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Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is agriculture that increases productivity, improves resilience, and mitigates climate change. Smallholder adoption of farming technology is necessary to speed the transition to CSA. Here, we assessed the determinants of adoption of five technologies that can help achieve some of the CSA outcomes in smallholder farms in Tanzania. They included: crop and livestock diversification, irrigation, application of chemical fertilizers, and agroforestry. Using data collected from 821 farming households, a multivariate probit model was employed to evaluate the determinants of adoption, allowing for examination of synergies and trade-offs between the technologies. Application of chemical fertilizers was fairly well adopted (34% of farmers), while irrigation was least adopted (26%). Some technologies, including crop diversification and irrigation, as well as application of chemical fertilizer and agro-forestry, complemented each other. Trade-offs were observed between livestock diversification and irrigation. Female control of farm resources, farm location, and household resources were major determinants of adoption. We therefore, recommend strategies that seeks to enhance building household resource as pathway for improved adoption of new technologies.

Smallholder farmers are excluded from efficient and effective participation in high-value agro-food market chains due to major competitiveness constraints and several market failures along these chains. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the competitiveness of smallholder farmers in a more coordinated and sustainable way that promote their effective and efficient participation in high-value agro-food market chains. In particular, the study aims at determining the main role of households’ capitals, institutional, and access-related factors in conditioning the decision of smallholder farmers of African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) to access pillars of competitiveness in high-value market chains (HVMCs). For this purpose, a unique household-level data from a total of 1232 rural and peri-urban AIV-producing households were surveyed, and the data obtained were analysed by using a multivariate probit model. The results suggest that about two thirds of smallholder AIV farmers had access to at least one pillar of competitiveness in HVMCs. The model results show the presence of inter-dependency of household level decisions to access multiple pillars of competitiveness in HVMCs. Furthermore, the results also reveal that coping with shocks, coupled with access to information on market prices and warnings of unexpected events, contract farming, certification and modern irrigation technologies are the main conditioning factors to the access of the pillars of competitiveness by smallholder farmers. The promotion and implementation of a well-founded mobile phone-based information access platforms, as well as effective and efficient livelihood strategies that support smallholder farmers to access pillars of competitiveness, is of critical importance towards overcoming the major competitiveness constraints along high-value agro-food chains.

Sustainable intensification promotes environmentally sound and productive agriculture. However, use of sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) is low in many sub-Sharan African countries. This study examined the adoption of SIPs in Kenyan rural and peri-urban vegetable production to understand the scale of and underlying factors in the use of SIPs. A multistage sampling technique was employed to randomly select 685 rural and peri-urban vegetable farm households. Household data was then collected and anaylsed for four practices namely improved irrigation, integrated soil fertility, organic manure and crop diversification using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. A multivariate probit model was run to model simultaneous interdependent adoption decisions. Adoption of organic manure and African indigenous vegetables (AIV) diversification was high in both rural and peri-urban areas. However, adoption of improved irrigation systems and integrated soil fertility management was low, and even significantly lower in rural areas than in peri-urban areas (p < 0.041). Similarly, adoption intensity of SIPs was lower in rural areas than in peri-urban areas. Furthermore, the findings also show complementarities and substitutabilities between SIPs. Market integration, the farm location and household income were the major factors heavily influencing the adoption of most SIPs. Policies and programmes that seek to build household financial capital base and integrate farm households into effective and efficient vegetable markets need to be formulated and implemented in order to enhance adoption of SIPs in AIV production.

Trade-offs between livelihood and environmental outcomes due to agricultural intensification in sub-Saharan Africa are uncertain. The present study measured yield, economic performance and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in African indigenous vegetable (AIV) production to investigate the optimal nutrient management strategies. In order to achieve this, an on-farm experiment with four treatments – (1) 40 kg N/ha diammonium phosphate (DAP), (2) 10 t/ha cattle manure, (3) 20 kg N/ha DAP and 5 t/ha cattle manure and (4) a no-N input control – was performed for two seasons. Yields and N2O emissions were directly measured with subsampling and static chambers/gas chromatography, respectively. Economic outcomes were estimated from semi-structured interviews (N = 12). Trade-offs were quantified by calculating N2O emissions intensity (N2OI) and N2O emissions economic intensity (N2OEI). The results indicate that, DAP alone resulted at least 14% greater yields, gross margin and returns to labour in absolute terms but had the highest emissions (p = 0.003). Productivity-climate trade-offs, expressed as N2OI, were statistically similar for DAP and mixed treatments. However, N2OEI was minimized under mixed management (p = 0.0004) while maintaining productivity and gross margins. We therefore conclude that soil fertility management strategies that mix inorganic and organic source present a pathway to sustainable intensification in AIV production. Future studies of GHG emissions in crop production need to consider not only productivity but economic performance when considering trade-offs.