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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a complex disease which affects approximately 13% of the world’s population. Over time, CKD can cause renal dysfunction and progression to end-stage kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. Complications associated with CKD may contribute to the acceleration of disease progression and the risk of cardiovascular-related morbidities. Early CKD is asymptomatic, and symptoms only present at later stages when complications of the disease arise, such as a decline in kidney function and the presence of other comorbidities associated with the disease. In advanced stages of the disease, when kidney function is significantly impaired, patients can only be treated with dialysis or a transplant. With limited treatment options available, an increasing prevalence of both the elderly population and comorbidities associated with the disease, the prevalence of CKD is set to rise. This review discusses the current challenges and the unmet patient need in CKD.

The scientific landscape of treatments for type 2 diabetes (T2D) has changed rapidly in the last decade with newer treatments becoming available. However, a large proportion of people with T2D are not able to achieve glycaemic goals because of clinical inertia. The majority of T2D management is in primary care, where clinicians (medical, nursing and pharmacist staff) play an important role in addressing patient needs and achieving treatment goals. However, management of T2D is challenging because of the heterogeneity of T2D and complexity of comorbidity, time constraints, guidance overload and the evolving treatments. Additionally, the current coronavirus disease pandemic poses additional challenges to the management of chronic diseases such as T2D, including routine access to patients for monitoring and communication. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) are a class of agents that have evolved rapidly in recent years. These agents act in a glucose-dependent manner to promote insulin secretion and inhibit glucagon secretion, as well as enhancing satiety and reducing hunger. As a result, they are effective treatment options for people with T2D, achieving glycated haemoglobin reductions, weight loss and potential cardiovascular benefit, as monotherapy or as add-on to other glucose-lowering therapies. However, given the complexity of managing T2D, it is important to equip primary care clinicians with clear information regarding efficacy, safety and appropriate positioning of GLP-1 RA therapies in clinical practice. This review provides a summary of clinical and real-world evidence along with practical guidance, with the aim of aiding primary care clinicians in the initiation and monitoring of GLP-1 RAs to help ensure that desired outcomes are realised. Furthermore, a benefit/risk tool has been developed on the basis of current available evidence and guidelines to support primary care clinicians in selecting individuals who are most likely to benefit from GLP-1 RA therapies, in addition to indicating clinical situations where caution is needed.

The glucose intolerance of diabetes aggravates atherosclerosis indirectly through its effect on lipids and endothelial function. The cardiovascular (CV) impact of this metabolic disturbance is seen in the worsening of atherosclerotic vascular disease predominantly manifest as progression of coronary and cerebrovascular disease. The microvascular changes induced by prolonged glucose intolerance lead to ultrastructural changes in the glomerular basement membrane and renal mesangium which alters intrarenal haemodynamics, which may become evident initially as proteinuria and later lead to a decline in glomerular filtration rate. As the kidney plays a central role in blood pressure control, these changes have far-reaching CV consequences in patients with diabetes.Despite this, glucose lowering has been shown to have only a modest impact on CV outcomes in diabetes. The new antidiabetic medications have been studied in clinical trials designed to assure safety as grounded in the FDA guidance of 2008. Whilst a direct comparison of results from these trials is not possible in view of heterogeneity in trial design, the individual CV outcome measures have broadly re-defined their role in terms of equivalence (non-inferiority) and/or benefit (superiority). The composite endpoint of CV death, non-fatal myocardial infarction and non-fatal stroke (major adverse cardiovascular events, MACE) may be perceived as surrogate markers for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). This has been universally accepted as the primary endpoint in these cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) and has been helpful in understanding the possible CV impact these drugs may have on patients with diabetes.The dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-IV) inhibitors (sitagliptin, alogliptin, saxagliptin, linagliptin), two sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (dapagliflozin and ertugliflozin) and two glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) drugs (lixisenatide and extended-release exenatide) have demonstrated non-inferiority on MACE outcomes with comparators – that is, they have assured CV safety when used in conjunction with other glucose-lowering treatment to improve glycaemic control. Four GLP-1 agonists (liraglutide, albiglutide, semaglutide and dula- glutide) and two SGLT2 inhibitors (empagliflozin and canagliflozin) have demonstrated CV benefit on MACE outcomes; such demonstration of superiority may be seen as evidence for benefit. The SGLT2 inhibitors canagliflozin, empagliflozin, dapagliflozin and ertugliflozin have all demonstrated a significant benefit in reducing the risk of hospitalisation due to heart failure (HHF) as a secondary/ exploratory outcome measure in their CVOTs. Further confirmation of benefit in heart failure independent of the presence of glucose intolerance has been demonstrated with dapagliflozin and empagliflozin in heart failure patients with or without diabetes. However, a comparable benefit in heart failure has not so far been seen in studies with the DPP-IV inhibitors or GLP-1 receptor agonists. Albiglutide is not available in the UK and may have little relevance to the practising clinician other than through the information it contributes about the possible mechanisms of action of GLP-1 RA medications.

SGLT-2 inhibitors may be increasingly used in people with type 1 diabetes as new licenses are obtained. These drugs have the potential to improve glycaemic control in people with type 1 diabetes with the added benefit of weight loss, better control of blood pressure and more time in optimal glucose range. SGLT-2 inhibitors are associated with higher incidence of diabetic ketoacidosis without significant hyperglycaemia. The present ABCD position statement is to mitigate this risk and other potential complications in people taking these drugs. Particular caution needs to be exercised in people who are at risk of diabetic ketoacidosis due to low calorie diet, illnesses, injuries, starvation, excessive exercise, excessive alcohol consumption and reduced insulin administration among other precipitating factors for diabetic ketoacidosis.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors were first developed as glucose-lowering therapies for the treatment of diabetes. However, these drugs have now been recognised to prevent worsening heart-failure events, improve health-related quality of life, and reduce mortality in people with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), including those both with and without diabetes. Despite robust clinical trial data demonstrating favourable outcomes with SGLT2 inhibitors for patients with HFrEF, there is a lack of familiarity with the HF indication for these drugs, which have been the remit of diabetologists to date. In this article we use consensus expert opinion alongside the available evidence and label indication to provide support for the healthcare community treating people with HF regarding positioning of SGLT2 inhibitors within the treatment pathway. By highlighting appropriate prescribing and practical considerations, we hope to encourage greater, and safe, use of SGLT2 inhibitors in this population.

Sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are now an established class of medications for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D), no longer reserved for use by specialists in diabetes. They are being used increasingly for their cardiac and renal benefits by primary care, cardiology and renal teams for indications in parallel with diabetes care as part of holistic management. This guidance provides essential information on SGLT therapy, including the main advantages and the important risks of which healthcare professionals should be aware.

At the time of submission of this manuscript, the COVID-19 pandemic had cost nearly 60,000 lives in the UK. This number currently stands at over 120,000 deaths. A high proportion (one third) of these lived with diabetes. The huge acute and emergency medicine effort to support people with COVID-19 has had a major knock-on impact on the delivery of routine clinical care, especially for long-term conditions like diabetes. Challenges to the delivery of diabetes services during this period include a reduction in medical and nursing staff, limitations placed by social distancing on physical clinical space, and balancing virtual vs face-to-face care. There is a need to re-group and re-organise how we deliver routine out-patient adult diabetes services during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We offer some suggestions for how patients can be stratified into red (urgent), amber (priority) and green (routine) follow up with suggestions of how often people should be seen. We also offer recommendation on how we can identify those at highest risk and try and minimise the long- term impact of COVID on diabetes care. During the COVID pandemic we have seen things happen in days that previously took years. The restart of diabetes services has triggered a more widespread use of virtual consultations and data management systems, but also offers an opportunity for more joined-up and cohesive working between primary and specialist care. While we do our best to keep our patients and colleagues safe, this pandemic is already proving to be a catalyst for change, accelerating the appropriate use of technology in diabetes care and implementing innovative solutions. To achieve this aspiration, further work – currently led by the Association of British Clinical Diabetologists in collaboration with Diabetes UK and the Primary Care Diabetes Society – to make recommendations on future proofing diabetes care in UK is in progress.

Post-transplant diabetes mellitus (PTDM) is common after solid organ transplantation (SOT) and associated with increased morbidity and mortality for allograft recipients. Despite the significant burden of disease, there is a paucity of literature with regards to detection, prevention and management. Evidence from the general population with diabetes may not be translatable to the unique context of SOT. In light of emerging clinical evidence and novel anti-diabetic agents, there is an urgent need for updated guidance and recommendations in this high-risk cohort. The Association of British Clinical Diabetologists (ABCD) and Renal Association (RA) Diabetic Kidney Disease Clinical Speciality Group has undertaken a systematic review and critical appraisal of the available evidence. Areas of focus are; (1) epidemiology, (2) pathogenesis, (3) detection, (4) management, (5) modification of immunosuppression, (6) prevention, and (7) PTDM in the non-renal setting. Evidence-graded recommendations are provided for the detection, management and prevention of PTDM, with suggested areas for future research and potential audit standards. The guidelines are endorsed by Diabetes UK, the British Transplantation Society and the Royal College of Physicians of London. The full guidelines are available freely online for the diabetes, renal and transplantation community using the link below. The aim of this review article is to introduce an abridged version of this new clinical guideline ( https://abcd.care/sites/abcd.care/files/site_uploads/Resources/Position-Papers/ABCD-RA%20PTDM%20v14.pdf).

A third of the over 40,000 deaths in the UK attributed to the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic occurred in people with diabetes. However, the focus on emergency response to COVID-19 in the first few months has had a major knock-on impact on the delivery of routine clinical care for diabetes. Key challenges as we enter the second wave of the pandemic include a backlog of appointments, delays in accessing care such as structured education, and initiating insulin, GLP-1 or diabetes technology. We anticipate ongoing pressures through increased commitments to general medicine, reductions in clinic capacities due to social distancing and reorganisation of clinic spaces. Many services have already adapted by moving much of their activity to the virtual space.

Dapagliflozin (sodium-glucose co-transporter (SGLT-2) inhibitor) and sotagliflozin (SGLT-1/2 inhibitor) are two of the drugs of the SGLT inhibitor class which have been recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in people with type 1 diabetes with body mass index ≥27 kg/m2. Dapagliflozin is licensed in the UK for use in the NHS while sotagliflozin may be available in future. These and possibly other SGLT inhibitors may be increasingly used in people with type 1 diabetes as new licences are obtained. These drugs have the potential to improve glycaemic control in people with type 1 diabetes with the added benefit of weight loss, better control of blood pressure and more time in optimal glucose range. However, SGLT inhibitors are associated with a higher incidence of diabetic ketoacidosis without significant hyperglycaemia. The present ABCD/Diabetes UK joint updated position statement is to guide people with type 1 diabetes and clinicians using these drugs to help mitigate this risk and other potential complications. Particularly, caution needs to be exercised in people who are at risk of diabetic ketoacidosis due to low calorie diets, illnesses, injuries, starvation, excessive exercise, excessive alcohol consumption and reduced insulin administration, among other precipitating factors for diabetic ketoacidosis.

Management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is complex and challenging, particularly for clinicians working in primary care who are faced with many competing clinical priorities. The range of available T2DM treatments has diversified significantly in recent years, generating a busy and data-rich environment in which evidence is rapidly evolving. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) agents are a relatively new class of oral glucose-lowering therapy that have been available in the UK for approximately 5 years. These agents reduce the reabsorption of glucose in the kidney and increase its excretion via the urine. Conflicting messages and opinions within the clinical community have led to misconceptions concerning the efficacy, safety and appropriate position of SGLT2i therapies within the T2DM treatment pathway. To help address some of these concerns and provide advice regarding the appropriate place of these medicines in clinical practice, the Improving Diabetes Steering Committee was formed. The Committee worked together to develop this review article, providing a summary of relevant data regarding the use of SGLT2i medicines and focusing on specific considerations for appropriate prescribing within the T2DM management pathway. In addition, a benefit/risk tool has been provided (see Fig. 3) that summarises many of the aspects discussed in this review. The tool aims to support clinicians in identifying the people most likely to benefit from SGLT2i treatments, as well as situations where caution may be required. Funding Napp Pharmaceuticals Limited. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s13300-018-0471-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD), including heart failure (HF), is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). CVD and T2DM share common risk factors for development and progression, and there is significant overlap between the conditions in terms of worsening outcomes. In assessing the cardiovascular (CV) safety profiles of anti-diabetic drugs, sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) therapies have emerged with robust evidence for reducing the risk of adverse CVD outcomes in people with T2DM who have either established CVD or are at risk of developing CVD. A previous consensus document from the Improving Diabetes Steering Committee has examined the potential role of SGLT2is in T2DM management and considered the risk-benefit profile of the class and the appropriate place for these medicines within the T2DM pathway. This paper builds on these findings and presents practical guidance for maximising the pleiotropic benefits of this class of medicines in people with T2DM in terms of reducing adverse CVD outcomes. The Improving Diabetes Steering Committee aims to offer evidence-based practical guidance for the use of SGLT2i therapies in people with T2DM stratified by CVD risk. This is of particular importance currently because some treatment guidelines have not been updated to reflect recent evidence from cardiovascular outcomes trials (CVOTs) and real-world studies that complement the CVOTs. The Improving Diabetes Steering Committee seeks to support healthcare professionals (HCPs) in appropriate treatment selection for people with T2DM who are at risk of developing or have established CVD and examines the role of SGLT2i therapy for these people.Funding: Napp Pharmaceuticals Limited.