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The importance of flow-related factors to benthic organisms, as well as the role of habitat conditions in shaping aquatic communities during low-flow periods, have been recognised. Despite this, the preferences of macroinvertebrates to the ratio of lentic to lotic habitats at the reach scale have not been accurately quantified in most instances. Aquatic invertebrates and habitat features in a range of temporary rivers in Sardinia were investigated. The investigation focused on the flow-related characteristics that contribute to defining the lentic-lotic condition of the river reaches. The relation of habitat features to benthic taxa distributions was assessed using multidimensional scaling. The main aim of the paper was to quantify the responses of taxa to the different lentic and lotic habitat conditions by applying hierarchical logistic regressions. Finally, taxon optima were aligned along the lentic-lotic gradient and the responses of different taxonomic groups compared. Unbroken waves and imperceptible flow were correlated with benthic taxa variability, suggesting local hydraulics and turbulence have a major role in regulating community composition. The overall lentic-lotic character of the river reaches was also clearly related to the benthic taxa distribution. More than 80% of taxa were significantly related to the lentic-lotic gradient, and an asymmetrical response curve was the predominant model. Benthic groups showed taxon optima clustered in different ranges of the lentic-lotic gradient. Odonata, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Mollusca preferred clearly lentic conditions. Diptera mainly ranged on the lotic side of the gradient, while Trichoptera were relatively uniformly distributed across the gradient. Ephemeroptera taxa clustered in intermediate lentic-lotic conditions, with two species preferring extremely lentic habitats. In general, optima converged at intermediate and extremely lentic conditions, presumably due, respectively, to the coexistence of different lentic and lotic features and to the highly diverse environmental characteristics under extremely lentic situations. These results support the conclusion that dissimilar ecological factors act on benthic taxa along the lentic-lotic range and species favouring different lentic-lotic conditions are subjected to pressures of different nature. This should not be ignored when defining species preferences and studying community structure or relationships between species in Mediterranean rivers, which cyclically vary their habitat composition. In addition, the uneven distribution of optima of different groups along the lentic-lotic gradient might affect macroinvertebrate metrics when assessing ecological status or establishing reference conditions under variable climatic conditions.

Two A-π-D-π-A thiophene-based small molecules with a central dithienosilole core and dicyanovinyl (DCV) end groups were synthesized. These compounds differ only by the presence of alkyl and alkylsulfanyl chains, respectively, on the thiophene beta positions. Computational data together with the spectroscopic and electrochemical findings (obtained by means of absorption, steady-state/time-resolved emission techniques, and cyclic voltammetry) revealed that both molecules possess low electronic and optical band gaps, broad absorption spectra, and good stability both in p and n-doping states, which make them suitable for optoelectronic applications. In both compounds, the HOMO-LUMO transition involves an intramolecular charge transfer from the electron-donor dithienosilole unit to the two terminal electron-acceptor DCV groups. A marked positive emission solvatochromism was observed for both molecules and was interpreted on the basis of the symmetry breaking in the S1 excited state. The two synthesized compounds were also compared to their shorter precursors and to similar oligothiophenes to understand how the nature of the building block influences the characteristics of the final materials. Furthermore, it was possible to better understand the contribution of the sulfur atom in modulating the optical properties of the small molecules studied.

The produced water management represents an important issue for the Oil&Gas industry. This paper illustrates the development and testing of a Life Cycle Assessment-based, phased methodology employable to various offshore contexts for the comparative assessment of alternative produced water management options (such as injection versus sea discharge), based on their potential effects on the environment. The first phase of the assessment consists in the quantification and the comparison of global environmental pressures resulting from produced water management processes (facilities installation, use of materials, energy consumption, discharges) through the application of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), in compliance with ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. The second phase consists in the local impacts assessment. It starts with the definition of biodiversity and ecosystem services values (biodiversity screening) in the Project area using secondary data, such as global and local datasets and scientific bibliography, with the objective to relate the sensitive receptors eventually occurring in the area. This phase continues with the Biodiversity Impact Assessment, which is conducted through a matrix approach that evaluates the significance of the impacts on the related receptors. The approach is based on a combination of the following aspects. The sensitivity of local biodiversity to the defined impact categories.The magnitude of the local impacts. The third and final phase of the process entails a detailed dispersion modelling of the produced water discharges into the sea. The discharges into the sea were identified as the most impactful produced management solution in the previous phases. The whole methodology aims at introducing a complete and quantitative assessment to select the most sustainable design for produced water management, shifting from a broader perspective (LCA considers global impact categories), to a local perspective (focused on the natural context of the Project area).

International audience; Non-perennial rivers and streams (NPRS) cover > 50% of the global river network. They are particularly predominant in Mediterranean Europe as a result of dry climate conditions, climate change and land use development. Historically, both scientists and policy makers underestimated the importance of NRPS for nature and humans alike, mainly because they have been considered as systems of low ecological and economic value. During the past decades, diminishing water resources have increased the spatial and temporal extent of artificial NPRS as well as their exposure to multiple stressors, which threatening their ecological integrity, biodiversity and ecosystem services. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of the structural and functional characteristics of NPRS in the European Mediterranean, and discuss gaps and problems in their management, concerning their typology, ecological assessment, legislative and policy protection, and incorporation in River Basin Management Plans. Because NPRS comprise highly unstable ecosystems, with strong and often unpredictable temporal and spatial variability - at least as far as it is possible to assess - we outline the future research needs required to better understand, manage and conserve them as highly valuable and sensitive ecosystems. Efficient collaborative activities among multidisciplinary research groups aiming to create innovative knowledge, water managers and policy makers are urgently needed in order to establish an appropriate methodological and legislative background. The incorporation of NPRS in EU-Med River Basin Management Plans in combination with the application of ecological flows is a first step towards enhancing NPRS management and conservation in order to effectively safeguard these highly valuable albeit threatened ecosystems

The present paper describes the Educational Marketing Experience that was carried out between 2014-2017 within a Global Clinical and Educational Marketing Team focused on the Market of Diagnostic Medical Ultrasound. The experiences of such Team and the related Global-Local organization are reported both for internal training activities, referred to Sales, Local Marketing and Application Specialists as well as external knowledge transfer activities towards users, customers, Biomedical Engineers and Procurement offices, respectively. Pros and Cons are presented together with possible next step solution proposals.

The present paper represents the overview of a 3-year Global Marketing - Clinical and Educational Marketing organization, focused on the aspects of (clinical) strategy, educational and content creation. The organization was characterized by a Global Group and several local groups whose mutual workflow, management and interfacing constituted the so-called Global-Local Project. Major positive outcomes as well as pitfalls and cons we'll be present, giving indication also about possible near future/Work in Progress solutions to be planned and implemented within a newly shaped organization and related geographical interactions.

The efficiency of a Laue lens for X- and γ-ray focusing in the energy range 60–600 keV is closely linked to the diffraction efficiency of the single crystals composing the lens. A powerful focusing system is crucial for applications like medical imaging and X-ray astronomy where wide beams must be focused. Mosaic crystals with a high density, such as Cu or Au, and bent crystals with curved diffracting planes (CDPs) are considered for the realization of a focusing system for γ-rays, owing to their high diffraction efficiency in a predetermined angular range. In this work, a comparison of the efficiency of CDP crystals and Cu and Au mosaic crystals was performed on the basis of the theory of X-ray diffraction. Si, GaAs and Ge CDP crystals with optimized thicknesses and moderate radii of curvature of several tens of metres demonstrate comparable or superior performance with respect to the higher atomic number mosaic crystals generally used. In order to increase the efficiency of the lens further, a stack of several CDP crystals is proposed as an optical element. CDP crystals were obtained by a surface-damage method, and a stack of two surface-damaged bent Si crystals was prepared and tested. Rocking curves of the stack were performed with synchrotron radiation at 19 keV to check the lattice alignment: they exhibited only one diffraction peak.

The assessment of the ecological status of water bodies, as requires by the European Water Framework Directive, can raise a number of problems when applied to temporary streams. These problems are because of the particular physical, chemical and biological conditions resulting from the recurrent cessation of flow or even the complete drying of the stream beds. In such non-permanent water bodies, the reference quality standards developed for permanent streams may only be applicable under certain circumstances or may not be applicable at all. Work conducted within the collaborative EU-funded project Mediterranean Intermittent River ManAGEment (MIRAGE) has addressed most of these difficulties and has used diverse approachesto solve them. These approaches have been brought together inthe so-called MIRAGEToolbox. This toolbox consists of a series of methodologies that are designed to be used in a sequential manner to allow the establishment of the ecological and chemical status of temporary streams and to relate these findings to the hydrological status of the streams. The toolbox is intended to serve the following purposes: (i) the determination of the hydrological regime of the stream; (ii) the design of adequate schedules for biological andchemicalsamplingaccordingtotheaquaticstateofthestream;(iii)thefulfillmentofcriteriafordesigningreferenceconditionstations;(iv)the analysis of hydrological modifications of the stream regime (with the definition of the hydrological status); and (v) the development of new methods to measure the ecological status (including structural and functional methods) and chemical status when the stream’s hydrological conditions are far from those in permanent streams. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A lens made by a properly arranged array of crystals can be used to focus x-rays of energy ranging from 30 to 500 keV for x-ray astronomy. Mosaic or curved crystals can be employed as x-ray optical elements. In this work self standing curved focusing Si and GaAs crystals in which the lattice bending is induced by a controlled damaging process on one side of planar crystals are characterized. Diffraction profiles in Laue geometry have been measured in crystals at x-ray energies E = 17, 59 and 120 keV. An enhancement of diffraction efficiency is found in asymmetric geometries.

We present in this paper an update on the design of BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray facility), an X-ray apparatus to be realized at INAF/OAB and that will generate an expanded, uniform and parallel beam of soft X-rays. BEaTriX will be used to perform the functional tests of X-ray focusing modules of large X-ray optics such as those for the ATHENA X-ray observatory, using the Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) as a baseline technology, and Slumped Glass Optics (SGO) as a possible alternative. Performing the tests in X-rays provides the advantage of an in-situ, at-wavelength quality control of the optical modules produced in series by the industry, performing a selection of the modules with the best angular resolution, and, in the case of SPOs, there is also the interesting possibility to align the parabolic and the hyperbolic stacks directly under X-rays, to minimize the aberrations. However, a parallel beam with divergence below 2 arcsec is necessary in order to measure mirror elements that are expected to reach an angular resolution of about 4 arcsec, since the ATHENA requirement for the entire telescope is 5 arcsec. Such a low divergence over the typical aperture of modular optics would require an X-ray source to be located in a several kilometers long vacuum tube. In contrast, BEaTriX will be compact enough (5 m x 14 m) to be housed in a small laboratory, will produce an expanded X-ray beam 60 mm x 200 mm broad, characterized by a very low divergence (1.5 arcsec HEW), strong polarization, high uniformity, and X-ray energy selectable between 1.5 keV and 4.5 keV. In this work we describe the BEaTriX layout and show a performance simulation for the X-ray energy of 4.5 keV., Preprint version: the fully published paper can be downloaded at http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2188607

In recent years, advances in computer technology allowed the development of sophisticated software applications able to simulate the effects of oil spills on the marine environment. The need for such modelling arises from the perception of oil spills as long lasting and highly damaging events because of their wide range of potential impacts on the environment, human health and economic activities. Modelling tools can predict the consequences of these events and allow a targeted Response Planning to be made. This paper presents an innovative application of oil spill modelling tools aimed at supporting the Emergency Response System along the different stages of the project life-cycle. Three case studies are presented, from exploration, to response planning during production, to contingency response during an emergency. The oil spill modelling approach for each case study is detailed, as well as the specific support provided to the decision making process. Two different methods for oil spill modelling and environmental consequences assessment in eni exploration & production activities are shown. Preventive modelling, based on a statistical approach, identifies the range of possible outcomes of an event. Through this simulation, the consequence assessment of a spill provides useful information for a targeted Emergency Response Planning. Emergency modelling, on the other hand, is based on a deterministic approach and simulates the evolution of a single event, whose characteristics are known. In this case, oil spill models can predict the fate of an oil spill in an emergency, providing an insight on its future evolution and driving the decision on the most appropriate response actions. The results highlight the contribution of oil spill modelling in making the Emergency Response System an active player during all the project life-cycle, enabling its complete integration within the project management structure. Oil & Gas operators may benefit of this advanced approach that contributes to the improvement of their Emergency Response Management system. Through a prompt and proper response, the effect of oil spills can be excluded or mitigated, saving human lives as well as protecting the environment, the facilities and Company's reputation.

In June 2013, the European Commission (EC) published the EU Directive 2013/30/EU on Safety of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations (hereafter referred to as the EU Offshore Safety Directive). The objective of the EU Offshore Safety Directive is to reduce as far as possible the occurrence of major accidents related to offshore oil and gas operations and to limit the consequences of any such accident, including any damage to protected species and natural habitats. The Directive defines protected species and natural habitats by referring to Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (hereafter referred to as the Habitats Directive). In order to ensure that all sensitive environmental receptors that may be affected in the event of an accident are identified, eni Upstream, with the support of Amec Foster Wheeler, have mapped sensitive areas in the Mediterranean Sea based on a set of natural and socio-economic criteria. This has been conducted considering both the Habitats Directive and industry good practices. The mapping exercise is an iterative process; maps are based on data that are publicly available and are updated as new datasets become available. In selecting relevant sensitive areas, eni have considered both the EU Habitats Directive Annexes I and II and criteria aligned with the IPIECA/IMO/IOGP guidance document, Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response (2012). All data collected are geo-referenced and can be uploaded onto a Geographic Information System (GIS) platform; the data includes, but are not limited to: Protected Areas (including Natura 2000 sites);Habitats listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive;Species listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive;Species of commercial interest;Aquaculture infrastructure;Touristic areas; This desktop-based baseline can be used for several purposes. In addition to helping eni to comply with the new legislation (e.g. outlining potential environmental consequences of Major Accidents), the maps enable Environmental Specialists to inform decision-making processes along the project lifecycle regarding areas of high environmental value or special vulnerability where extra baseline studies may be needed. The maps can also be used to support Oil Spill Emergency Response teams, so that they can promptly identify sensitive receptors and make informed decisions during emergencies. This paper illustrates the main features of this GIS platform and provides examples of its application.

International audience; The Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires intercalibration to be performed to ensure that ecological status, as defined by the boundary values of national biological assessment systems, is consistent with the definitions outlined in the WFD and comparable between Member States (MS). This article describes an intercalibration of 17 national river macro-invertebrate assessment methods from the Central and Baltic regions of Europe. We explore the hypothesis that intercalibration should be successful if ratios of the observed biota to that expected in reference condition are used to compare assessments of different national assessment systems. National boundaries expressed as ecological quality ratios (EQRs) were converted to values of a common multimetric for the purpose of comparison. Twelve MS for the High/Good boundary and nine MS for the Good/ Moderate boundary (and four MS who subsequently harmonised their boundaries) were within ±0.05 EQR units of the intercalibration boundaries and were deemed to be of comparable ecological standard. The use of a reference-based approach was deemed to be successful given that all the critical pre-requisites for intercalibration were satisfied. The boundaries derived from this intercalibration represent the first common interpretation of the ecological status of rivers based on macro-invertebrate assessment methods across Europe.

AIM To investigate whether serial physical examinations (SPEs) are a safe tool for managing neonates at risk for early-onset sepsis (EOS). METHODS This is a retrospective cohort study of neonates (≥ 34 wks’ gestation) delivered in three high-volume level IIIbirthing centres in Emilia-Romagna (Italy) during a 4-mo period (from September 1 to December 31, 2015). Neonates at risk for EOS were managed according to the SPEs strategy, these were carried out in turn by bedside nursing staff and physicians. A standardized form detailing general wellbeing, skin colour and vital signs was filled in and signed at standard intervals (at age 3, 6, 12, 18, 36 and 48 h) in neonates at risk for EOS. Three independent reviewers reviewed all charts of neonates and abstracted data (gestational age, mode of delivery, group B streptococcus status, risk factors for EOS, duration of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis, postpartum evaluations, therapies and outcome). Rates of sepsis workups, empirical antibiotics and outcome of neonates at-risk (or not) for EOS were evaluated. RESULTS There were 2092 live births and 1 culture-proven EOS (Haemophilus i) (incidence rates of 0.48/1000 live births). Most newborns with signs of illness (51 out of 101, that is 50.5%), and most of those who received postpartum antibiotics (17 out of 29, that is 58.6%) were not at risk for EOS. Compared to neonates at risk, neonates not at risk for EOS were less likely to have signs of illness (51 out of 1442 vs 40 out of 650, P = 0.009) or have a sepsis workup (25 out of 1442 vs 28 out of 650, P < 0.001). However, they were not less likely to receive empirical antibiotics (17 out of 1442 vs 12 out of 650, P = 0.3). Thirty-two neonates were exposed to intrapartum fever or chorioamnionitis: 62.5% (n = 20) had a sepsis workup and 21.9% (n = 7) were given empirical antibiotics. Among 216 neonates managed through the SPEs strategy, only 5.6% (n = 12) had subsequently a sepsis workup and only 1.9% (n = 4) were given empirical antibiotics. All neonates managed through SPEs had a normal outcome. Among 2092 neonates, only 1.6% (n = 34) received antibiotics; 1.4% (n = 29) were ill and 0.2% (n = 5) were asymptomatic (they were treated because of risk factors for EOS). CONCLUSION The SPEs strategy reduces unnecessary laboratory evaluations and antibiotics, and apparently does not worsen the outcome of neonates at-risk or neonates with mild, equivocal, transient symptoms.

Being an attractive and demanding candidate in the field of energy conversion, germanium has attained widespread applications. The present work is aimed at the study of metal organic vapour phase epitaxy of germanium thin films on (0 0 1) silicon at different growth temperatures using isobutyl germane as a precursor. The epilayers were characterized by X-ray diffraction, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy in order to understand the structural and morphological properties. The films were found to be epitaxially grown and single crystalline with slight misorientation (below 0.1 degrees). The interface between the film and substrate was analyzed in depth and different temperature dependent growth behaviours were evidenced. The major relevant lattice imperfections observed were attributed to planar defects and threading dislocations.

A procedure for a large scale harmonization of assessment systems is delineated. The data collected for the two E.U. co-funded projects STAR and AQEM have been used as a benchmark dataset against which a test dataset derived from Italian standard monitoring programs was compared. A central step in the procedure adopted is the calculation of Intercalibration Common Metrics (STAR_ICMs). For both the benchmark and test datasets, six metrics were calculated, normalized and averaged to obtain an ICM index. The median values obtained for this index within each of the High and Good status classes, as defined within the STAR/AQEM dataset, were compared to the classes defined by the National method applied in Italy before WFD approval. The process of harmonization involved the re-positioning of the boundaries between Italian method quality classes until no more differences were found with the values observed in the STAR/AQEM samples. The re-setting of the Italian assessment boundaries by a step-by-step procedure lead to comparable STAR_ICM index values in the two datasets. Within this example, small refinements of the boundaries between high/good and good/moderate status were sufficient to harmonize the Italian assessment quality classes to the benchmark classification. Once a benchmark dataset is agreed among different countries, the procedure outlined can be easily applied to compare and harmonize assessment systems within and outside Europe. The main scientific and practical advantages of the procedure are listed and commented, especially facing the next steps of the Water Framework Directive Intercalibration process.

We report on results of observation of the focusing effect from the planes (220) of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) crystals. We have compared the experimental results with the simulations of the focusing capability of GaAs tiles through a developed Monte Carlo. The GaAs tiles were bent using a lapping process developed at the cnr/imem - Parma (Italy) in the framework of the laue project, funded by ASI, dedicated to build a broad band Laue lens prototype for astrophysical applications in the hard X-/soft gamma-ray energy range (80-600 keV). We present and discuss the results obtained from their characterization, mainly in terms of focusing capability. Bent crystals will significantly increase the signal to noise ratio of a telescope based on a Laue lens, consequently leading to an unprecedented enhancement of sensitivity with respect to the present non focusing instrumentation., 22 pages, 36 figures

Objectives/Scope Emergency preparedness and Crisis Management represent one of the key elements when it comes to deal with Major Accidents both for onshore and offshore facilities. Wherever process complexity (highly congested areas, simultaneous operations, presence of high H2S concentrations) and context features (desert areas, deep waters) are experienced, there is a high potential to hinder an effective response, especially in the unfortunate case that the emergency extends beyond the asset boundaries. Considerations above lead to develop an integrated approach to Emergency Response and Crisis Management, which can rely not only on management systems, plans and procedures but also on advanced tools to model critical accident scenarios. The biggest challenge in these terms is posed by the reliability of existing tools; in fact, most of the commercial package models available in the market may not be exhaustive enough to describe in detail both the near-field and far-field impact of major events like blowouts and toxic gas dispersions, taking into account the real meteocean conditions in a region of interest. The near-field results shall be used to support the emergency response processes (securing of areas, evacuation and short-term business continuity) which on the other hand need to be supported by the far-field impact assessment that provides useful info to manage potential long-term exposure of population. Yet far-field/long-term impacts to natural/societal unprotected environments cannot be exclusively evaluated with short-term modeling but needs to be treated with a dynamic approach, using advanced modeling tools to simulate the evolution of HC release or toxic dispersion events. Method, Procedures, Process This paper describes a number of proprietary tools developed within the Company to predict the extent of areas affected by major accidents under analysis, in particular blowouts and toxic dispersions, and their far-field effects, along with their use in real time to support the response and take immediate and appropriate actions in case of a real emergency. Benchmark with results obtained applying other commercial tools are also provided. Results, Observation, Conclusions The paper presents crucial elements to support an effective Emergency Response and Crisis Management both internally and externally. Integrated Environmental monitoring through the application of remote sensing satellite images, sensor and fixed station, and Web-GIS application that constitute powerful instruments to examine the composition of critical accident scenarios and their consequences in surrounding areas around industrial complexes.

Hard X-/soft gamma-ray astronomy is a crucial window for the study of the most energetic and violent events in the Universe. To fulfil the scientific requirements in this regime, a new generation of telescopes with a broad operational band extending from tens up to several hundreds of keV and exploiting unprecedented sensitivity (50–100 times better that current instruments) is required. We report on diffractive bent crystals made of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) that are suitable for the construction of high sensitivity X-/gamma-ray Laue lens space telescopes. Laue lenses, made of sets of diffractive crystals working in transmission, offer one possibility, albeit technically challenging, to build a new generation of focusing telescopes that can extend the energy band far beyond the 80 keV limit for current multilayer concentrators. In particular, we present the results obtained from the characterization of crystals that will be used to realise a broad band Laue demonstrator. They have been studied in terms of focusing capability and diffraction efficiency by using a flat X-ray panel imager and an HPGe spectrometer as focal plane detectors. The GaAs tiles, bent via a surface lapping procedure, have been developed at the IMEM/CNR in Parma (Italy) in the framework of the LAUE project funded by the Italian Space Agency. The main goal of the project was to build a broad band Laue lens demonstrator for hard X-/soft gamma-rays (80–300 keV).

Future large X-ray observatories like ATHENA will be equipped with very large optics, obtained by assembling modular optical elements, named X-ray Optical Units (XOU) based on the technology of either Silicon Pore Optics or Slumped Glass Optics. In both cases, the final quality of the modular optic (a 5 arcsec HEW requirement for ATHENA) is determined by the accuracy alignment of the XOUs within the assembly, but also by the angular resolution of the individual XOU. This is affected by the mirror shape accuracy, its surface roughness, and the mutual alignment of the mirrors within the XOU itself. Because of the large number of XOUs to be produced, quality tests need to be routinely done to select the most performing stacked blocks, to be integrated into the final optic. In addition to the usual metrology based on profile and roughness measurements, a direct measurement with a broad, parallel, collimated and uniform X- ray beam would be the most reliable test, without the need of a focal spot reconstruction as usually done in synchrotron light. To this end, we designed the BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray facility) to be realized at INAF-OAB, devoted to the functional tests of the XOUs. A grazing incidence parabolic mirror and an asymmetrically cut crystal will produce a parallel X-ray beam broad enough to illuminate the entire aperture of the focusing elements. An X-ray camera at the focal distance from the mirrors will directly record the image. The selection of different crystals will enable to test the XOUs in the 1 - 5 keV range, included in the X-ray energy band of ATHENA (0.2-12 keV). In this paper we discuss a possible BEaTriX facility implementation. We also show a preliminary performance simulation of the optical system.

A Laue lens is an innovative approach to focus x and gamma ray in the energy range from ~60 keV to 600 keV through Laue diffraction by a properly arranged array of crystals. Good candidates as optical elements for such lenses are selfstanding bent crystals, in which the permanent curvature is obtained by a controlled surface treatment. We present a study based on the dynamical theory of x-ray diffraction efficiency of bent Si, Ge and GaAs crystals. We demonstrate that optimizing the curvature and the thickness for a proper diffraction geometry, relatively light Si, Ge and GaAs crystals may diffract with the same or even higher efficiency than higher density mosaic crystals, such as Cu, Ag and Au also permitting to accurately design the diffraction angular range. Thus, the use of low-Z curved crystals in Laue lenses may permit an increase of the lens performance. This opens important opportunities for use in x-ray astronomy for space telescopes and in nuclear medicine for the localization of cancers in the human body.

In recent years the increasing hydrocarbon demand and at the same time the end of easy oil has pushed Oil and Gas companies towards unconventional deposits and higher risk and remote areas characterized by social and environmental sensitivities. Although the experience in developing the Arctic region dates back to the early 20th century, there has been recently an increased and renewed global interest in the Arctic. In particular regions like the Norwegian-Russian Barents Sea, Alaska and Greenland have become the preferred areas of exploration and production activities despite of all the threats posed by the extreme operating conditions, the site remoteness, the ice presence, the prolonged darkness and the political regulation. In this sensitive and hostile environment Oil spill Preparedness and Emergency Response become particularly challenging. This paper shows the efforts made within the company to combine consolidated methodology and new initiatives with the aim of delivering a proactive instead of reactive approach to manage the consequences of catastrophic oil spill with a special focus on the issues posed by Arctic operations. In the perspective to enhance the oil spill preparedness and the emergency response, the paper describes the synergy between an expeditive semi-quantitative approach to assess the risk of blow out and releases from pipelines with an environmental analysis tool included in the company 3Ter Advanced Emergency System. Blow out risks and pipeline releases are studied through predictive company in house modeling tools. The results of such simulations feed the environmental analysis tool that is characterized by different layers i.e. habitats, marine regions and protected areas and additional information such as meteo marine data, bathymetry and thickness and concentration of oil. Through the combination of all the above mentioned techniques, it is possible to identify the most appropriate preventive and recovery barriers and select the most suitable response tactics taking into account the specific challenges posed by Arctic environment.

The European Water Framework Directive stipulates that Member States have to assess the ecological status of a water body by comparing the present to the expected reference condition. In the AQEM project participating countries used the criteria from the Water Framework Directive to select reference sites for each stream type. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the suitability of these criteria and to validate the reference conditions chosen, by comparing the classification of sites before analysis with the final assessment of the sites using the assessment system which was developed within the AQEM project. Our study showed that not all criteria for reference conditions could be met for all stream types. This implies that `true' reference sites could not be selected for all stream types within the AQEM project. In our study, the differences between ecoregions, countries, and stream types were interpreted in terms of human impact. Validation of reference conditions showed differences between classification of sites as reference sites based on criteria to be used in the field and directly interpreting environmental or biological data and the result of the final assessment system. In some countries it was not possible to select reference conditions, because most of the a priori criteria were met. For example, reference conditions for Dutch stream types were established using historical data and predictions based on data from other geographical regions. Using data from adjacent countries appeared to be a feasible method for establishing reference conditions. Reference sites taken from other geographical areas represented a higher ecological quality than the Dutch sites of good ecological quality. However, metric results showed a large overlap between good and high ecological status. Historical information, on the other hand, was not found to be useful in metric calculations because of the confounding differences in sampling methods. One strong advantage of using historical information is that rare species that are locally extinct but still occur in the same stream type in other geographical areas can be added to the expected reference conditions. When and which methods can be used for establishing reference conditions is illustrated in a decision tree.

Among the methods to focus photons the diffraction in crystals results as one of the most effective for high energy photons. An assembling of properly oriented crystals can form a lens able to focus x-rays at high energy via Laue diffraction in transmission geometry; this is a Laue lens. The x-ray diffraction theory provides that the maximum diffraction efficiency is achieved in ideal mosaic crystals, but real mosaic crystals show diffraction efficiencies several times lower than the ideal case due to technological problems. An alternative and convenient approach is the use of curved crystals. We have recently optimized an efficient method based on the surface damage of crystals to produce self-standing uniformly curved Si, GaAs and Ge tiles of thickness up to 2-3 mm and curvature radii R down to a few meters. We show that, for curved diffracting planes, such crystals have a diffraction efficiency nearly forty times higher than the diffraction efficiency of perfect similar flat crystals, thus very close to that of ideal mosaic crystals. Moreover, in an alternative configuration where the diffracting planes are perpendicular to the curved ones, a focusing effect occurs and will be shown. These results were obtained for several energies between 17 and 120 keV with lab sources or at high energy facilities such as LARIX at Ferrara (Italy), ESRF at Grenoble (France), and ANKA at Karlsruhe (Germany).

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD 2000/60/CE) requires the quantification of anthropogenic pressures for evaluating the risk of failing environmental objectives when setting river basin management plans and for biological data interpretation when assessing ecological status. Many studies emphasized the close relationship between biological communities (e.g., fishes and invertebrates) and land use. The need for evaluating the impact of non-natural land use at different spatial scales is often stated, and relatively small spatial scales can be particularly relevant to understand biotic community changes. Abiotic descriptors derived for the reach scale can thus be used to evaluate the success of restoration measures, and their selection and testing is urgent for river management purposes. In this context we describe a new index, which allows quantification of land use modification at the reach scale, the 'Land Use Index - reach' (LUIr). The LUIr was developed on the basis of data gathered in the field with the CARAVAGGIO method (river habitat survey technique). A full description of the index is presented. In addition, jointly with a series of environmental descriptors developed for the quantification of general or specific anthropogenic stressors (sensu WFD), the effectiveness of the new index (LUIr) in describing environmental gradients as perceived from benthic invertebrates has been evaluated for Mediterranean rivers in Cyprus. The multiple regression analysis performed (all subset regression and relative importance) revealed that among the set of environmental descriptors the LUIr resulted to be the factor best explaining the variation of biological metrics. Additionally, the analysis highlighted that the biological metrics more influenced by land use at the catchment level (LUIc) are those estimating the overall diversity and are consequently more influenced by factors at larger scale. The descriptor derived by physico-chemical parameters was in a few cases selected by regression analysis as the most important factor in explaining variation of biological metrics. The descriptors able to detect variation of other habitat features (i.e., habitat modification, habitat diversity and lentic-lotic character) resulted as weak predictors in the models. Our results support the conclusion that the LUIr index can be a useful and cost-effective tool to interpret invertebrate community variation. Moreover, as urgently requested by WFD, LUIr can be used to set and check effectiveness of measures for the improvement of aquatic ecosystems, particularly for Mediterranean streams where agricultural land use is one of the main anthropogenic pressures. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Oil and gas industry is a risky business: e&p activities have the potential to give rise to major accidents such as Blow Out events, as well as hydrocarbon leaks and also catastrophic pipeline/ riser release leading to fire and or explosion. These dramatic events can result in loss of human lives, severe pollution to the environment, damage to the asset and production disruption, and in additional to the emotional and ethical impact can seriously compromise company reputation. On top of that, in recent years another critical challenge is posed by e&p activities in sensitive and hostile environment that represent the new frontier of development: in fact the increasing hydrocarbon demand pushes operators towards unconventional deposits and higher-risk and remote areas characterized by social and environmental sensitivities where the emergency response and the oil spill preparedness become particularly difficult. This paper describes the successful synergy of some consolidated methodologies and new initiatives undertaken within our Company to foresee consequences of major accidents and enhance emergency response and oil spill preparedness in e&p operations: –a new procedure for the evaluation and prevention of the exposure to pollution of e&p wells that foresees the identification of exposure to pollution classes (High, Medium, Low EtP), for different typologies of wells;–the development of SMART GIS project, a web application to acquire data source information to support emergency management and oil spill preparedness;–the combination of in house Short Cut Model (SCM)iiiiii in BART tool for an expeditive estimation of Blow Out consequences;–the development of an expeditive semi-quantitative methodology to assess risk of release from pipeline combined with a Bow tie approach for the identification of preventive and recovery barriers to reduce frequency of hazardous event or mitigate their consequences.

Like any other industry, in the oil and gas business accidents always cost money and can adversely affect production cost. Blow Out events can be undoubtedly recognized as the most severe accident posed by exploration and production activities, and their hazardousness and severe consequences have been dramatically confirmed by the recent Macondo Disaster The new regulatory reviews of safety directives resulted from Macondo foresee that all operators will have to ensure they have access to sufficient physical, human and financial resources to minimize the impact of a major accident. In other words companies have to demonstrate to be aware of the nature and extent of the potential liabilities resulting from oil spills and provide evidence that all necessary provisions have already been or will be made, to cover them. However it is not always easy to estimate likelihood and costs associated to severe Oil spill contaminations since a number of variable enters this complex equation such as the geographical location, type of oil, complexity of operations (deep water drilling, HP HT, workover, etc), response capability, climatic conditions including extreme weather, sensitive areas of operations (arctic, sour) This paper presents a methodology to semi-quantitatively compare the Cost of the risk of Blow Out events in different parts of the world and from a range of facilities and operations, through a Screening matrix based on Habitat features and operational context (reported on one axis of the matrix and on the other respectively). The entries of the matrix at the intersection are estimated taking into account those factors that can affect the "final bill" of an oil spill as well as likelihood of occurrence of the event and the operative life of the plants. The blow out cost screening matrix could provide useful information to the operators and help to identify the greatest potential risk for Oil spills, compare assets and areas of operations, establish priorities for investments and allocate adequate resources for a timely and efficient oil spill response

SmartGIS is a web application based on a Continuous Improvement project focused on Oil Spill Management processes to perform a large-scale harmonization of procedure and strategies. The main scope was the development of an Oil Spill Best Practice which provides a guideline addressed to eni subsidiaries for oil spill preparedness and for the selection of the most suitable tactics and technologies for response and remediation. This is based on the habitat types present in each Country where eni operates. To reach this goal, the Habitat Mapping and Benchmarking activities were performed as intermediate deliverables. Habitat mapping is based on the mapping and classification of all the habitat types using certified reference datasets. Three marine and seven terrestrial habitats were identified. Benchmarking analysis provides a detailed overview over the current status and development trends of oil spill response and remediation tactics and technologies applied worldwide. They have then been categorized with respect to suitability for the various habitat types. A webGIS application was identified as the best solution to manage all the data and information acquired during the development of the project. The application runs wherever an internet connection is available and allows an effective remote support of the accidental oil spill scenario. For this reason the SmartGIS was launched with the development of an environmental analysis tool within the 3Ter Advanced Emergency System, already implemented in eni in case of emergency. The environmental analysis tool is characterised by different layers for habitats, countries, marine regions, active concessions and protected areas. In addition it can be supplemented by other information such as meteomarine data, nautical charts, bathymetry and vessel tracking as well as thickness and concentration of oil. This paper will illustrate how the data and information presented in the SmartGIS can be applied worldwide in case of an accidental oil spill, providing a effective contribution to handle the emergency situation.

The use of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) is an emerging technology in many fields of marine activity (military, scientific, industrial), offering a significant potential in cost savings and extension of the operational capabilities related to the solutions currently adopted in offshore operations. Commercially available AUVs are mainly used by the oil & gas industry for the execution of seabed surveys and they are not routinely applied for carrying out the environmental monitoring and asset integrity around oil&gas offshore infrastructures. Eni e&p and its subsidiary Eni Norge, in cooperation with Tecnomare, have launched the CLEAN SEA project (Continuous Long-term Environmental and Asset iNtegrity monitoring at SEA) with the objective to use a commercially available AUV, properly upgraded with key enabling technologies, for the execution of environmental monitoring and asset integrity in offshore fields where eni operates. This paper will address how to reach this goal. A custom designed mission payload, arranged as modular and interchangeable pods, has been installed at the AUV. These modules, characterised by a set of sensors, are built to perform different offshore monitoring activities according to specific needs: automatic water samples collection; visual inspection (asset, seabed) and hydrocarbon leakage detection; automatic chemical analyses of trace pollutants and acoustic survey of seabed and pipelines / flowlines. This paper will in addition illustrate the possible future extension of the AUV operational capabilities through the integration and field demonstration of key technologies such as underwater docking, wireless underwater communication for mission data downloading and wireless power recharge for increased autonomy. This may enable a "permanent" operation subsea independently of support from surface. A comprehensive technical overview of the concept will be presented as well as the results of the demonstration tests.

In a Laue lens made of single crystals oriented to diffract parallel x-rays at the lens focus, the energy and angular resolution are limited by the crystal size and by the crystal mosaicity. The use of extended crystals bent according to the lens curvature provides better focusing, with the resolution given essentially by the crystal mosaicity. With this approach, a crystal mosaicity as low as 15-25 arcsec, well below the mosaicity value of copper crystals, was found suitable for the new design of the Laue lens. The reflectivity and transmission profiles and the integrated intensity have been measured in flat and bent GaAs and Si crystals prepared by the method of surface damaging by using sandpaper of different grain size. The surface grinding induces a local lattice strain which produces a self-standing bent crystal. Bent crystals with radius of curvature lower than a critical value given by the extinction length behave as ideal mosaic crystals, maximizing the diffraction efficiency at high x-ray energies. It is found that the surface grinding does not affect the crystal diffraction efficiency, the damage thickness being limited to a few tens microns near the crystal surface. (C) 2014 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)

For the first time, with the Laue project, bent crystals are being used for focusing photons in the 80-300 keV energy range. The advantage is their high reflectivity and better Point Spread Function with respect to the mosaic flat crystals. Simulations have already shown their excellent focusing capability which makes them the best candidates for a Laue lens whose sensitivity is also driven by the size of the focused spot. Selected crystals are Germanium (perfect, (111)) and Gallium Arsenide (mosaic, (220)) with 40 m curvature radius to get a spherical lens with 20 m long focal length. A lens petal is being built. We report the measurement technique by which we are able to estimate the exact curvature of each tile within a few percent of uncertainty and their diffraction efficiency. We also discuss some results., 9 pages, 15 figures, SPIE conference vol. 8861 (2013)

Curved crystals used as optical elements of a Laue lens for hard x- and gamma-ray astronomy have a larger diffraction efficiency with respect to perfect flat crystals. In this work we show how to achieve the bending of the crystals by a controlled surface damaging which introduces defects in a superficial layer of few tens micrometers in thickness undergoing a highly compressive strain. Several silicon, gallium arsenide and germanium wafer crystals have been treated. The local and mean curvature radii of each sample have been determined by means of high resolution x-ray diffraction measurements in Bragg condition at low energy (8 keV). (100) oriented silicon and (111) oriented germanium samples showed spherical curvatures, whereas (100) oriented GaAs treated samples evidenced an elliptical curvature with major axes corresponding to the

Offshore Environmental Monitoring can be defined as technical and institutional activity aimed at measuring, evaluating and tracking potential physical, chemical and biological environmental changes which could be induced by operative activities or by external causes. By carrying out this activity, the oil company can take the appropriate corrective measures for creating a Monitoring Plan related to the offshore e&p projects and operations. According to this approach, the baseline information on pristine conditions is compared against exploration drilling, development and post-development impacts. Efficiency of mitigation and restoration measures can be assessed through the monitoring activity. Since early ‘90s, eni has carried out several environmental monitoring campaigns around its offshore installations worldwide aiming at evaluating changes in the current state of the interested area and in order to assessing evolutionary trends of environment. These surveys were able to provide early warning of any potentially serious impact and to provide data for strategic decisions. Besides they have been supporting to determine whether any detected change in physical, chemical and biological components was caused either by e&p activities or by natural occurrences. Based on the above considerations, this paper introduces guidelines on strategy approach carried out by eni in offshore environmental monitoring, during the project life-cycle.

Diffraction profiles of curved Si and GaAs crystals obtained by a controlled damage process on one side of planar crystals have been investigated at X-ray energiesE= 17, 59 and 120 keV. AtE= 17 and 59 keV in the condition of slight curvature, that is when the diffracting plane bending over the extinction length is lower than the Darwin width, the Laue diffraction profiles with lattice planes parallel or inclined with respect to the curvature radiusRshow an enhancement of integrated intensity proportional to 1/R, much larger than in the corresponding perfect bent crystals. AtE= 120 keV, in the condition of strong curvature, the crystals behave as bent perfect crystals with integrated intensity corresponding to that of a mosaic crystal. These crystals are proposed as optical elements for focusing hard X-ray beams.

We will describe the LAUE project, supported by the Italian Space Agency, whose aim is to demonstrate the capability to build a focusing optics in the hard X-/soft gamma-ray domain (80--600 keV). To show the lens feasibility, the assembling of a Laue lens petal prototype with 20 m focal length is ongoing. Indeed, a feasibility study, within the LAUE project, has demonstrated that a Laue lens made of petals is feasible. Our goal is a lens in the 80-600 keV energy band. In addition to a detailed description of the new LARIX facility, in which the lens is being assembled, we will report the results of the project obtained so far., Comment: 17 pages, SPIE conference 2013 - San Diego, USA

(previously submitted to SPE) The International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) Offshore Environmental Monitoring Task Force has developed a compendium of guidance and best practices for offshore environmental monitoring. Environmental monitoring has increased and become more sophisticated as concerns around the ecological impacts of offshore drilling and production have grown. Environmental monitoring is now integrated into the full life cycle of an offshore oil field, from early seismic evaluations through production to decommissioning. Traditionally, water column analyses, and physical, chemical and biological analyses of sediments have composed the basic elements of an environmental monitoring program. These analyses have often been coupled with dispersion modeling assessments that estimate the spatial footprint of drilling and production discharges both within the water column and on the sea floor. More recently, new technologies are becoming part of the environmental monitoring toolbox. These include subsea chemical and physical sensors attached to subsea landers, remote observational vehicles equipped with video, sensor and sampling capabilities, whole effluent toxicity testing, and biomarkers in organisms caught or caged within the oilfield. This new OGP guidance will enable an operator to define the scope of monitoring appropriate for their operation and stage of development, select from a range of monitoring technologies, and take steps to ensure high quality data is obtained. Extended Abstract: The International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) Offshore Environmental Monitoring Task Force has developed a compendium of guidance and best practices for offshore environmental monitoring. Environmental monitoring can be driven by regulatory requirements or to meet internal environmental stewardship expectations. The compendium provides guidance to offshore operators on when and how to conduct an environmental monitoring programme. To scope out potential environmental data needs for a monitoring programme, OGP developed the e-SHRIMP1 toolbox to assist offshore operators in the assessment and management of impacts in all project activities throughout the full field development lifecycle. Different project phases can be mapped to the e-SHRIMP1 framework (OGP, 2007).

GaAs, Cu, CdTe, and CdZnTe crystals have been studied as optical elements for lenses for hard x-ray astronomy. High-resolution x-ray diffraction at 8 keV in Bragg geometry and at synchrotron at energies up to 500 keV in Laue geometry has been used. A good agreement was found between the mosaicity evaluated in Bragg geometry at 8 keV with x-ray penetration of the order of few tens of micrometers and that derived at synchrotron in transmission Laue geometry at higher x-ray energies. Mosaicity values in a range between a few to 150 arcsec were found in all the samples but, due to the presence of crystal grains in the cm range, CdTe and CdZnTe crystals were found not suitable. Cu crystals exhibit a mosaicity of the order of several arcmin; they indeed were found to be severely affected by cutting damage which could only be removed with a very deep etching. The full width at half maximum of the diffraction peaks decreased at higher x-ray energies showing that the peak broadening is affected by crystallite size. GaAs crystals grown by Czochralski method showed a mosaic spread up to 30 arcsec and good diffraction efficiency up to energies of 500 keV. The use of thermal treatments as a possible method to increase the mosaic spread was also evaluated.

For hard x-ray astronomy in the 70-1000 keV energy range Laue lenses have been proposed where the focusing elements are made of single mosaic crystals, in order to increase the diffraction efficiency with respect to perfect crystals. Suitable crystals to be used for such application should have a sufficient density to increase the diffraction efficiency and a mosaicity ranging between 30 arcsec and 1-2 arcmin, depending on the lens focusing distance and resolution. In the past germanium and copper crystals, often employed as monochromators for neutrons, have been considered. In this work we propose several crystalline materials of different degree of crystal perfection such as GaAs, Cu, CdTe, and CdZnTe as possible mosaic crystals for hard x-ray astronomy. They were analyzed by high resolution x-ray diffraction at 8 keV and by diffraction at energies up to 700 keV at synchrotron. It was found that: -CdTe and CdZnTe crystals exhibit low angle grain boundaries preventing the formation of a single diffracted x-ray beam; -Cu crystals exhibit mosaicity of the order of several arcmin, however a deep etching is needed to remove the cutting damage; -GaAs crystals grown by LEC method show mosaicity between 15 and 30 arcsec and good diffraction efficiency up to energies of 700 keV. Annealing and surface damage were considered as possible methods to increase the GaAs crystal mosaicity.

Yttrium aluminium borate single crystals, doped with 1 and 4 mol% of Pr3+, were analyzed in the wave number range 500–25000 cm−1 and temperature range 9–300 K by means of high-resolution Fourier transform spectroscopy. In spite of the complex spectra, exhibiting broad and split lines, the energy level scheme was obtained for several excited manifolds. The careful analysis of the spectra as a function of the temperature allowed us to identify most of the sublevels of the ground manifold. The thermally induced line shift, well described by a single-phonon coupling model, could be exploited to provide information about the energy of the phonons involved. The orientation of the dielectric ellipsoid and of the dipole moments associated to a few transitions was also determined from linear dichroism measurements. The experimental data were fitted in the framework of the crystal-field theory, but the agreement was not satisfactory, as already reported for Pr3+ ion in other matrices. Additional discrepancies came from the dichroic spectra analysis and the line splitting, possibly associated to hyperfine interaction. Some causes which might be responsible for the difficulties encountered in the Pr3+ ion theoretical modelling are discussed.

Marine polar ecosystems are often claimed being sensitive and having low tolerance toward external stress. In the Norwegian sector of the Barents Sea, this assumption has caused the implementation of a zero physical discharge policy. This policy is preventing an empirical definition of tolerance limits in relation to petroleum activities and the application of tailored and effective mitigation measures.Eni E&P, its subsidiary Eni Norge, TOTAL E&P and its subsidiary TOTAL E&P NORGE, have launched the BIOSEA JIP in cooperation with IRIS-Biomiljø. The aim of the project was to build a scientific platform for risk based environmental management of Arctic E&P offshore activities. The BIOSEA initiative, developed over a 6 years period, aimed at establishing a suitable set of tools for environmental monitoring in offshore areas, and at adding knowledge on the sensitivity of Arctic species to dispersed crude oil and produced water. The project finished in December 2009 and the main achievements are presented in this paper.Controlled laboratory exposure experiments and on site field surveys clearly demonstrated the relevance of typical oil exposure parameters (biomarkers) as valuable tools for oil exposure monitoring in different Arctic species. The monitoring toolbox was refined based on sensitivity and response patterns of individual biomarkers. Biomarker field reference levels were also established for the same species, as some biomarkers may be influenced by environmental and seasonal conditions. Based on data obtained from laboratory exposure experiments and field baseline monitoring, biomarker threshold levels were estimated. By establishing such biomarker threshold levels, BIOSEA has significantly contributed to the definition of assessment criteria to be used for monitoring of the environmental quality in the marine environment, as required by the Integrated Management Plan for the Barents Sea and Lofoten areas.

Through a joint industry project, initiated by the oil industry, a risk based assessment model was developed, enabling quantification of environmental risk from discharges from drilling operations. This tool, applicable for decision support, establishing cost-effective measures for reducing potential harmful drilling discharges to the marine environment, is a further development of the Environmental Impact Factor (EIF) approach used for the management of discharges of produced water on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. The developed EIF for drilling discharges (EIFDD) assesses potential environmental impacts from the discharge of cuttings and drilling fluids. Potential impacts from particulates (e.g. barite) and chemicals in the water column and sediments are assessed. Additionally, potential physical stress from deposition of drilling mud and cuttings on the sea floor are evaluated. Principles for environmental risk assessment as described by the European Commission's Technical Guidance Document (TGD) and Species Sensitivity Distributions were incorporated. One of the main challenges was the application of risk assessment principles to non-toxic stressors, originally designed to evaluate toxic stress,. The EIFDD evaluates environmental risks from oxygen depletion, change in grain size and burial in marine sediments. In order to derive environmental threshold effect values for all stressors an extensive literature study was carried out. Besides that information resulting from decades of environmental monitoring around offshore platforms on the Norwegian Continental Shelf was used for both determination of thresholds and validation purposes. The conceptual framework of this state-of-the-art environmental risk management tool is presented, including the risk assessment principles, and methods to derive exposure and threshold effect values. The use of the EIFDD is illustrated with an example calculation.

This paper briefly summarizes the ERMS project and presents the developed model by showing results from environmental fates and risk calculations of a discharge from offshore drilling operations. The developed model calculates environmental risks for the water column and sediments resulting from exposure to toxic stressors (e.g., chemicals) and nontoxic stressors (e.g., suspended particles, sediment burial). The approach is based on existing risk assessment techniques described in the European Union technical guidance document on risk assessment and species sensitivity distributions. The model calculates an environmental impact factor, which characterizes the overall potential impact on the marine environment in terms of potentially impacted water volume and sediment area. The ERMS project started in 2003 and was finalized in 2007. In total, 28 scientific reports and 9 scientific papers have been delivered from the ERMS project (http://www.sintef.no/erms).

In this special issue we present the major results of the EU funded research project STAR (Standardisation of River Classifications: Framework method for calibrating different biological survey results against ecological quality classifications to be developed for the Water Framework Directive; contract number EVK1-CT-2001-00089).

STAR is a European Commission Framework V project (EVK1-CT-2001-00089). The project aim is to provide practical advice and solutions with regard to many of the issues associated with the Water Framework Directive. This paper provides a context for the STAR research programme through a review of the requirements of the directive and the Common Implementation Strategy responsible for guiding its implementation. The scientific and strategic objectives of STAR are set out in the form of a series of research questions and the reader is referred to the papers in this volume that address those objectives, which include: (a) Which methods or biological quality elements are best able to indicate certain stressors? (b) Which method can be used on which scale? (c) Which method is suited for early and late warnings? (d) How are different assessment methods affected by errors and uncertainty? (e) How can data from different assessment methods be intercalibrated? (f) How can the cost-effectiveness of field and laboratory protocols be optimised? (g) How can boundaries of the five classes of Ecological Status be best set? (h) What contribution can STAR make to the development of European standards? The methodological approaches adopted to meet these objectives are described. These include the selection of the 22 stream-types and 263 sites sampled in 11 countries, the sampling protocols used to sample and survey phytobenthos, macrophytes, macroinvertebrates, fish and hydromorphology, the quality control and uncertainty analyses that were applied, including training, replicate sampling and audit of performance, the development of bespoke software and the project outputs. This paper provides the detailed background information to be referred to in conjunction with most of the other papers in this volume. These papers are divided into seven sections: (1) typology, (2) organism groups, (3) macrophytes and diatoms, (4) hydromorphology, (5) tools for assessing European streams with macroinvertebrates, (6) intercalibration and comparison and (7) errors and uncertainty. The principal findings of the papers in each section and their relevance to the Water Framework Directive are synthesised in short summary papers at the beginning of each section. Additional outputs, including all sampling and laboratory protocols and project deliverables, together with a range of freely downloadable software are available from the project website at www.eu_star.at.

Germanium is considered the most suitable semiconductor for monolithic integration of near-infrared detectors on silicon photonic chips. Here we report on Ge-on-Si near-infrared photodetectors fabricated by thermal evaporation, demonstrating the use of phosphorus spin-on-dopant to compensate the acceptor states introduced by dislocations. The detectors exhibit 1.55 mu m responsivities as high as 0.1 A/W, more than two orders of magnitude larger than in undoped devices and comparing well with state-of-the-art p-i-n photodiodes. This approach enables simple and low-cost monolithic integration of near-infrared sensors with silicon photonics. (C) 2012 American Institute of Physics. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4747213]