Search

Air pollution is a global challenge, and especially urban areas are particularly affected by acute episodes. Traditional approaches used to mitigate air pollution primarily consider the technical aspects of the problem but not the role of citizen behaviour and day-to-day practices. ClairCity, a Horizon 2020 funded project, created an impact assessment framework considering the role of citizen behaviour to create future scenarios, aiming to improve urban environments and the wellbeing and health of its inhabitants. This framework was applied to six pilot cases: Bristol, Amsterdam, Ljubljana, Sosnowiec, Aveiro Region and Liguria Region, considering three-time horizons: 2025, 2035 and 2050. The scenarios approach includes the Business As Usual (BAU) scenario and a Final Unified Policy Scenarios (FUPS) established by citizens, decision-makers, local planners and stakeholders based on data collected through a citizen and stakeholder co-creation process. Therefore, this paper aims to present the ClairCity outcomes, analysing the quantified impacts of selected measures in terms of emissions, air quality, population exposure, and health. Each case study has established a particular set of measures with different levels of ambition, therefore different levels of success were achieved towards the control and mitigation of their specific air pollution problems. The transport sector was the most addressed by the measures showing substantial improvements for NO2, already with the BAU scenarios, and overall, even better results when applying the citizen-led FUPS scenarios. In some cases, due to a lack of ambition for the residential and commercial sector, the results were not sufficient to fulfil the WHO guidelines. Overall, it was found in all cities that the co-created scenarios would lead to environmental improvements in terms of air quality and citizens’ health compared to the baseline year of 2015. However, in some cases, the health impacts were lower than air quality due to the implementation of the measures not affecting the most densely populated areas. Benefits from the FUPS comparing to the BAU scenario were found to be highest in Amsterdam and Bristol, with further NO2 and PM10 emission reductions around 10%–16% by 2025 and 19%–28% by 2050, compared to BAU.

The lockdown enforced by the UK Government to prevent the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to an unparalleled reduction in traffic volumes and significant drop in nitrogen dioxide concentrations in most cities, although the picture emerging from residential emissions of particulate matter (PM 10and PM 2.5) is more complex. The scale and degree of the intervention have exposed the level of change required to reduce pollution. Learning from the COVID-19 crisis, we identify three challenges that must be overcome to improve air quality in cities. First, what measures would be effective that balance civil liberties with enforcement action on air pollution? Second, how do we consolidate the cultural change needed to retain and normalise the social practices driving the observed pollution reduction? Third, how do we tackle these challenges in a way that breaks current patterns of socio-economic, health and environmental inequality?.

Elevated urban Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) is a consequence of road traffic and other fossil-fuel combustion sources, and the road transport sector provides a significant contribution to UK NO2 emissions. The inhalation of traffic-related air pollution, including NO2, can cause a range of problems to human health. Due to their developing organs, children are particularly susceptible to the negative effects of air pollution inhalation. Accordingly, schools and associated travel behaviours present an important area of study for the reduction of child exposure to these harmful pollutants. COVID-19 reached the UK in late January 2020. On the 23rd of March that year, the UK government announced a nationwide stay-at-home order, or lockdown, banning all non-essential travel and contact with people outside of their own homes. The lockdown was accompanied by the closure of schools, public facilities, amenities, businesses and places of worship. The current study aims to assess the significance of nationwide NO2 reductions at schools in England as a consequence of the lockdown in order to highlight the benefits of associated behavioural changes within the context of schools in England and potential child exposure. NO2 data were collected from all AURN (Automatic Urban and Rural Network) monitoring sites within 500 m of nurseries, primary schools, secondary schools and colleges in England. A significant reduction of mean NO2 concentrations was observed in the first month of the UK lockdown at background (−35.13%) and traffic (−40.82%) sites. Whilst lockdown restrictions are undoubtedly unsustainable, the study results demonstrate the possible reductions of NO2 at schools in England and potential reductions of child exposure that are achievable when public behaviours shift towards active travel, work from home policies and generally lower use of polluting vehicles., Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image

The success of water and energy smart metering is highly contingent on a successful communication strategy. We report on the findings from a qualitative study involving discourse analysis of customer messaging and focus groups with utility professionals. Discourse analysis suggests that the primary framings applied are "control", "convenience and "savings". Focus groups revealed paradoxes contained in these framings as the participants associate metering with the loss of control over private data, inconvenience during the installation process, and lack of financial gains if customers’ lifestyles cannot support “smart” decisions. Future communications should be tailored to the values and needs of consumers.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present results from the action research project, where sustainability professionals, local businesses and academic researchers collaborated on exploring barriers for food waste recycling in SMEs food outlets in order to inform local policy and business practices in Bristol, UK. Design/methodology/approach The researchers conducted face-to-face, qualitative surveys of 79 catering businesses in three diverse areas of the city. The action research methodology was applied, where a range of co-researchers contributed towards study design and review. Findings The research reveals the main barriers to recycling and how such perceptions differ depending on whether the respondents do or do not recycle, with “convenience” and “cost” being the main issue according to the already recycling participants. On the other hand, participants who do not recycle state that their main reason is “not enough waste” and “lack of space”. Practical implications Participants recommended a range of measures, which could improve the current food waste services in Bristol. For example, they suggest that business engagement should address the barriers voiced by the participants applying the framings used by them, rather than assuming restaurants and cafes are not aware of the issue. By inviting a variety of non-academic stakeholders into the process of research design and analysis, the project addressed the imbalances in knowledge production and policy design. Originality/value Despite the local and qualitative focus of this paper, the results and research methodology could act as a useful guide for conducting food waste action research in the policy context.

Technological approaches to carbon emission and air pollution data modelling consider where the issues are located and what is creating emissions. This paper argues that more focus should be paid to people—the drivers of vehicles or households burning fossil fuels (‘Who’) and the reasons for doing so at those times (‘Why’). We applied insights from social psychology (social identity theory and social cognitive theory) to better understand and communicate how people’s everyday activities are a cause of climate change and air pollution. A new method for citizen-focused source apportionment modelling and communication was developed in the ClairCity project and applied to travel data from Bristol, U.K. This approach enables understanding of the human dimension of vehicle use to improve policymaking, accounting for demographics (gender or age groups), socio-economic factors (income/car ownership) and motives for specific behaviours (e.g., commuting to work, leisure, shopping, etc.). Tailored communications for segmented in-groups were trialled, aiming to connect with group lived experiences and day-to-day behaviours. This citizen-centred approach aims to make groups more aware that ‘people like me’ create emissions, and equally, ‘people like me’ can take action to reduce emissions.

This paper critically reviews United Kingdom (UK) air quality policy in relation to European and Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) responsibilities over the last 20 years. The arguments articulated in this paper highlight the gulf between national and local air quality management in the UK, including differences in legislation, legal responsibilities, scales of operation, monitoring and modelling requirements, exceedence reporting and action planning. It is argued that local authorities cannot be held responsible for the UK’s failure to achieve the European Union (EU) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) limit values due to fundamental differences between local government responsibilities under LAQM and the UK compliance assessment reporting to the EU. Furthermore, unambitious and counterproductive national policies and the failure of EU light-duty vehicle type approval tests and Euro standards to reduce real-world emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the main reasons for continued NO2 limit value exceedences. This failure of EU and national air quality policies has effectively undermined local authority action to improve local air quality, resulting in delays in achieving the standards, wasted resources at local and national levels, and, ultimately, unnecessary loss of life and increased morbidity in the UK population. This paper concludes that the current emphasis that the UK government is placing on implementation of Clean Air Zones (CAZs) to achieve the Ambient Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC) (AAQD), and avoid substantial fines imposed by the European Court of Justice (CJEU), is flawed. Based on the arguments presented in this paper, a series of recommendations is proposed for the European Union, the UK government, devolved administrations and local authorities.

Background Outdoor air pollution is a significant public health problem. The UK Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime is intended to protect public health through a prescribed process of assessment and collaborative action. Despite its intention and underpinning principles, public health bodies and specialists do not interact with or support LAQM as much as they could or should. This study aimed to explore and understand this disconnect, to inform action that can resolve problems and maximise public health integration, collaboration and impact in this important public health work. Methods The Delphi technique was used to elicit multiple viewpoints from a range of experts on this complex problem in Wales, UK. Over three iterative feedback-interspersed survey rounds, 86 expert panellists generated opinions and formed consensus on the role of public health bodies and specialists in LAQM and the added value that might be achieved as a result of increased integration and collaboration. Linked opportunities, barriers and solutions were also described. Qualitative data were subject to thematic analysis; quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics to assess consensus, and the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test to assess response stability. Results Consensus opinion confirmed the public health role in LAQM should support both broader mainstream risk assessment and management, and also enabling functions such as communications, research and evidence appraisal, advocacy and leadership. Linked opportunities, barriers and solutions were described so as to facilitate change. Panellists suggested that the added value of increasing integration and collaboration would be more efficient, creative and productive collaboration, meaningful risk assessments and effective action. Conclusions The significant role of public health in LAQM is rarely recognised or realised. The findings of this study present a convincing evidence-based case for directing and supporting much-needed change to LAQM so as to increase public health integration, collaboration and impact. Not only has this study generated new evidence to enhance LAQM policy and practice, it has also confirmed the applicability of the Delphi method in investigating complex environmental public health problems. While some opinions generated relat to Wales’ unique circumstances, most were general in context and will have relevance and importance across the UK and in countries beyond where air quality management and public health policy and practice are disconnected.

With growing global demand for food, the agriculture sector worldwide is under pressure to intensify and expand, risking acceleration of existing negative biodiversity impacts. Agriculture is the dominant source of ammonia (NH3) emissions, which can impact biodiversity directly through dry deposition as NH3 and by wet deposition following conversion to ammonium (NH4) in the atmosphere. Nitrogen deposition is one of the leading causes of global decline in biodiversity alongside changing land use and climate. Natura 2000 sites which are intended to protect important habitats and species across Europe, require strict levels of protection to ensure designated features achieve favourable conservation status. Many of these sites are nitrogen-limited, and/or contain sensitive species such as lichens or mosses. This project carried out ambient NH3 monitoring on selected Irish Natura 2000 sites, in order to establish potential impacts from agricultural NH3. Monitoring on twelve Natura 2000 sites observed concentrations ranging from 0.47 to 4.59 μg NH3 m−3, from which dry deposition was calculated to be 1.22–11.92 kg N ha−1 yr−1. European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) was used to quantify wet deposited NH4 and nitrogen oxides (NOx), in addition to dry deposited NOx on monitored sites. Estimated total nitrogen deposition ranged between 5.93 and 17.78 kg N ha−1 yr−1. On average across all monitored sites, deposition was comprised of 50.4%, 31.7%, 7.5%, and 10.3% dry NH3, wet NH4, dry NOx and wet NOx respectively. Implications for Irish agriculture are discussed in the light of both this monitoring and the European Commission Dutch Nitrogen Case (C 293/17 & C 294/17), highlighting a number of recommendations to aid compliance with the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).

© 2016 WIT Press, www.witpress.com. This paper explores the challenges, opportunities and progress made with managing air quality since the United Kingdom parliament passed the Clean Air Act, 1956. It seeks to identify the factors contributing to successful management of air quality and the factors that have acted, or continue to do so, as barriers to progress. The public health catastrophe of the 1952 London Smog created the political momentum for the 1956 Act to be passed. The nature of the contemporary air pollution challenge is reviewed in terms of the public health burden, the economic cost and the governmental response. The contemporary response is considered inadequate for the scale and intensity of the problem.

Hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’, involves the extraction of natural gas from shale formations deep underground using vertical and horizontal drilling technologies and vast quantities of chemically treated water injected into the wells under high pressure. Although commercial fracking has been underway in the USA since the 1990s, the industry is in its infancy elsewhere in the world. Rapid increases in gas production in the US have spurred interest in countries as far flung as the UK, China, Poland, Argentina and South Africa, although there is much uncertainty over potential gains and the environmental costs of the new technology (Buchan, 2013; European Commission, 2012a). In the UK, there are currently no companies actively fracking but several are undertaking exploratory drilling, and many policymakers, academics, environmental activists and energy industry specialists feel that the UK could be on the edge of a ‘fracking boom’. Some see fracking as a potential energy bonanza ensuring the UK’s energy security well into the future, while others fear that it could bring significant harm to the environment and public health. In this article, we explore several dimensions of these uncertainties generally, and assess specifically some of the implications for the UK water environment. We also suggest ways in which the UK could learn from the experiences of fracking in the USA.

The UK’s Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime is designed to protect people’s health from the ill-effects of air pollution, but it is failing to achieve its full potential. The Public Health aspects of, perspectives on, and integration and engagement in, LAQM have been poorly considered to date. This critical literature review assessed LAQM-related strengths and limitations in order to explore how Public Health, through greater integration and engagement, can add value to the regime. ‘Structure’ and ‘process’ weaknesses were identified, including: a poorly defined Public Health role, a narrowly-scoped prescribed process, risk assessment uncertainties, ineffective communications, shallow evaluations and disconnected policies. Separately and cumulatively, these have hindered Public Health integration in LAQM policy and practice and stunted the regime's evolution. Engaging Public Health in LAQM future design and delivery can help solve these problems, by improving risk assessments and raising awareness of air pollution and other health-influencing relationships, targeting action in high-need areas, coordinating air pollution mitigation and health improvement interventions, and connecting different policy areas. Increasing Public Health integration and engagement in LAQM can enhance the existing regime. Acting now is timely from both LAQM and Public Health perspectives. This review's findings should be used to inform debates and decisions around the future development of Local Air Quality Management arrangements both in the UK and beyond.

Bioaerosols have been associated with adverse respiratory-related health effects and are emitted in elevated concentrations from composting facilities. We used modelled Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations, a good indicator for bioaerosol emissions, to assess associations with respiratory-related hospital admissions. Mean daily Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations were estimated for each composting site for first full year of permit issue from 2005 onwards to 2014 for Census Output Areas (COAs) within 4 km of 76 composting facilities in England, as previously described (Williams et al., 2019). We fitted a hierarchical generalized mixed model to examine the risk of hospital admission with a primary diagnosis of (i) any respiratory condition, (ii) respiratory infections, (iii) asthma, (iv) COPD, (v) diseases due to organic dust, and (vi) Cystic Fibrosis, in relation to quartiles of Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations. Models included a random intercept for each COA to account for over-dispersion, nested within composting facility, on which a random intercept was fitted to account for clustering of the data, with adjustments for age, sex, ethnicity, deprivation, tobacco sales (smoking proxy) and traffic load (as a proxy for traffic-related air pollution). We included 249,748 respiratory-related and 3163 Cystic Fibrosis hospital admissions in 9606 COAs with a population-weighted centroid within 4 km of the 76 included composting facilities. After adjustment for confounders, no statistically significant effect was observed for any respiratory-related (Relative Risk (RR) = 0.99; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.96-1.01) or for Cystic Fibrosis (RR = 1.01; 95% CI 0.56-1.83) hospital admissions for COAs in the highest quartile of exposure. Similar results were observed across all respiratory disease sub-groups. This study does not provide evidence for increased risks of respiratory-related hospitalisations for those living near composting facilities. However, given the limitations in the dispersion modelling, risks cannot be completely ruled out. Hospital admissions represent severe respiratory episodes, so further study would be needed to investigate whether bioaerosols emitted from composting facilities have impacts on less severe episodes or respiratory symptoms.

Bioaerosols, comprised of bacteria, fungi and viruses are ubiquitous in ambient air. Known to adversely affect human health, the impact of bioaerosols on a population often manifests as outbreaks of illnesses such as Legionnaires Disease and Q fever, although the concentrations and environmental conditions in which these impacts occur are not well understood. Bioaerosol concentrations vary from source to source, but specific industrialised human activities such as water treatment, intensive agriculture and open windrow composting facilitate the generation of bioaerosol concentrations many times higher than natural background levels. Bioaerosol sampling is currently undertaken according to the requirements of the Environment Agency’s regulatory framework, in which the collection of bioaerosols and not its long-term measurement is of most importance. As a consequence, sampling devices are often moved around site according to changing wind direction and sampling intervals are invariably short-term. The dispersion modelling of bioaerosols from composting facilities typically relies on proxy pollutant parameters. In addition, the use of short term emission data gathering strategies in which monitors are moved frequently with wind direction, do not provide a robust reliable and repeatable dataset by which to validate any modelling or to verify its performance. New sampling methods such as the Spectral Intensity Bioaerosol Sensor (SIBS) provide an opportunity to address several gaps in bioaerosol model validation and verification. In the context of model validation, this paper sets out the current weaknesses in bioaerosol monitoring from the perspective of robust modelling requirements.

© 2018 WIT Press. Air pollution has as significant impact on the health of European citizens, particularly in urban areas, and was responsible for more than 400,000 premature deaths in Europe in 2014. It is within our cities where this public health impact is most acute as high population densities and high ambient concentrations result in an increased risk of exposure. This health impact is further exacerbated as air pollution interacts with other social determinants of health creating a disproportionate risk and burden. Traditional top-down government policy development and consultation, married with a very techno-centric view of air pollution sources and solutions, has resulted in a general apathy among citizens towards the problem of air pollution and subsequently a lack of ownership of the solutions. The ClairCity Project aims to create a major shift in public understanding towards the causes of poor air quality, inviting citizens to give their opinions on air pollution and carbon reduction policies to shape the cities of the future. By putting citizens' behaviour and activities at the heart of policy making for air quality and carbon management, ClairCity has utilised a suite of innovative toolkits for enhanced quantification and citizen engagement (such as surveys, workshops, online games and apps) to assess the public acceptability of specific policies and also to enable a bottom-up, citizen-led scenario creation process whereby citizens are empowered to visualise clean, low carbon, healthy futures for their city.

This presentation provides a high-level assessment of air pollution and its management viewed through the lens of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It contains • a short overview of the sparse literature, • an assessment of the impact of air pollution as a barrier to achieving the SDGs • an assessment of the enabling contribution of air quality management. • concluding observations and a call for further research.

© 2018 WIT Press. The leading source of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations in Bristol, United Kingdom is road transport, and Bristol exceeds the annual mean national air quality objective of 40 µg/m3 for NO2 in many locations around the city. Understanding the reasons for residents' modal choice is an important element in managing air quality in the city. The ClairCity Project approach provides insight into how to reduce overall transport demand and identify incentives that will be effective in creating modal switch away from higher polluting private motorised vehicles. From the ClairCity Project survey subset of commuters (n=442), 45% of respondents used cars or vans at least occasionally for their journey to work, with 28% of the total number of commuters relying exclusively on private motorised transport. The majority of these car users (65.6%) said they would prefer not to travel by car to work in the future. Their responses showed a mix of negative perceptions of public transport, geography and health as key motivations. Family responsibilities, lack of safe cycling and walking spaces, poor health and disability, distance, requirements to transport goods as well as themselves and the need for flexibility were all given as barriers to modal switching. This suggests that for car commuters, well-targeted policy interventions could provide practical alternatives that would appeal to those who currently rely on private motorised transport. Understanding citizens' perceptions, behaviours and activities is a key element in decision-making to reduce transport related air quality emissions and concentrations.

Delhi National Capital Region (Delhi NCR) is facing serious challenges linked to worrying levels of air pollution (mainly NO2, PM10 and PM2.5). The CADTIME prject (Clean Air in Delhi through Implementation, Mitigation and Engagement) aims to understand what is required to deliver significant reductions in levels of air pollution. This paper presents the results of the first stage of the project: it firstly contextualises the challenges of air quality management in Delhi within the broader evolution of environmental policies and governance in India, with particular consideration to the tensions between environmental protection and the country’s development objectives. Secondly, it sets out how CADTIME will combine multiple source qualitative and quantitative data to develop an air quality action plan and an implementation strategy. In particular, through two workshops with local and national experts and stakeholders, and two rounds of focus groups with citizens of Delhi we will contrast stakeholders’ priorities and preferences for existing and potential solutions to air pollution with citizens’ lived experiences, thus assessing the political/technical feasibility and public acceptability of current and proposed measures. Furthermore, we will complement the primary qualitative data with a critical review examining the successes and failures of UK and European policies to draw lessons that can be relevant for Delhi and to avoid ineffective policies and achieve cost-effective solutions for the city in the shortest possible time.

This article investigates the application of the “smart cities” and “urban climate justice” concepts to two urban initiatives based in Bristol, UK. Both ideas are increasingly popular in academic literature. Yet, little is known about their understanding by the practitioners such as policymakers, third sector organisations and citizens. Two case studies, a community-based energy efficiency initiative, and a local authority electric vehicle policy were critically reviewed using discourse analysis. The method helped to reveal the explicit, implied and obscured aims of the examined initiatives. Using discourse analysis, the researchers developed a heuristic which could improve traditional policy analysis approaches. The examination of case studies illustrates how practitioners understand the notions of “urban climate justice” and “smart cities” and whether their conceptualisations differ from those present in the academic literature. Finally, the paper offers methodological suggestions for embedding justice in “smart” initiatives at each stage of policy and project design.

Ecosystem services provide a framework for integrated assessment of the societal benefits provided by air, the largest ecosystem on the planet, which has been substantially overlooked in former management frameworks. Many attributes of air are ‘common’ in nature, use of the air or emissions into it providing private benefits with associated costs incurred by broader sectors of humanity. Though poorly captured by legal definitions, various benefits provided by air have been addressed by both common and statute law in the UK. There is a need to evolve the legal framework to afford a more integrated form of protection, though some of the essential building blocks for such protection are already established. Air has been found to provide a wide range of ecosystem services, many of which lie outside of contemporary markets. Case studies including the UK Air Quality Management framework, unintended impacts on the climate from wastewater treatment, the Montreal Protocol and control of fine airborne particulates highlight how an ecosystem approach could add far-sighted insight into development of policy and practice, averting many blind alleys of investment and delivering more multi-functional benefits. From this assessment, it is clear that the medium of air and the wider atmosphere have been substantially overlooked in terms of the benefits that they provide to society, but also their vulnerability to a range of pressures. Research gaps include the place of air in legal frameworks, legal mechanisms to protect this common property from damage, mechanisms to internalise the various values of services provided by air into markets, gap analysis in the policy environment, the means by which current management tools can be expanded to take a systemic approach, and practical tools development to support these innovations.

UK local air quality action planning has failed to remediate exceedances of air quality targets, particularly for nitrogen dioxide, which are widespread and persistent a decade after the first local action plans were drafted. This paper is relevant to a range of administrations charged with managing air quality. Using a literature review and local authority survey, it explores barriers to improving air quality, i.e. resource limitations, absence of local authority powers, and a lack of intra-governmental co-operation and inter-governmental co-ordination. It concludes that the causes of these inefficiencies are flawed subsidiarity and devolved responsibility decoupled from the powers necessary to implement required actions. Challenging opportunities to reconceptualise air quality action planning to protect public health are suggested.

© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Faculty of Public Health. All rights reserved. Background Air pollution exposure reduces life expectancy. Air pollution, deprivation and poor-health status combinations can create increased and disproportionate disease burdens. Problems and solutions are rarely considered in a broad public health context, but doing so can add value to air quality management efforts by reducing air pollution risks, impacts and inequalities. Methods An ecological study assessed small-area associations between air pollution (nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter), deprivation status and health outcomes in Wales, UK. Results Air pollution concentrations were highest in 'most' deprived areas. When considered separately, deprivation-health associations were stronger than air pollution-health associations. Considered simultaneously, air pollution added to deprivation-health associations; interactions between air pollution and deprivation modified and strengthened associations with all-cause and respiratory disease mortality, especially in 'most' deprived areas where most-vulnerable people lived and where health needs were greatest. Conclusion There is a need to reduce air pollution-related risks for all. However, it is also the case that greater health gains can result from considering local air pollution problems and solutions in the context of wider health-determinants and acting on a better understanding of relationships. Informed and co-ordinated air pollution mitigation and public health action in high deprivation and pollution areas can reduce risks and inequalities. To achieve this, greater public health integration and collaboration in local air quality management policy and practice is needed.

Globally, poor air quality is the most significant environmental health concern. Across Europe, 400,000 deaths were attributed to air pollution in 2012, whilst in the UK over 50,000 deaths per year are due to a combination of gaseous and particulate matter air pollution. The deadline for achieving the EU limit value for NO2 was the 1st of January 2010, yet the UK remains non-compliant in 38 of 43 zones and agglomerations. As a consequence, in April 2015, the government was ordered by the UK Supreme Court to draw up new air quality plans to achieve the EU limit values in the shortest time possible. In response the UK government consulted on a draft national air quality plan, which estimated compliance with the EU Air Quality Directive by 2020 in all zones and agglomerations except London (compliance by 2025). The plan introduces the concept of a Clean Air Zone (CAZ) to address the non-compliant zones but overall has significant weaknesses in many zones and agglomerations and compliance by 2020 (and 2025 in London) is considered to be overly optimistic. The plan’s predictive models use vehicle emission factors that are not considered representative of actual driving conditions, and transparency in the data underlying vehicle fleet turnover calculations is lacking. The suitability of CAZ as a cornerstone of the plan is of particular concern. This contribution examines new evidence that challenges the robustness of the UK government’s air quality plan. If air quality within the UK is to improve within the shortest time possible, significant improvements in the analysis and proposed solutions will be required.

Air pollution control in South Africa has undergone a shift from the best practicable means to an Air Quality Management approach. Previous legislation was out-dated and did not achieve acceptable air quality. Further, policy and legislative developments necessitated a change, in accordance with overarching environmental legislation. The National Environment Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) heralded a new era, introducing international best practice, including the devolution of responsibility to local government and effects-based management. However, South African municipalities, as the incumbent local authorities, face several challenges in implementing AQA. Pollution control falls within the context of competing priorities for basic service provision and economic development in local government. Further challenges include the lack of political will, consultation and communication, the limited use of planning tools, and a non-strategic approach to Air Quality Management. The publication of a strategy document, the National Framework for Air Quality, provides guidance to all levels of government on implementation. Other developments include the publication of national ambient air quality standards, and listed activities and emission standards, development of an Air Quality Management Planning manual, and processes to issue atmospheric emission licenses. Several recommendations are included to address these challenges.

This paper describes a Delphi methodology to generate a number of broadly consensual low carbon scenarios for 2050. This approach to ‘creating’ the future, rather than predicting, is useful when dealing with profound and uncertain change over a long period of time and is therefore suited to carbon management. The methodology is described, and the first stage of the consultation process is discussed with reference to its application in the UK city region of Bristol. Findings from the first round have resulted in the identification of seven working scenarios and patterns in the responses of individuals from different backgrounds, suggesting that strong world-views and agendas are present within groups. Subsequent rounds of a questionnaire and a backcasting workshop will refine these working scenarios and identify pathways to achieve them.

The UK’s Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) commences with a Review and Assessment which may lead to the declaration of an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) where an exceedence of the Air Quality Objectives is confi rmed. A declaration initiates the development of Air Quality Action Plan (AQAP) intended to provide solutions to the identifi ed problems. There is no doubt that the LAQM framework has delivered a clear picture of elevated air pollution at specifi c locations in the UK, defi ned in temporal and spatial scales. However, the evidence to date suggests that delivering solutions to air quality problems is much more problematic, and has not been achieved at the rate expected when the framework was introduced in 1997. Despite the national policy intention and direction provided through the framework, the probability of achieving the traffi c-related Air Quality Objectives by the set dates in the UK Regulations is uncertain. Using evidence from several studies undertaken by the authors, this paper considers the implication of distinct policy disconnects which are present in the LAQM process. The key conclusion implies transition from procedural compliance with the diagnostic process of LAQM towards a more holistic approach that will require new means of internal communication and co-operation and external consultation at the local and central government level and the ability to confront political and economic vested interest.

In this paper the necessity for effective joint working arrangements between Environmental Health Officers and Transport Planners is demonstrated as a fundamental prerequisite for successful management of traffic-related air quality in English local government areas. Current approach to joint working and collaboration between the officers was examined based on the evidence from a three-year study which involved questionnaire surveys and case study interviews. The findings show that despite good administrative devolution and policy integration, the chance of improving specific local air quality situations through the Local Transport Planning process is dependent on other overriding factors which influence the capabilities of the authorities to integrate policies across departments and tiers of governments. Implicit in these findings is the need for a shared paradigm of continuous engagement by all the policy actors and stakeholders if proper integration and the possibility of tangible results in future pol...

The second round of the Local Transport Plan (LTP2) process in England presents unique challenges and opportunities for integrating Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) within current transport planning policy. Using content analysis of LTP2 documents from nine English authorities, and results from a questionnaire survey of local government officers undertaken in late 2007, this paper charts the changes in the integration of air quality management within the transport planning process since 1997. While substantial improvements in policy integration were observed within the selected case studies, the paper demonstrates that such improvements are often constrained by institutional complexities that create implementation gaps between national objectives and local decision-making outcomes.

This paper considers the evolution of attempts to control and manage air pollution, principally but not exclusively focussing upon the challenge of managing air pollution in urban environments. The development and implementation of a range of air pollution control measures are considered. Initially the measures implemented primarily addressed point sources, a small number of fuel types and a limited number of pollutants. The adequacy of such a source-control approach is assessed within the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate. An assessment of air quality management in the United Kingdom over a 50-year timeframe exemplifies the range of issues and challenges in contemporary air quality management. The need for new approaches is explored and the development and implementation of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated.

© 2015 WIT Press. In 2013, the UK exceeded the EU limit value for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) annual mean at 31 of its 43 zones and agglomerations. Current government predictions are that full compliance will not be achieved until after 2030, with 65% zones still expected to be exceeding in 2020. In February 2014, the European Commission launched legal proceedings against the UK for its failure to cut excessive levels of NO2. However, there is an increasing onus on local authorities to manage air pollution locally and a legal threat in the Localism Act 2011 that may make them liable for any EU fines. This research has examined Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) reports and monitored concentrations of NO2 over the last 14 years for all local authorities with exceedances due to road traffic and, as previously reported to this conference series, found that there is insufficient appropriate data available to evaluate the LAQM process as a whole on this basis. Instead, six case study local authorities, for which sufficient data were available, were individually evaluated to determine whether any action plan measures could be associated with changes in local NO2 concentrations. This paper describes the methodology and findings with respect to the implementation of action plan measures, using Bristol City Council as an example. It examines some of the challenges of quantifying air quality impacts and attributing changes to implementation of measures, and makes recommendations for improvements to UK air quality management.

Air quality is managed in Great Britain via an effects-based, risk management process designed to provide a dynamic solution to public health issues associated with elevated concentrations of seven specified air pollutants. This paper is concerned with an examination and evaluation of the process of Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) in Great Britain from the late 1980s to date as a risk management process. The statutory basis of LAQM process is provided by the Environment Act 1995. The Act provides a framework in which national and local actions are required to identify and remediate areas of poor air quality. Within this framework, the implementation of the process at national and local levels is considered, leading to an identification and assessment of risks in the formulation and implementation of air quality management policy and practice. Local Authorities began the process of Review and Assessment in 1999 and the first round of the process concluded in 2001. Following this, some 129 Local Authorities declared one or more Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs). The Review and Assessment elements of the framework were subjected to an evaluation in 2001 and the essential elements of it were confirmed as fit for purpose. The evaluation led to a confirmation of the process of LAQM but also a simplification based on the experience of Round 1. Now, a two step process is required comprising of an Updating and Screening Assessment and, where a risk of exceeding an Air Quality Objective (AQO) is identified, a Detailed Assessment follows. The Government has identified a time scale for Review and Assessment through to 2010 and also introduced the requirement of a regular Progress Report in order that a Local Authority is able to address routine matters of air quality management. The risks inherent in epidemiological or scientific uncertainty are factored into the LAQM process at an early stage of the process and, by identifying the risks and subjecting them to regular review, the process provides a ‘level playing field’ across spatial and temporal scales. Whilst the process of LAQM described in this paper has been developed for Great Britain, the generic elements of the process are applicable to other countries challenged by air pollution problems which require both national and local action to resolve them.

Odour and ammonia emissions were measured from three broiler, two layer and two turkey houses in Ireland. The broiler units gave a large range of odour and ammonia emission rates depending on the age of the birds and the season. A considerable variation between the odour and ammonia emission rates was evident for the two layer units which may have been due to the different manure handling systems utilised in the houses. There was relatively little difference in the odour and ammonia emissions from the two turkey houses. As a precautionary principle, odour emission rates utilised in atmospheric dispersion models should use the maximum values for broilers and turkeys (1.22 and 10.5 ou(E) s(-1) bird(-1) respectively) and the mean value for the layers depending on the manure handling system used (0.47 or 1.35 ou(E) s(-1) bird(-1). SB. 15/05/2013

In February 2014 the European Commission launched legal proceedings against the UK for its failure to cut excessive levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The failure of national action to achieve the necessary reduction in NO2 places an increasing onus on local authorities in the UK to assist the government with the achievement of the EU limit values. This research sets out to evaluate the effectiveness of Local Air Quality Management, as evidenced over the last 14 years, as a means to improve local air quality focusing on annual mean NO2. Previous research has presented the methodology for the sample selection for this study; this paper describes the methodology relating to the resulting six local authority case studies, but presents the results of the trends in NO2 concentrations in the Bristol AQMA as an example, before drawing conclusions and making recommendations for improvements to UK air quality management.

Over half of the world's population currently live in urban areas. Although the global population growth rate is declining, the global population is increasing and is expected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050, with an estimated 70% living in towns and cities. This growing population will create more demands on an increasingly stressed planet with limited resources. It will be cities and the associated industrial and commercial activities that will demand the majority of the 40% increase in world energy forecast by 2030. It will be cities that will demand the majority of the 70% increase in food forecast by 2025. It will be in cities where the growing middle classes will be the main consumers of electricity, oil, food beverages, household appliances, cars and other goods and service. This is a potential recipe for continued poor air quality and illustrates the importance of integrated multi-stakeholder strategic planning and coordinated management.

This paper explores the operation of air quality action planning within the framework of UK air quality management with particular reference to the key actors and actions. The paper examines the intentions of action planning policy and reflects on the role of local government in achieving these intentions. A review of primary sources and peer-reviewed literature identifies some of the barriers to action plan implementation and explores why these barriers remain in place after more than a decade of action. As a nationally mandated but locally operated policy, it is argued that there is a mismatch between ambition, powers and effects. The paper concludes with an exploration of the opportunities to reconceptualise and re-energise the air quality action planning process in order to provide appropriate protection for public health. © 2012 WIT Press.

Despite 14 years of UK Local Air Quality Management (LAQM), ambient NO concentrations have not decreased as expected. Although NO concentrations decreased from 1996 to 2002-4, this trend has subsequently levelled off. The UK Government has failed to meet European Union (EU) limit values for NO and PM and risks incurring fines of ~£300m. The number of local authorities (60%) having declared Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs), primarily for traffic-related pollutants (NO and PM ), has grown steadily since 2001, and despite the production of local Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) there have been no traffic-related AQMA revocations solely on the basis of their implementation. The UK Air Quality Strategies (1997-2007) have focussed on emission reduction technologies to reduce overall pollutant concentrations, whilst LAQM targets specific local hotspots often through air quality measures in Local Transport Plans. The failure of this system to achieve necessary NO reductions has been attributed in part to a reliance of national policy on Euro vehicle standards, without significant endeavour to reduce road traffic growth. Locally, deficiencies in funding, interdepartmental communication, political will and public awareness, have been criticised for hindering action plan measures. The UK Government's localism agenda threatens to reduce the top-down governance of LAQM whilst also introducing the potential for EU fines to be passed to local authorities where limit values are exceeded. At the same time, the UK Government has outlined changes that will put more emphasis on the development of local measures to achieve EU limit values. This paper discusses the potential for local action to achieve the limit values and concludes that further work is necessary at a national level to assist local authorities in this aim. © 2011 WIT Press. 2 2 2 10 2 10 2

Regardless of its intent and purposes, the first decade of the Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) framework had little or no effect in reducing traffic-related air pollution in the UK. Apart from the impact of increased traffic volumes, the major factor attributed to this failure is that of policy disconnect between the process of diagnosing air pollution and its management, thereby limiting the capability of local authorities to control traffic-related sources of air pollution. Integrating air quality management into the Local Transport Plan (LTP) process therefore presents opportunities for enabling political will, funding and joined-up policy approach to reduce this limitation. However, despite the increased access to resources for air quality measures within the LTP process, there are local institutional, political and funding constraints which reduce the impact of these policy interventions on air quality management. This paper illustrate the policy implementation gaps between central government policy intentions and the local government process by providing evidence of the deprioritisation of air quality management compared to the other shared priorities in the LTP process. We draw conclusions on the policy and practice of integrating air quality management into transport planning. The evidence thereby indicate the need for a policy shift from a solely localised hotspot management approach, in which the LAQM framework operates, to a more holistic management of vehicular emissions within wider spatial administrative areas.

The UK has operated a sophisticated Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime since 1997. This comprises two distinct phases: Review and Assessment and Action Planning. The Review and Assessment is the diagnostic phase and concludes with declaration of an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) where Air Quality Objectives (AQOs) are exceeded, which then initiates the Air Quality Action Plan intended to provide solutions to the identified problems. More than half of UK local authorities have one or more AQMAs. Air Quality Action Plans are expected to define measures and timescales by which air quality in the AQMA will comply with AQOs. The main source of the air quality exceedence is traffic-related NO or PM . The Review and Assessment phase is effective at diagnosing air quality problems but the Air Quality Action Plan phase cannot yet be judged to be a successful policy intervention. Local authorities have limited powers to initiate direct actions amid concerns about the political impact of measures that will the process affect the car-driving public. In such circumstances local authorities have been unable to get traction on air quality management problems. Central to the LAQM regime is the division of responsibility between central government and local government. Whilst LAQM is a local responsibility, central government's has an overarching role in controlling the regime through framing the process, defining national goals, setting strategic directions, and ensuring appropriate resourcing for national and local actions. Despite this national process guidance and direction local authorities are failing to achieve local air quality improvements at the rate expected when LAQM was introduced. This paper considers the implications of two distinct policy disconnects present in the LAQM process. The first of which is that between the spatial and temporal diagnosis of poor air quality and the solution proffered in the Air Quality Action Plan. Secondly, the disconnection between local actions and the strategic direction and policy intentions offered by central government. A number of changes to the process of LAQM are recommended to reconnect the policy disconnections identified in this paper. © 2010 WIT Press. 2 10

Due to the common sources of emissions of both air quality pollutants and greenhouse gases, management measures directed at one category of emissions are likely to positively impact the other. Through the local air quality management (LAQM) process, local authorities are required to monitor and measure specified air pollutants, the sources of which are also common to the primary sources of carbon emissions at a local level. This research tracks the progression of local authority management of carbon emissions and examines the barriers and opportunities for the integration of carbon emissions into the LAQM process. Results are triangulated from three core research methods deployed in South West England: a time series of local authority questionnaire surveys; secondary data analysis of active Air Quality Action Plans; and case study interviews of six local authorities in the region. The research concludes that the absence of statutory targets for carbon emission reductions remains a substantial barrier for local authority carbon management initiatives. However, in order to utilise scarce resources in the most efficient manner, local authorities should draw upon the existing skill set of their Air Quality Officers.

Since 1997, Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) has been used as a process through which local authorities in England identify and manage specific air quality problems within their jurisdictions in order to achieve the air quality objectives (AQO). However, the limitation of this process is that of policy disconnect between diagnosis and solutions proffered within it. Over 90% of air quality ‘hot-spots’ identified through the LAQM are due to traffic-related sources. Hence, the air quality action plans prepared by the environmental health officers (EHO) are improperly calibrated as a policy instrument for tackling most of the problems discovered through the LAQM. The inclusion of air quality as one of the four shared priorities in the second round of the Local Transport Plan (LTP2) therefore implies that the EHO need to engage with the transport planners (TP) at the local level in order to address most of these problems i.e. traffic-related air pollution. Since LAQM and LTP operate as two parallel frameworks with a separate agenda and timetable, adequate connectivity between both policy packages is thereby dependent on the type and level of inter-professional engagement between the departments and officials responsible for both policies at every level of government involved. This paper presents emerging issues from the questionnaire survey of EHO and TP in over 200 local authorities in 2007 as part of a three-year investigation into the effectiveness of achieving the AQO through the LTP in English local authorities. While there is wide support for the achievement of AQO through the LTP, the two groups identified differences in time-scale for delivering both policies, prioritisation of air quality within LTP, and unequal expectations as major factors affecting the integration. These factors indicate the existence of institutional complexities between parallel policy communities in ensuring integration.

This paper examines the relationship between the policy process for local authority management of air quality and local government initiatives and strategies for carbon mitigation. It seeks to explore the policy and process linkages between the sources of carbon emissions and air quality pollutants in order to assess the potential benefits and/or limitations of an integrated approach for their co-management at a local and regional governance level. Local authorities, as environmental regulators, have a significant role in the UK’s attempts to tackle the problems associated with climate change. This paper describes the extent to which non-statutory management of carbon emissions is undertaken at a local governance level in south west England and examines the extent to which carbon emissions and local air quality management are integrated and co-managed at local and regional governance levels. Results are presented from a questionnaire survey of local authorities in the south west and selected others from England conducted in 2007 and presents interim conclusions.

This paper considers the development and operation of the UK’s air quality management regime since its introduction in the Environment Act, 1995. In the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate, the development of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated. Key to the regime is the division of responsibility between central government and local government for both the diagnosis of areas of poor air quality and for the development of solutions to improve air quality.

Air quality in New Zealand is perceived by many to be very good. This is facilitated by low population density, geographical isolation and a maritime climate. The climate and weather of New Zealand is also affected by large scale wind systems which promote westerly winds and aid dispersion. Despite favourable conditions, air pollution is a problem in many urban centres in New Zealand. Although industrial emissions contribute to pollution, emissions from domestic and traffic sources are significant. Outdoor burning and domestic fires are common, and are a major source of air pollutants and complaints. National Environmental Standards for Ambient Air Quality were introduced in 2004 but these are unlikely to be achieved in a number of locations including Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city, where traffic emissions are the major source of air pollution. Auckland’s population is 1.3 million people (almost one third of the national total). The city covers an area approximately equal in size to London. Poorly developed public transport services and urban sprawl have resulted in reliance on private vehicles, and ownership rates in New Zealand are among the highest in the world. In conjunction with an aged vehicle fleet and severe traffic congestion, the resulting air pollution has become a significant issue in Auckland. This paper considers the process of air quality management in New Zealand, illustrated by the particular problems systemic to Auckland. Policy responses include a Regional Land Transport Strategy with health protection as a key objective. However, it is far from certain whether these will successfully deliver cleaner air, and further national guidance and additional transport focussed regulations may be needed to achieve the air quality improvements in Auckland necessary to meet the national Standards.

It is becoming more common now to use atmospheric dispersion models to predict where odour nuisance is likely to occur near pig units. An odour threshold concentration of 1 OuE m(-3) is the level at which an odour is detectable by 50% of screened panellists. A new odour annoyance criterion (C(98,1-h) (98%-ile, 1-h average odour concentration) < or = 4.3 OuE m(-3)) was developed in this study and compared to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Ireland) recommendation (C(98,1-h)< or = 6 OuE m(-3)) using the ISCST3 model with data from three meteorological stations. Abatement techniques such as exhaust vent modification, feed manipulation, and biofiltration were assessed. Based on current limits (C(98,1-h)< or = 6 OuE m(-3)) for existing facilities, predicted setback distances can be up to 780 m for a 1000-sow unit, depending on which meteorological data set is used. However, if using the suggested odour impact criterion in this research (C(98,1-h)< or = 4.3 OuE m(-3)), setback distances could reach a maximum of 1000 m. Biofilters on second stage weaning and finishing pig buildings offer the greatest single reduction (up to 650 m) in odour impact. When combined with feed manipulation and increased exhaust air velocity, the figure can be as high as 920 m. Due to the critical requirement for local meteorological data, it is recommended that a meteorological station be installed on large pig units to facilitate more accurate predictions. Site measurements of odour emissions should be made in each case because emissions are influenced by a range of local factors including feed, manure management, building design and operation.