions. These recommendations are bound to be quite different for different soils in different countries. A study of Dutch clay soils was based on a storyline describing current problems and management options for improvement, which were quantified using a soil-water-crop simulation model. Indicators were defined for agricultural conditions and suggestions made for the use of the model in a predictive mode to help farmers improve their soil management. Environmental conditions were judged by current environmental guidelines for water and air. When modelling, implicit assumptions that soils are homogeneous were shown to be unrealistic for these clay soils, requiring development of innovative methods and procedures, presenting a challenge for soil research.

Environmental research has contributed significantly since 1990 to a strong reduction of environmental pollution associated with dairy farming in the Netherlands. To judge possible pollution, state indicators and threshold values are distinguished. Threshold values for: (i) N and P in ground- and surface-water, (ii) air quality in terms of ammonia and greenhouse gasses and (iii) deposition rates of N on nature areas, are still exceeded. New approaches are needed as the EU dairy quota system will expire in 2015 and production is likely to increase. Four are suggested: (i) change the top-down character of regulations to a bottom-up self-governing procedure where farmers receive clear guidelines and are challenged by government and assisted by research to meet them. The future commitment of farmers is crucial as “the low environmental fruit” has been harvested; (ii) abolish confusing and overly complex proxy systems and focus on direct measurement of state indicators, using newly developed sensing systems and proper statistical sampling procedures for expressing variability; (iii) make the derivation of threshold values for environmental state indicators more science-based and transparent and start with focusing on individual farms and nature areas to be followed by upscaling to regions and the entire country. (iv) Follow the recommendations of the Trojan report and develop comprehensive regional management plans and a strategic plan for the entire country. Environmental research has been fragmented and often reactive rather than pro-active. Recent research on farm level, using life cycle analysis, applies an integrated approach to study water, air and soil qualities as well as economic aspects and can therefore form the basis for future management plans on farm level and for regional and national plans, all to be focused on sustainable development.

The application of nutrients affect the quality of the environment which justifies the consideration of regulations regarding their use in agriculture. In the early 1990s The Netherlands decided to use the indicator 'nutrient surplus at farm level' as the basis for a regulation which was called the mineral accounting system (MINAS). Exceedance of specified nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) surpluses ('N and P loss standards'), resulted in a financial levy per kg exceedance. This NP surplus approach is a 'goal-oriented regulation' rather than a 'means-oriented regulation', giving farmers maximum freedom to stop nutrient leaks where they considered measures to be most effective in their specific situation. In 2003, however, the European Court of Justice ruled that The Netherlands Action Programme, of which MINAS was part, was in conflict with the EU Nitrates Directive. Important consideration here was that the legislation in The Netherlands contained as yet no specified application rates for N. The Netherlands was also reproached for implicitly allowing application rates of more than 170 kg N in the form of animal manure per ha per year without possessing formal permission by the European Commission to deviate from this threshold, a so-called 'derogation'. A new, and meanwhile by the European Commission accepted Netherlands Action Programme defines the required N application rates, N fertilizer replacement values of various organic manure types, and periods in which the use of fertilizers and manures is forbidden. All these aspects will be sharpened in the years after 2006.

Major environmental and agricultural issues dealing with land use and management are likely to be increasingly studied in the future by large interdisciplinary groups of scientists. The future of soil science will be strongly affected by the ability of soil scientists to work in interdisciplinary teams and to effectively interact with users. This will require effective communication of our expertise, while guarding scientific integrity. Disciplinary expertise can be classified in terms of different levels of detail, ranging from user and expert knowledge to different degrees of detailed process knowledge. Selecting a proper level of detail for any problem to be studied by each member of the interdisciplinary team is important to optimize functioning of the team. Ideally, input to the team by soil scientists should include (i) initiation of projects and leadership, (ii) contributions to projects led by other disciplines, or (iii) contributions of basic soil data to projects without being formally involved. Interaction with colleagues and users should be based on continuous exchange of information leading to joint products, to be defined as a series of realistic options (windows of opportunity) rather than as standard data with rigid interpretations. Scenario studies are particularly suitable to realize interdisciplinarity. Soil scientists should be alert to continuously expand and develop their own knowledge base and soil science expertise while being involved with interdisciplinary research so as to remain an interesting partner in the future. Educational programs in soil science should put more emphasis on the ability to communicate to users and colleagues.

Climate change is likely to have a major impact on agricultural production in Mediterranean regions, due to higher temperatures and lower water availability for irrigation. A Hybrid Land Evaluation System (HLES) is proposed allowing a comparison between plant demands on the one hand and estimated future temperatures and soil water regimes on the other. A storyline is followed for each plant species hybrid and each soil mapping unit in the area to be studied, starting with step 1: evaluation of thermal conditions, followed by step 2: a traditional empirical land evaluation procedure identifying limiting features that are not covered by crop simulation models (such as flooding, surface stones, salt). Step 3 applies the quantitative Soil–Water–Atmosphere–Plant (SWAP) model and calculates soil water regimes and associated productions, at 100%, 80%, and 60% hypothetical irrigation water availability. HLES was applied in the Destra Sele area in Italy, comparing two climates: “reference” (1961–1990) and “future” (2021–2050), studying 11 maize hybrids and showing that in future, 6 hybrids suffered severely at 80% water availability and 7 could not meet requirements at 60%. HLES allows a proactive approach to future water allocation issues and provides data for genetic modification studies in terms of defining hydrological conditions for sites of native plants and for areas where new hybrids are to be introduced. HLES presents options, to be explored in close interaction with users, rather than one-way judgments.

The hierarchial concept of land use planning becomes less relevant in a society with continuous interactions between stakeholders, researchers, planners and politicians. In this context, land use negotiation rather than land use planning appears to be the most appropriate concept. In the negotiation process, good quality data about the land is important as land properties are, obviously, key elements to be considered. Case studies at farm and regional level have been analysed to explore answers to a number of questions. How can soil data be presented most effectively? What are the research needs? How can the large existing body of data be mobilized most effectively? Studies on regional land use in Costa Rica used methods in a logical sequence including projections, explorations and predictions of land use patterns. The work involved upscaling of data, obtained at farm level, to the regional level. Work at farm level focussed on prototyping procedures in which farming systems were 'designed' by close interaction between farmers and scientists, including applications of precision agriculture. Soil data demands were analysed, emphasizing the effects of using data with different degrees of detail together with the application of pedotransfer functions which effectively transform existing data into parameters that are difficult or expensive to measure directly. This not only facilitated interactions with stakeholders but also with colleague scientists in interdisciplinary teams. In addition, use of Geographical Information Systems allowed visual presentations of alternative geographical land use patterns that were associated with various scenarios, thereby facilitating the interaction processes. A plea is made to increase interaction of stakeholders and researchers by considering research programmes as vehicles for joint learning.

Precision Agriculture is advancing but not as fast as predicted 5 years ago. The development of proper decision-support systems for implementing precision decisions remains a major stumbling block to adoption. Other critical research issues are discussed, namely, insufficient recognition of temporal variation, lack of whole-farm focus, crop quality assessment methods, product tracking and environmental auditing. A generic research programme for precision agriculture is presented. A typology of agriculture countries is introduced and the potential of each type for precision agriculture discussed.

Agricultural research deals with an extremely complex production system. Although a large variety of tools for the analysis of such systems have been developed, agricultural science has only been partially successful in providing solutions to farmers. Systems analysis often has been a synonym for quantitative, modeling exercises. Although these have led to a number of technological solutions for agricultural problems, the level of adoption of these solutions has been low because socioeconomic factors were lacking in the analysis. Farming systems approaches, on the other hand, included these socioeconomic conditions but failed to systematically apply the more technological tools. In this paper, we review the prototyping methodology that integrates participatory, socioeconomic approaches with a more technological approach. This prototyping methodology is composed of four major steps: (i) a thorough analysis of the farming system in close discussion with the farmer, (ii) the identification and execution of necessary biophysical and agronomic research, (iii) feedback of research results to the farmer and discussions on the implementation of the results, and (iv) the extension of the different solutions to other farms. This methodology has been applied for a Costa Rican banana (Musa spp.) plantation. Problems identified by the farmer were related to productivity, fertilization, and nematode control. Research made use of different approaches varying from monitoring of systems, analysis of problems related to productivity, experimentation to address fertility issues, and mechanistic simulation modeling for nematocide leaching. Research resulted in new prototypes of techniques to map banana yields, soil-specific fertilization, and nematode control.

Groundwater quality has been defined in terms of threshold values for nitrate (50 mg l −1 ) and pesticides (0.1 μg l −1 active substance). Variability in space and time, and cost and safety considerations have made it unattractive to verify water quality by repeated measurements. Proxy values have, therefore, been defined to characterise water quality. For nitrate, maximum allowable fertilisation rates have been specified and farmers have to apply the MINAS book-keeping system to keep track of their N-flows. For pesticides, listing of allowed pesticides functions as another proxy quality measure. Field tests and simulations on a Dutch farm demonstrated that water quality assessment using these proxy values does not correspond with direct assessment based on measurements and a comparison with the threshold values, which represent the true standard. A second problem is the generic character of the proxy methods, which do not reflect quite different nitrate and pesticide dynamics in different types of soil. These problems make the proxy approach quite problematic. We, therefore, propose the systematic introduction of information technology to be used for deriving soil-specific management practices that do not lead to an increase of the thresholds. Existing techniques for precision agriculture can be used, and the current registration of all parcels in The Netherlands in a geographical information system, including occurrence of different soil types, will be quite helpful. Such an information system on internet will allow better control than the current generic proxy systems and is likely to be quite motivating to farmers.

The impressive set of measuring, monitoring and modeling methodologies of soil physics is currently not being used to its full potential in inter- and transdisciplinary studies on major environmental problems. Suggestions are made to: (i) re-establish the knowledge chain, linking tacit knowledge to cutting edge science in both directions; (ii) make the scattered field of soil science research more visible to outsiders by focusing research on the seven soil functions, as defined in the Soil Protection Strategy of the Commission of the European Communities; (iii) better integrate the various subdisciplines of soil science where particular attention is suggested for hydropedology: soil physicists working together with pedologists; (iv) show the relevance of soil research by demonstrating its crucial input when defining strategic concepts, such as the Planetary Boundaries of Rockstrom; (iv) focus on specific case studies demonstrating the central role that soil science can play in studying and solving “wicked” environmental problems, and (v) be aware that considering business opportunities, as in the two case studies, can provide essential support to the scientific research effort.

WOS:000326897700018; International audience; Soil degradation is a critical and growing global problem. As the world population increases, pressure on soil also increases and the natural capital of soil faces continuing decline. International policy makers have recognized this and a range of initiatives to address it have emerged over recent years. However, a gap remains between what the science tells us about soil and its role in underpinning ecological and human sustainable development, and existing policy instruments for sustainable development. Functioning soil is necessary for ecosystem service delivery, climate change abatement, food and fiber production and fresh water storage. Yet key policy instruments and initiatives for sustainable development have under-recognized the role of soil in addressing major challenges including food and water security, biodiversity loss, climate change and energy sustainability. Soil science has not been sufficiently translated to policy for sustainable development. Two underlying reasons for this are explored and the new concept of soil security is proposed to bridge the science-policy divide. Soil security is explored as a conceptual framework that could be used as the basis for a soil policy framework with soil carbon as an exemplar indicator.

Precision agriculture (PA) has recently been defined by the U.S. National Research Council as a management strategy that uses information technologies to bring data from multiple sources to bear on decisions associated with crop production. Soil information is important here, but current soil survey data do not satisfy PA requirements. In this paper, the need for soil data in PA is discussed on the basis of Dutch research. Not only operational, but also tactical and strategic aspects are considered. On the operational level, soil data, including parameters derived with pedotransfer functions, support the use of simulation models to quantify dynamically soil water regimes, N transformations, and biocide adsorption. Real time forward-looking' simulations incorporated in early-warning systems assist in operational decisions on water, nutrient, and crop protection management. Backward-looking simulations, using historic weather data, can be used to evaluate different management tactics for exploratory strategic and tactical purposes. Such simulations should balance production and environmental requirements. At the strategic and tactical level, assembled data on the performance of various farm management systems should be grouped by soil series to build a systematic database, allowing quick and preliminary evaluations of the effects of farm management strategies based on experiences obtained elsewhere on similar soils.

Modelling of land use changes as a function of its biophysical and socio-economic driving forces provides insights into the extent and location of land use changes and its effects. The CLUE modelling framework is a methodology to model near future land use changes based upon actual and past land use conditions. This paper describes how changes in land use are allocated in the model. A statistical analysis of the quantitative relationships between the actual land use distribution and (potential) driving forces or proxies of these forces underlies the allocation procedure. Based upon thus derived multiple regression equations, areas with potential for increase or decrease in cover percentage of a certain land use type are identified. Actual allocation is modified by autonomous developments and competition between land use types. A multi-scale approach is followed to account for the scale dependencies of driving factors of land use change. This approach provides a balance between bottom-up effects as result of local conditions and top-down effects as result of changes at national and regional scales. The modelling approach is illustrated with examples of scenario simulations of land use change in Ecuador.

There is a general need for quantitative tools that can be used to support policy makers in regional rural development. Here, a framework for (sub-) regional land use analysis is presented that quantifies biophysical and economic sustainability trade-offs. The framework, called sustainable options for land use (SOLUS), was developed over a 10-year period of investigation in the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica and encompasses scale levels that range from field to region. SOLUS consists of technical coefficient generators to quantify inputs and outputs of production systems, a linear programming model that selects production systems by optimizing regional economic surplus, and a geographic information system. Biophysical and economic disciplines are integrated and various types of knowledge, ranging from empirical expert judgement to deterministic process models are synthesized in a systems-analytical manner. Economic sustainability indicators include economic surplus and labor employment, and biophysical ones include soil N, P and K balances, biocide use and its environmental impact, greenhouse gas emission and nitrogen leaching loss and volatilization. Land use scenarios can be implemented by varying properties of production inputs (e.g., prices), imposing sustainability restrictions in the optimization, and incorporating alternative production systems based on different technologies. Examples of application of SOLUS in the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica show that introduction of alternative technologies may result in situations that satisfy both economic as well as biophysical sustainability. On the other hand, negative trade-offs were found among different dimensions of biophysical sustainability themselves.

In a previous study, simulations of agricultural production potentials were made for different exploratory scenarios considering population growth, type of diet and low and high input agriculture. Results indicated that future world populations can be fed, but problems are likely in South Asia. The simulations involved gross generalizations for soil conditions. For example, possible effects of soil degradation were not expressed. The current study was made to explore the effects of the different types of soil degradation on agricultural production, using major soil groupings of the Humid Tropics and Seasonally Dry (Sub)Tropics as examples. Degradation (compaction, erosion and acidification) is expressed in terms of soil quality indicators relating potential to actual production. Results are characteristically different for different soil units (genoforms), and the suggestion is made to present such differences in future soil databases for phenoforms that express effects of different forms of degradation or improvement, allowing better assessments for exploratory land use scenarios. Field studies should be initiated to describe realistic phenoforms for any given genoform.

Major changes in land use may be anticipated in Europe in the decades to come as a result of technological, socio-economic and political developments as well as global environmental change. The type and effects of these changes will strongly depend on policy decisions which are governed, amongst others, by: (i) an increasing agricultural productivity; (ii) an increasing realization of the need to conserve bio-diversity and environmental quality for current and future generations; (iii) pressure from an increasingly urban population to emphasize non-agricultural forms of land use in terms of nature and landscape conservation; (iv) increasing market-driven demand for high quality produce made with environmentally friendly forms of management; and (v) increasing food demand on the world market as the world population doubles and purchasing powers increases, particularly in Asia. These developments occur now both in Eastern and Western Europe, even though historical developments during the last 50 years have been strikingly different in these two regions. Collectivization in Eastern Europe after World War II was associated with higher yields but also with unfavourable changes in land use and cropping patterns causing acidification, soil erosion, salinization and chemical pollution. The change to democracy in the late 1980s implied a change from an essentially quantity- to a more quality-oriented type of agriculture, like in Western Europe where an industrialized agriculture had also caused environmental problems. Emphasis is now being placed on rational land use, which includes optimization of farm size and the development and implementation of economically viable crop production techniques which result in high quality produce as well as limited adverse environmental side effects. However, these ideals are far from being realized. According to some studies, the technical possibilities of modern agriculture can theoretically in future provide an adequate volume of produce from only 30 to 50% of the current agricultural area in western Europe. This implies potential for other forms of land use in the remaining land area. However, other studies emphasizing low external input agriculture or extrapolation of historical trends, indicate that the current land area may be needed to produce adequate food, certainly when considering the future world market demand. This conclusion is also supported by the fact that theoretical production levels are often much higher than real levels, because of various agronomic and socio-economic factors. A major challenge for the decades ahead is to avoid uncontrolled developments of land use with possibly adverse socio-economic and environmental effects; the latter include the time-delayed release of harmful chemicals, currently held in some soils, into the environment and the enhanced emission of radiatively active trace gases from soils to atmosphere. Controlled developments yielding sustainable forms of agricultural land use in some areas and nature development in others, is to be preferred and should ideally be based on eco-regional approaches. The authors advocate initiation of comprehensive, exploratory studies for Europe in which sustainable production of major land units is defined as a function of different types of land management and in which Europe is seen as part of the world economy. Six exploratory studies are reviewed in this paper; however, none of these scenario studies has the necessary comprehensive character and none is based on adequate land data.

Soils play an important role in defining sustainable land-use options when facing major global environmental challenges such as food security, climate change, fresh water scarcity and biodiversity loss. Facing these problems, the 2006 EU Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (TSSP), provides an important focal point for soil research and awareness raising. Unfortunately, the TSSP has not yet been followed up with a legally binding Framework Directive mainly because of political barriers. Two approaches are discussed to overcome these barriers: First, we explore innovative ways to present soils and raise soil awareness. Soil information in terms of atlases, associated databases and interpretations, focusing on major environmental problems, is presented by the EU Joint Research Center (JRC) for Africa and South America using modern digital techniques and, particularly, a user-oriented approach. This contrasts with the traditional approach that is more soil-centred. Soil science has not yet effectively tapped the genuine and basic affinity of mankind with their soils. Therefore, more attention to local knowledge and management of soils is needed. Creating more awareness, by sharing experiences with various citizen groups, is also an effective mechanism to mobilize the political arena as is demonstrated by some German examples. Second, we show specific real-world examples as to the possible positive and innovative impact of the TSSP. An example is presented of Functional Soil Planning, based on maximizing soil functions at national and international level by customizing soil management at local level, balancing ‘supply’ and ‘demand’ by defining tradeoffs between conflicting functions. Finally, a case study for Scotland is presented dealing with EU policies for so-called: ‘Less Favoured Areas (LFA)’. The EU Court of Auditors required unified rules for the EU, while Scotland already had defined: ‘Areas of Natural Handicap’, as a basis for LFAs, emphasizing biophysical criteria. The ensuing discussions with the EU agencies illustrated the significance of the subsidiarity and proportionality principles, demonstrating that EU-wide rules and indicators could be fine-tuned and improved by considering local conditions. In both approaches, soil information is both key to the policies whilst at the same time the policies themselves provide excellent vehicles for awareness raising; a win-win situation.

Scientific institutions all over the world emphasize the importance of effective links between science and society when pursuing sustainable development thereby linking science and development. Unfortunately, the knowledge paradox implies that too much research is not applied, partly because the research community is still rather inward looking, creating a gap between what is written and what is achieved in practice. The Dutch government initiated, therefore, the large 6-year TransForum program to enhance innovation in agriculture, not allowing the regular research circuit to set the agenda. TransForum emphasized the relevance of connected value development when dealing with wicked problems associated with sustainable development, requiring a balance between the well-known people, planet, and profit aspects of sustainable development. Thus new and innovative 3P businesses were created through the sequence of value proposition, -creation, and -capture, together constituting connected value development. This required transdisciplinary interaction between knowledge institutions, entrepreneurs, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and governmental bodies working together on innovation (KENGi partners), each of these partners contributing different opinions, goals, and values. In this chapter, four case studies are used to illustrate that innovation was achieved by successively working together on value proposition, -creation, and -capture. Only the committed persistence of entrepreneurs supported by knowledge brokers and development of new business and organizational models ultimately led to the desired connected value development, representing a successful link between knowledge creation and societal appreciation. The process involved mobilization and strategic injection of various forms of tacit and scientific knowledge in the overall interaction process that often took more than 10 years to mature, requiring an important role for knowledge brokers with hard knowledge and social intelligence (“T-shaped skills”) as well as long-term funding. The development of value propositions needed much more attention than is usually provided. Research planning and management procedures as well as judgement procedures need to be adapted to fit transdisciplinary requirements. The cases demonstrate that the process of connected value development is unique for each project; there is no standard recipe. Track records of case studies, as presented, can be used in education as a learning tool to create awareness for possible opportunities as well as pitfalls in transdisciplinary studies.

Many research and scientific organizations emphasize the importance of science for society in their strategic plans. This is certainly true for land use studies being discussed in this chapter as new environmental policies are introduced at European and national level. Such policies reflect concerns of society so that a structural link between science and policymaking would appear to be logical and desirable. Rather than following traditional top‐down and disciplinary research approaches, emphasis is increasingly being placed on interactive, interdisciplinary work in Communities of Practice (CoPs) in which scientists work together with various stakeholders and policymakers in a joint learning mode. But this requires new research approaches including long‐term engagement during the entire policy cycle asking for a new attitude of scientists. Few experiences have been reported so far. Three Dutch case studies are therefore discussed to illustrate the functioning of CoPs by focusing on up‐ and downscaling (called multiscaling hereafter), a key element of land use research. Five types of multiscaling were used in the three case studies. Three were technical: (1) use of model‐ or design‐based (geo)statistical techniques, (2) extrapolation of data obtained from experimental plots to larger areas, and (3) use of quasi‐3D process models to upscale grid data in a Geographic Information System (GIS) to regions. Two were policy oriented: (1) nutrient balances for farms to allow upscaling from fields to farm and (2) a research framework for regions, based on the DPSIR approach, which sequentially covers aspects mentioned in environmental laws as being important for sustainable development. Quite diverse and unrelated questions about land use issues by different members of the CoP cannot be a fruitful basis for research programs. Scientists have therefore an important role to play within a CoP in orchestrating a demand analysis that puts questions into context and defines existing knowledge as well as knowledge gaps. Defining research on the basis of a demand analysis in a CoP creates innovative ideas, creates commitment of participants, and allows definition of needed research that is functional. This includes cutting edge research publishable in literature and requires for land use studies updating of valuable existing soil survey information to a level that can be used in modern modeling techniques including functional characterization of soil series, development of pedotransfer functions, and definition of phenoforms. Particular attention is needed for introducing modern monitoring techniques for soil and water because the high cost of traditional methods implies that little monitoring is done now with detrimental effects for the calibration and validation of simulation models that increasingly secure a live of their own. The scientific community needs to take a fresh look at its paradigms. Next to the establishment of CoPs, we therefore advocate development of Communities of Scientific Practice (CSP) within the research community that define different functions for members of the scientific community in terms of (1) communication within CoPs by shaping the demand analysis and to the outside world and (2) defining research needs and its execution, using knowledge chains including basic research.

Precision agriculture aims at adjusting and fine-tuning land and crop management to the needs of plants within heterogeneous fields. Production aspects have to be balanced against environmental threshold values and modern information technology has made it possible to devise operational field systems. A reactive approach is described, using yield maps and sensors. A proactive approach uses simulation modelling of plant growth and solute fluxes to predict optimal timing of management practices. Precision agriculture, combining both approaches, is seen as making a major contribution towards the development of sustainable agricultural production systems.

The EU Commission has proposed a way forward towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection based on the distinction of seven soil functions and eight threats. A Technical Working Group on Research defined some 200 general priority research areas in the context of the dynamic DPSIR approach considering drivers, pressures, states, impacts and responses. Though quite valuable as a source document, this may be too generic and academic to be a starting point for new, effective soil research in different regions of the EU. A six-step storyline procedure is therefore proposed aimed at deriving effective operational procedures for a water management unit in a given region, using available soil expertise and defining new research only where needed. The procedure, that was illustrated for a Dutch case study, consists of defining: (i) water management units (wmu's) in a landscape context; (ii) land-use, area hydrology and soil functions (iii) soil threats and relevant soil qualities; (iv) drivers of land-use change and their future impact; (v) improvement of relevant soil qualities; (vi) possibilities to institutionalize soil quality improvement as part of the EU soil protection strategy. A focus on regional wmu's is likely to result in a strong commitment of local stakeholders and governmental officials, allowing a more specific DPSIR approach. But this will only work if local officials also receive legal powers to develop and enforce codified `good practices¿, to be developed in the context of communities of practice. Innovative research topics can be derived from a combined analysis of experiences within different communities of practice in different wmu's and should not be left to researchers to define.

Soil science is a vital scientific discipline producing cutting-edge research in its various sub-disciplines. Its role in studying major environmental issues, often defined as food security, water and energy availability, climate change and biodiversity loss, is, however, less obvious to stakeholders, policy makers and the public at large. It deserves better. Reframing the soil story by taking a pro-active interdisciplinary approach in demonstrating the role of soils when studying these issues is advocated in the context of the ten Sustainable Development Goals. Soil change matters not only in a negative way when referring to erosion and degradation but also, and particularly, to soil improvement. But only successfully completed programs in practice will be convincing and that's why an active role of soil researchers and soil scientists, acting as knowledge brokers, is advocated in transdisciplinary programs. This includes more emphasis on preparation and implementation than is allowed in current programs. A case study is presented and a narrative is used to link the five major environmental issues in a logical sequence, showing their interdependence. Current soil research and education programs should reflect demands made by inter- and transdisciplinary approaches and need a new, fresh approach.

Publisher Summary Science and technology in situ has changed its course along with social and economic developments. Although it has not always been beneficial to human beings, civilization has got the required mileage to drive information, culture, resources, and wealth throughout the world from one era to another. The awareness of soil goes right back to the start of our civilization. The ‘‘true’’ soil has been the favorite domain of the soil scientist, using ever more sophisticated methods to measure soil characteristics and to characterize dynamic soil processes. This has greatly expanded the knowledge about soils and been a major contribution to society at large as this knowledge was applied in many products and services. Effects of land use are difficult to predict in the same quantitative and unique manner in which, for example, a Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) can be predicted because conditions are so diverse. There is no single magic answer to any given land‐use question because many stakeholders are involved with widely varying interests. The soil scientist should try to define the ‘‘true’’ soil as well as possible but should be modest and know his limits. Soil scientists have a major handicap: soils occur underground and are invisible except when excavated. Plants and animals are highly visible, at least partly explaining the viability of policies enforcing biodiversity. There are efforts now to define soil‐charters and the EU is working on soil policies.

The Netherlands has attempted to follow EU guidelines in developing national policies to reduce pollution of groundwater by nitrates originating from (over) fertilized agricultural land. The EU has not been satisfied with these policies and this is resulting in legal conflicts. National policies have focused on nitrogen budgeting and on fertilization rates, over-simplifying the crucial role of soils during the leaching of nitrates to groundwater. As an alternative, a dynamic approach using simulation modeling is introduced as is illustrated for a study area in the Netherlands. A number of considerations for future policy directions are suggested, including requirements for research: (i) promotion of research aimed at improving and maintaining nutrient use efficiency at farm level; (ii) promotion of joint learning experiences between farmers and researchers, where farmers' organizations could act as "research consortia"; (iii) emphasis on site and time specific management (precision agriculture) in policy development, and provision of site-specific advice via modem information and communication technologies; (iv) clearer guidelines for groundwater monitoring procedures, including additional monitoring at greater depths and consideration of groundwater quality from an appropriate regional perspective; (v) groundwater monitoring should take place at locations selected according to specific hydro-geological characteristics, rather than being executed at random and (vi) clear goals that are defined within existing and future policies at EU and international level, should allow for regional differentiation in indicators; these being the outcome of negotiations between farmers or their representatives, policy makers and researchers. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In the 1970s and 1980s much progress has been made in studying agricultural production systems by using simulation modelling of agronomic processes. The International Benchwork Sites Network for Agrotechnology Transfer (IBSNAT) group in the USA and the group around Professor Kees De Wit in Wageningen were active in this new area of research which created an important ‘niche’ within the agricultural sciences because of its integrative, interdisciplinary character and its focus on quantitative, process-based approaches. A first joint scientific meeting of the two groups was held in Bangkok in 1991 (SAAD1 conference: Systems Analysis for Agricultural Development). At the SAAD2 conference at IRRI in 1995, in which also other groups took part, notably the Agricultural Production Systems Research Unit (APSRU) group from Australia, the International Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications (ICASA) was established as a forum for researchers engaged in the study of agricultural systems at different spatial scales ranging from fields, farms to regions and beyond. The ICASA is an informal network with a focus on three major activities: (1) sharing experiences and joint development of compatible software allowing more widespread use of models having been developed by various member groups; (2) organization of joint courses on different aspects of dynamic modelling of agricultural production systems. There is an increasing interest in such courses, also in developing countries, and local researchers increasingly take an active part in them; and (3) joint research on projects dealing with dynamic characterization of agronomic production systems at different spatial scales. ICASA researchers take part in eco-regional methodology development, through projects that are funded by the Dutch and Swiss governments, with ISNAR acting as the administrative agency. ICASA intends to be an effective platform on which researchers, stakeholders and policy makers can interact.

Many soil scientists feel that their expertise is not being used sufficiently when politicians, interdisciplinary research teams, and various other stakeholders address modern environmental and land-use issues. However, taking a proactive rather than a reactive approach and developing and presenting their expertise in a more productive manner would be a more effective response. This requires innovative approaches. To cope better with conditions in our modern network society, soil scientists must learn to listen to and to communicate with their stakeholders, but, more importantly, they must also learn to present their expertise in a flexible manner and, from the beginning, become thoroughly engaged in settings of joint learning and negotiation.

Environmental and market constraints are increasingly restraining the banana sector in Costa Rica. This chapter reports on the development of a decision support system to enhance a more environment- friendly and economically viable production of banana. The system has been developed in close cooperation with a banana producer and the National Banana Corporation (CORBANA; CORporacion BAnanera NAcional). The system is based on the principles of precision agriculture, a practice that is being promoted as an alternative form of land management resulting in an economically feasible and environmentally friendly type of agriculture. In precision agriculture spatial and temporal variation in cropping conditions govern farm management. The objective is to obtain maximum quantities of high quality produce without exceeding threshold values of certain environmental indicators. Although precision agriculture is often based on advanced equipment, information technology and deterministic simulation models, in tropical environments and for perennial crops advanced equipment and simulation models are not always available. The decision support system that has been developed is therefore based on information technology in combination with the knowledge of the owner and manager of the farm. Yield maps are being created and linked to other available information for the plantation, including detailed soil maps. Next, areas are identified that have a relatively low production compared to their potential. On the basis of additional analysis, crop management for those sites is modified.

A long history of increases in population pressure in Java has caused agricultural land use to expand and intensify. More recent land use changes caused the conversion of prime agricultural land into residential and industrial area. Results of a dynamic, regional-scale, land use change model are presented, defining the spatial distribution of these land use changes. The model is based on multi-scale modelling of the relations between land use and socio-economic and biophysical determinants. Historical validation showed that the model can adequately simulate the pattern of land use change. Future patterns of land use change between 1994 and 2010 are simulated assuming further urbanization. The results suggest that most intensive land use changes will occur in Java's lowland areas.

During the 1994 International Congress of soil science in Mexico, a special session was devoted to the future of soil science. This session resulted in a statement on proposed activities to: “Seize opportunities for soil science and its applications in the 21st century” [2]. Some key elements of this statement refer to broadening of soil science constituents beyond traditional agricultural patterns and expansion of the focus of soil science to include ecosystem management, sustainability of the biosphere, environmental protection and the urban environment. A more holistic interdisciplinary approach to soil systems was proposed and it was advocated that a definition of soil quality be established, because soil quality is identified as a key indicator of environmental health. To obtain a state-of-the-art picture of interdisciplinary research in the context of soil quality and to inspire future research activities, three working groups of the ISSS have organized a workshop with integrated case studies on soil and water quality, with special emphasis on scale aspects. The title of the workshop was, therefore: “Soil and water quality at different scales”. In this paper some relevant definitions will be presented and the general scope of the problem being considered will be discussed. Also, major conclusions and recommendations of the workshop will be presented.