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Educational travel provides opportunities for participants to explore specific issues in unconventional ways. In Hungary, primary and secondary schools organise annual study trips as part of their curricula. The aim of these trips is to familiarise students with the main sights of the country, and to bring to life national narratives discussed in lessons. Furthermore, these trips often play a key role in students’ socio-psychological development, both as future tourism consumers and as future citizens. Recognising the opportunity to influence students’ worldview and way of thinking during their sensitive teenage years, the Hungarian government has created a national programme to financially support school trips organised to visit minority Hungarian communities living in the neighbouring countries. This paper is based on the content analysis of 256 detailed reports submitted by participants of school trips organised in 2013/14 with the aim to visit Hungarian minority communities in the Carpathian Basin. The analysis focuses on the detailed descriptions of the participants’ personal memories of their experiences, the social construction of the visited destinations, and the influences of their memorable experiences on their sense of national identity. The research disclosed that the trips made to Hungarian territories outside the borders contributed to shaping the national sentiment of the students participating in the programme. The findings suggest that participation in tourism is an effective means to experience nationhood and national identity, by financially supporting school trips abroad, the state is able to exert political influence over national consciousness.

Volunteers are indispensable in the organization of international mega sport events. Their activity is really important not only during these world-level meetings, but also after the competition has ended, as they play an important role in furthering the life of the events and in maintaining interest in the host location. Although the practice of volunteering in Hungary is still in its infancy, its social status and popularity are developing dynamically. The 2017 FINA Championships in Budapest is considered to be a milestone in the evolution of Hungarian volunteer work. The volunteers took part in a variety of roles in order to facilitate the biggest international event in “water sports”. During the two-week-long competition, more than 3500 volunteers from more than 560 towns and cities provided their help enthusiastically to ensure that everything was perfect both for the athletes and the tourists. After the conclusion of the championships we conducted an online questionnaire and more than 400 volunteers filled the online form. As part of this research we were looking to answer how and in what capacity the volunteers played a role in tourism in the Hungarian capital. Our results showed that during the championships volunteers not only acted as tourists themselves, but also contributed significantly to world-of-mouth marketing, and were both the users of the different services being provided, and producers of an image of Budapest. In March of 2018 we conducted a second investigation and asked the volunteers once again to measure and compare the changes in their attitude about volunteer work.

Young adults spend most of their leisure time in the company of their smartphones. Drawing on the theory of digital well-being and on the concept of psychological sustainability, our aim is to investigate the relationship between digitalization-dominated leisure-time consumption to identify the aggregated roles of smartphones. We suggest that smartphones play different roles in young adults’ daily life. To test our predictions, we used a qualitative method, a two-day time-use diary with structured interviews, two sample groups were recruited for data gathering. The results of the content analysis and of the qualitative sentiment analysis show that mobile devices have a marked agenda-setter function, along with the functions of ‘separator’ and ‘enabler’. The use of smartphones leads to idleness and perceived timelessness while staying physically immobile. Results expand our knowledge on the aggregated role of smartphones in young adults’ activities. Wider society can benefit from the research findings, stimulating young adults to acknowledge the aggregated roles and functions of their smartphones and to develop their digital well-being.

The relationship between urban planning and tourism consumption is presented through one of the most attractive and popular districts of Budapest (District VII). Budapest is the capital city of Hungary and has a population of 1.7 million inhabitants making it one of the largest metropolitan regions in Central Eastern Europe. Budapest is typical of many other post-socialist cities in that its urban development process has followed a somewhat different trajectory from many Western European cities until recently, for example the relatively slow rate of gentrification in the post-socialist years. The paper will focus in particular on one central district of the city (VII) which currently contains a high concentration of hospitality and entertainment facilities (especially ‘ruin pubs’) and attracts a large numbers of tourists. The planning and development history of the district will be explained, including many controversies and conflicts which have arisen over the years. In addition to analysing the ...

The study aims to explore settlements involved in the so-called invisible tourism (i.e. not recorded by statistics) within urban agglomerations, by analyzing holiday function vs accommodation (hotel) turnover. We selected settlements with recreation function using the 2001 census and the 2002–2014 TeIR (Spatial Information System of Hungary) data, and analyzed discrepancies between tourism supply and demand in urban agglomerations involving 2015 data of Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH). There is a lack of studies about mobility generated by leisure, recreation and tourist activities inside urban agglomerations especially in terms of the relationship between the urban core and the settlements on the fringe providing “rural experiences”. While statistics record mostly tourism in the urban core, invisible tourism is typical to the satellite where the secondary home owners and the daily hikers/excursionists do not register accommodation. This research aims to identify the relationship between conventional (i.e. registered) and invisible tourism and the differences between selected Hungarian regional centers in this respect. While the Budapest agglomeration – the largest urban agglomeration in Hungary – provides the most advanced tourism infra- and suprastructure based on the difference between the urban and rural milieus, we can also trace similar processes in other regional urban centers. The comparison of second homes stock (weekend houses) and tourism flow data sets showed strong correlation for Pecs and Miskolc agglomerations. In the former case, Orfű, while in the latter, Bukkszentkereszt represents the symbiosis of conventional (registered) and invisible tourism. In the cases of Győr and Budapest agglomerations, we did not find such overlappings. On the other hand, Szentendre (within the Budapest agglomeration) represents the archetype of invisible tourism: it has a high unrecorded tourist turnover coupled with an oversupply of registered accommodations and few registered hotel nights combined with a high number of second homes. Tourist attractions, generating one-day trips, do not generate a weekend house belt but nature, waterfronts and a rural milieu can be a base for second homes within an urban agglomeration.

The study offers a short geographical overview of migration studies and theories, doing so in the context of the European migration crisis of 2015–2016. It outlines the history of international migrations affecting Europe (immigration, emigration, migration within Europe and between countries) and the demographic effects of such migration on the present European population. It then analyses and examines the global and regional causes of recent migration to Europe (the European Economic Area, EEA), the countries of origin of the migrants, the main routes of migration, and the destination areas in Europe. As far as intercontinental migration is concerned, Europe was characterised by emigration between the 16th and mid-20th centuries (partly in consequence of colonisation) and mainly by immigration thereafter. Immigration has principally affected Western Europe, the more developed part of the continent. In consequence of post-World War II reconstruction, dynamic economic development, local labour shortages, and the decolonisation process, Western Europe received many migrants, initially from the Mediterranean region and subsequently (i.e. after the collapse of communism in 1989–1990) from the post communist European countries. Meanwhile, the core areas of the EEA became the main destination for migrants coming from predominantly Muslim regions in Asia and Africa (SW Asia, Muslim Africa). This decades-old process has recently accelerated and now constitutes mass migration. The global and regional causes of such intercontinental migration in the sending areas are as follows: the population boom, economic backwardness, unemployment, growing poverty, climate change, desertification, negative ecological changes, global political rivalries and local power changes (e.g. the Arab Spring, 2011), growing political instability, wartime destruction, multiple and cumulative crises, general hopelessness and despair.

The range of components involved in the construction of tourist expectations and the influence these expectations generate on consumer satisfaction have been analyzed by tourism and marketing researchers. However, the causes and consequences of negative emotions such as disappointment seem to be neglected. Tourists' high expectations should be met not only by the services sector, but also by the tourism destination itself. Service insufficiency, or the failure of the travel experience, along with other risk factors may lead to tourists' dissatisfaction. This paper aims to create a better understanding of negative emotional attributes related to tourism destinations by investigating the causes, factors, and consequences of tourists' disappointment by developing a model of the phenomenon. This paper offers practical implications for destination managers and discusses how the causes of disappointment might be eliminated, or minimized, and that tourists can be compensated for disappointing experiences.

The article provides a valuable insight into understanding brand equity and its elements that endows the destination with a unique character. Using empirical data, the study seeks to identify potential brand equity items of a destination type, namely waterside area (Lake Balaton, Hungary). The innovative approach of the research is its holistic view, because it integrates the customer-based brand equity with stakeholders’ (including media and tourism professionals) perceptions. This enables a complex understanding of the researched topic, the conclusions are summarized in the Five-Stage Brand Pyramid model. The results highlight four main dimension of the brand equity: (1) the fundamental role of destination specific (waterside in this case) attributes, (2) the country of origin elements (emotional and rational benefits of domestic travel in this case), (3) the tourism products/activities, and (4) the emotional dimension. Furthermore, the research also identifies some important gap between demand and supply side. The research resulted important theoretical (structure of brand equity, need for a complex methodology) and practical (strong emotional perceptions of consumers, comprehensive analysis of tourism products/activities) implications that can be scope of further researches.

Labour mobility in the hospitality industry involves a wide range of affective processes. Emotional responses in challenging situations for migrant hospitality workers significantly affect their social interactions and working efficiency. This paper explores the impact of emotions upon hospitality employees’ evaluation of their experiences while working in the UK. The empirical research focussed on hospitality employees’ emotions and perceptions about the host country in the different phases of migration. Further, migrants’ adjustment capacities and emotional responses in challenging situations were analysed. In 2011, 78 semi-structured interviews were conducted with Hungarians who had post-accession working experience in the hospitality industry in London, UK. Results suggest that migrant hospitality employees’ emotional responses related to the mismatch between anticipated and lived experiences have a key role in social interactions and on their working efficiency. The practical implications of this study are for recruiting agencies and hospitality industry employers on how to alleviate migrant workers’ emotional difficulties and how to enhance their working efficiency.

The Hungarian society is involved in shopping tourism both at international and national levels. For domestic and cross-border day trips, shopping has been a leading travel motivation for many years. In addition to the seductive shopping environments of discount stores, hypermarkets and shopping malls, the retail sector aims to stimulate and widen travelrelated demand by introducing alternative sales methods. One such method, outside the domain of retail outlets, is the TV-shop-style “sales show” or “product demonstration” that usually takes place in restaurants or in community spaces. In order to increase the number of participants, the companies organising product-demonstration shows usually combine these directly salesoriented events with domestic or cross-border day trips. Using the method of content analysis of promotional flyers distributed through letterboxes, this study explores the world of sales show trips. The analysis of 339 leaflets collected between 2006 and 2011 aims to demonstrate that these trips – presented as attractive travel opportunities and targeting mainly the senior-citizen segment – are, in fact, methods of sales promotion that are also included in the notion of “invisible tourism” in Hungary. Our research has proved the hypothesis that in these trips, the “travel function” is secondary, merely meant to create the illusion of escaping one’s mundane life and to move participants to an unfamiliar space where they are more likely to make hasty, less deliberated decisions, culminating, eventually, in purchasing the products on show. However, despite the fact that the visited destinations mainly act as stages for the process of product selling, and travel may be considered a “pseudo-tourist experience”, these trips do help participants learn more about the Carpathian basin, and increase the turnover of domestic tourist and leisure companies. It should also be noted that, in addition to their economic role, these trips fulfil a specific social tourism mission, too, providing some travel and community experience for their least wealthy, usually retired participants.

As a consequence of the disappearance of inner borders within the EU, it is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish migrants from tourists. These two forms of international mobility often overlap one another, so their real volumes cannot be measured easily. The hypothesis of this paper is that new mobile people go on a journey searching not only for tourist experiences, but also with the aim of finding new niches (homes) in which living standards and living conditions make them happy and satisfied. The exploration of niches (settlements as homes in this contribution) is in the focus of attention of both migrants and tourists. In the paper we are concentrating on one of the new phenomena situated in the blurred border zone between migration and tourism, with special emphasis on the theoretical aspects. The foreign real estate purchasers arriving at Hungary will be examined in the territorial level of settlements and efforts are to be made to explore the spatial characteristics of foreign purchasers and their specific activities in Hungary. The spatial pattern of foreign purchases is investigated in relation to the citizenship of the owners.