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BACKGROUND Obesity and hypertension are major risk factors for non-communicable diseases in the world today. The relationship between indicators of obesity and blood pressure needs attention in the rural South African population. AIM This study examined the relationship between anthropometric parameters and blood pressure (BP) among young adults in the Ellisras rural area of South Africa. METHODS A total of 742 (365 females and 377 males) young adults aged 22 to 30 years, who were part of the Ellisras Longitudinal Study (ELS), participated in the research. Anthropometric and BP measurements were taken using the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). Linear regression was used to determine the relationship between anthropometric parameters and BP. The risk of developing hypertension among young Elisras adults was evaluated using logistic regression. RESULTS The results indicted a higher but on-significant prevalence of hypertension in men (2.7%) than women (2.4%). Linear regression showed a significant positive (p < 0.05) association between waist circumference and systolic BP (β = 0.273, 95% CI: 0.160-0.386), even after being adjusted for age and gender (β = 253, 95% CI: 0.127-0.343). The risk for developing hypertension was significant ( p < 0.05) for waist circumference (OR = 2.091, 95% CI: 1.129-3.871) after adjustment for age and gender. CONCLUSIONS Of all anthropometric parameters, waist circumference was most significantly associated with BP ( p < 0.05). Anthropometric indicators of obesity were strong predictors of hypertension among young adults in the Ellisras rural area.

Purpose: This study examinedthe independent and joint association of fitness and fatness with clustered cardiovascular disease risk (CVDrs) in 11&ndash, 18 year-old Nigerian adolescents. Methods: A hundred and ninety seven adolescents (100 girls and 97 boys) were evaluated forfitness, fatness and CVDrs. Fitness was evaluated with the progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run test while fatness was assessed using body mass index. A clustered CVDrs was computed from the standardized residuals of total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, Low density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, plasma glucose, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure. Regression models controlling for waist circumference assessed the association of fitness and fatness with CVDrs. Results: Prevalence of clustered CVD risk was 7.1% (girls = 3.0%, boys = 4.1%). Based on risk factor abnormalities, 52.8% of participants had one or more CVD risk factor abnormalities with more boys (27.4%) affected. Low fitness was associated with clustered CVDrs in both girls (R2 = 9.8%, &beta, = &minus, 0.287, p = 0.05) and boys (R2 = 17%, &beta, 0.406, p &lt, 0.0005). Fatness was not associated with the CVDrs in both sexes. After controlling for all the variables in the model, only fitness (R2 = 10.4%) and abdominal fat (R2 = 19.5%) were associated with CVDrs respectively. Unfit girls were 3.2 (95% CI = 1.31&ndash, 7.91, p = 0.011) times likely to develop CVD risk abnormality compared to their fit counterparts. The likelihood of unfit boys developing CVD risk abnormality was 3.9 (95% CI = 1.15&ndash, 10.08, p = 0.005) times compared to their fit peers. Conclusions: Fitness but not fatness was a better predictor of CVDrs in Nigerian boys and girls. The result of this study suggests that any public health strategies aimed at preventing or reversing the increasing trends of CVD risk in adolescents should emphasize promotion of aerobic fitness.

BACKGROUND: Heart rate recovery is an independent risk factor for adverse cardiovascular events and overall mortality. While the prognostic value of delayed Heart rate recovery following cessation of exercise is well documented, relationship of aerobic fitness and fatness with heart rate recovery among youth is less clear. We hypothesized that a delayed fall in heart rate after a progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) test might be due in part to the effects of fitness and overall adiposity. METHODS: A total of 454 adolescents (224 boys and 230 girls) ages 12 to 16 years were evaluated for fitness, body fatness, baseline heart rate and one minute recovery heart rate (HRR1) after a PACER test. The participants were further divided into fit-fat groups to assess the influence of both fitness and fatness on HRR1. Regression models assessing the associations of the independent variables with HRR1were conducted. RESULTS: Fatness was the only independent predictor of HRR1 in boys but not girls. Combined fitness and fatness modesty predicted HRR1 (R2=3%). One minute HRR scores varied by fit-fat groups, the fit/Healthy Weight group demonstrated the most favorable HRR1 recovery profiles while the unfit/overweight group showed the most adverse profiles. CONCLUSIONS: Body fatness but not aerobic fitness was a better predictor of HRR1 in boys but not girls. Youth with higher aerobic fitness and Healthy Weight had more favorable HRR1 profiles than their unfit/Overweight peers

Background : There appears to be a gap between coaches’ expectations concerning their needs and the focus of research findings published by sports scientists. Given the important role of sports science in enhancing athletic performance, closing the gap between sports scientists and coaches is expedient. Objectives : To investigate sports science perceptions and research needs among South African coaches. Methods : Using a cross-sectional survey design, a total of 202 (28 females and 174 males) purposively recruited South African coaches completed a validated questionnaire. Results : Findings indicated that improving the technique/efficiency of athletes (4.3±0.8), reducing the incidence of injury/illness in athletes (4.3±0.8), helping athletes peak for competition (4.3±0.9), and the mental preparation of athletes (4.3±1.0) were reported as the most preferred areas of research by coaches. The coaches also reported that there is a need/role for sports science researchers to translate scientific literature into easily understandable language (3.9±1.0). The coaches also indicated that the knowledge of sports science was important for them in performing their roles as coaches (3.9±1.0). Conclusion : These findings have practical implications for sports federations to revise their coach education programmes to include sports science concepts which can be applied by coaches to improve the sports performance of individual athletes and teams. Keywords : coaching, performance, knowledge

Soccer is the most popular sport worldwide. Despite its global acclaim, scientific studies of soccer have tended to focus on tactics and techniques, thereby neglecting the physical and physiological profile of the players. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine physical and anthropometric characteristics of male South African university soccer players. Twenty-seven male soccer players aged 19 to 24 (mean age: 22.1 years; s = 1.5 years) volunteered to participate in the study. The results showed that goalkeepers (77.5 ± 9.7 kg) and defenders (68.2 ± 6.5 kg) were the heaviest compared to players in other playing positions. The goalkeepers also had the highest percentage of body fat (11.3 ± 2.3%), in contrast to midfielders who had the lowest body fat content (9.1 ± 0.9%). With regard to flexibility, defenders (45.1 ± 4.9 cm) and midfielders (45.9 ± 5.4 cm) performed better than goalkeepers (37.1 ± 4.3 cm) and strikers (40.1 ± 3.4 cm). Midfielders (57.2 ± 3.1 ml1·kg−1·min1) and defenders (56.1 ± 5.1 ml1·kg−1·min1) had significantly higher values of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) than goalkeepers (47.9 ± 0.2 ml−1·kg−1·min−1) and strikers (49.8 ± 6.2 ml−1·kg−1·min−1). No significant (p > 0.05) differences were observed for all other variables, with the exception of body height, body mass, and VO2max. It was therefore concluded that sports scientists and coaches should tailor conditioning programmes in soccer according to players’ positions in view of the implications for successful performance.

The aim of this series of studies was to develop and initially validate an instrument to assess stressors among South African sports coaches. In study one, a preliminary pool of 45 items was developed based on existing literature and an expert panel was employed to assess the content validity and applicability of these items. In study two, the 32 items that were retained after study one were analysed using principal component analysis (PCA). The resultant factorial structure comprised four components: environmental stressors, performance stressors, task-related stressors, and athlete stressors. These four components were made up of 26 items and, together, the components and items comprised the provisional Stressors in Sports Coaching Questionnaire (SSCQ). The results show that the SSCQ demonstrates acceptable internal consistency (.73–.89). The findings provide preliminary evidence that SSCQ is a valid tool to assess stressors among South African sports coaches.

Information on the fitness status of people with disabilities in Kenya is scanty, particularly for those who participate in Special Olympics sports. The study aimed to assess the physical f...

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between obesity and blood pressure among employees of the Vhembe district municipality of Limpopo province. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 452 local government employees (207 males, 245 females) aged 24–65 years. Body mass index (BMI), blood pressure (BP) and waist circumference (WC) measurements, and waistto- height ratio (WHtR) were assessed. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) statistics, version 21. RESULTS: The results showed that 27% of the participants were classified as overweight and 34% as obese, with females being more overweight and obese (29 and 48%, respectively) compared to males (24 and 17%, respectively). Twenty-five per cent of the participants were hypertensive, with females (27%) showing a higher prevalence compared to males (22%). Based on BMI categories, the obese group (35%) had a higher prevalence of hypertension in contrast to groups that were of normal weight (18%) and overweight (22%). The results also showed that systolic blood pressure (SBP) was positively (p ≤ 0.05) correlated with BMI (r = 0.15), WC (r = 0.26) and WHtR (r = 0.29) in the normal and overweight groups (WC, r = 0.23 and WHtR, r = 0.26), and WHtR correlated with SBP (r = 0.26) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (r = 0.19). CONCLUSION: The study showed a high prevalence of overweight, obesity and hypertension, with females more affected than their male counterparts. BMI, WC and WHtR were positively correlated with SBP in the normal and overweight groups, with WHtR positively correlated with both SBP and DBP in the overweight group. Therefore, it is recommended that intervention regimes designed to address obesity and hypertension should consider risk awareness for cardiovascular diseases, impaired quality of life and productivity among local government employees.

There is substantial evidence of rising prevalence of overweight and obesity and its co-morbidities among children in western-high income developed countries. In the European Union, the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing fastest among Polish children. Yet, there is paucity of evidence on the relationship of behavioral factors with body weight status of children in Poland. This study examined the association of obesity with physical fitness, physical activity, sedentary behavior and diet among Polish children. A total of 641 children (10–15 years) recruited from the Lower Silesia region of Poland participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants’ anthropometrics, physical fitness, physical activity, sedentary behavior and dietary intake were assessed. Outcome variables were weight categories (according to body mass index [BMI], waist-to-hip ratio [WHR], and percentage body fat [% BF]). The strongest negative correlation was found between VO2max and %BF (r = −0.39, p

Objective To evaluate demographic variation in the prevalence of overweight (OW) and obesity (OB) among 3240 children and adolescents (girls: n = 1714; boys: n = 1526) aged 9–16 years attending primary and secondary schools in Benue State of Nigeria. Methods Participants’ anthropometric characteristics (body weight, stature, body mass index: BMI and lean body mass: LBM) were determined using standard protocols. OW and OB were estimated using International Obesity task Force diagnostic criteria. Data were analysed with one-way anova and binary logistic regression method. Results Overall, 88.5%, 9.7% and 1.8% of the adolescents had normal BMI and were OW and obese, respectively. Prevalence of OW was higher among girls (20.3%) than boys (16.2%), whereas a relatively higher incidence of OB was noted among the boys (3.5%). Girls in urban areas had a significantly higher BMI (t524 = 3.61, P = 0.002) than their rural peers, but the rural girls were more significantly OW than their urban counterparts (BMI: t1186 = 2.506). Logistic regression models assessing the influence of age, gender and location on OW/OB in children (α2(3, N = 1014) = 6.185, P = 0.103) and adolescents (α2(3, N = 2226) = 1.435, P = 0.697) did not turn up significant results. In the gender-specific analysis, the younger boys’ model was also not significant (α2(2, N = 488) = 1.295, P = 0.523) in contrast to the girls’ (α2(2, N = 526) = 15.637, P = 0.0005), thus discriminating between OW and healthy weight among the children. Overall, the model explained 2.9–4.4% of the variance in weight status and correctly classified 76.8% of the cases. Age wise, the model yielded a significant odds ratio of 1.49, suggesting that the likelihood of being OW increases by a factor of 1.5 with a unit increase in age. Also, the likelihood of an urban girl becoming OW or obese was 0.57 times that of a rural girl. Conclusions In general, girls in urban areas had higher prevalence of OW and OB than girls in rural settings. Among the boys, similar but less marked trends were found, except that the rural boys tended to be more OW on average than their peers in urban areas. In view of its public health significance, it is important to periodically evaluate the prevalence of weight disorders in children and adolescents so that appropriate preventative strategies can be instituted. Objectif: Evaluer la variation demographique dans la prevalence du surpoids (SP) et de l’obesite (OB) parmi 3.240 enfants et adolescents (1.714 filles et 1.526 garcons) âges de 9 a 16 ans frequentant les ecoles primaires et secondaires dans l’Etat de Benue au Nigeria. Methodes: Les caracteristiques anthropometriques des participants (poids corporel, stature, indice de masse corporelle: IMC et masse corporelle maigre: MCM) ont ete determinees en utilisant des protocoles standard. SP et OB ont ete estimes a l’aide des criteres de diagnostic de l’International Obesity Task Force (IOTF). Les donnees ont ete analysees avec la methode ANOVA one-way et de regression logistique binaire. Resultats: Dans l’ensemble, 88,5% des adolescents avaient un IMC normal, 9,7% avaient un SP et 1,8%etaient obeses. La prevalence du SP etait plus elevee chez les filles (20,3%) que chez les garcons (16,2%), tandis qu’une incidence relativement plus elevee de l’OB a ete notee chez les garcons (3,5%). Les filles dans les zones urbaines avaient un IMC significativement plus eleve (IMC: t524 = 3,61, p = 0,002) que celles en milieu rural, mais les filles en milieu rural etaient nettement plus en surpoids que celles en milieu urbain (IMC: t1186 = 2,506). Les modeles de regression logistique evaluant l’influence de l’âge, du sexe et de la localisation sur l’obesite/surpoids chez les enfants (χ2(3, N = 1014) = 6,185; p = 0,103) et les adolescents (χ2(3, N = 2226) = 1,435; p = 0.697) n’ont pas revele des resultats significatifs. Dans l’analyse specifique au sexe, les resultats du modele des jeunes garcons n’etait pas non plus significatifs (χ2(2, N = 488) = 1,295; p = 0,523), contrairement a celui des filles (χ2(2, N = 526) = 15,637; p = 0,0005), discriminant ainsi entre surpoids et poids sain parmi les enfants. Globalement, le modele expliquait 2,9 a 4,4% de la variance dans le statut ponderal et a classe correctement 76,8% des cas. Pour ce qui est de l’âge, le modele a revele un rapport de cote (OR) significatif de 1,49 ce qui suggere que la probabilite d’etre en SP augmente d’un facteur 1,5 avec une augmentation d’une unite de l’âge. Aussi, la probabilite d’une jeune fille en milieu urbain d’etre en SP ou de devenir OB etait 0,57 fois plus elevee que celle d’une jeune fille en milieu rural. Conclusions: En general, les filles dans les zones urbaines avaient une prevalence plus elevee de SP et d’OB que les filles en milieu rural. Chez les garcons, des tendances similaires, mais moins marquees ont ete trouvees, sauf que les garcons en milieu rural avaient tendance aetre en moyenne plus en SP que ceux en milieu urbain. Compte tenu de son importance pour la sante publique, il est important d’evaluer periodiquement la prevalence des troubles de poids chez les enfants et les adolescents afin que des strategies de prevention appropriees puissent etre instituees. Objetivo: Evaluar las variaciones demograficas en la prevalencia del sobrepeso (SP) y la obesidad (OB) entre 3240 ninos y adolescentes (ninas: n=1714; ninos: n=1526) con edades comprendidas entre los 9-16 anos, escolarizados en escuelas primarias y secundarias del estado de Benue en Nigeria. Metodos: Utilizando protocolos estandar, se determinaron las caracteristicas antropometricas de los participantes (peso, estatura, indice de masa corporal: IMC y la masa corporal magra: MCM). El SP y la OB se calcularon utilizando el criterio diagnostico del grupo de trabajo sobre la obesidad (el International Obesity task Force - IOTF). Los datos se analizaron con una ANOVA de un sentido y el metodo de regresion logistica binaria. Resultados: En total un 88.5%, 9.7% y 1.8% de los adolescentes tenian respectivamente un IMC normal, SP y eran obesos. La prevalencia de SP era mayor entre las ninas (20.3%) que entre los ninos (16.2%), mientras que se observaba una incidencia relativamente mayor de OB entre los ninos (3.5%). Las ninas provenientes de areas urbanas tenian un IMC significativamente mayor (t524=3.61, p=0.002) que sus pares de areas rurales, pero las ninas rurales eran significativamente mas obesas que sus contrapartes (IMC: t1186=2.506). Los modelos de regresion logistica para evaluar la influencia de la edad, el genero y la localizacion sobre el sobrepeso/obesidad en ninos (χ2(3, N = 1014)=6.185, p=0.103) y adolescentes (χ2(3, N = 2226)=1.435, p=0.697) no aportaron resultados significativos. En el analisis genero-especifico el modelo para ninos mas jovenes tampoco era significativo (χ2(2, N = 488)=1.295, p=0.523), en contraste con el de las ninas (χ2(2, N = 526)=15.637, p=0.0005); discriminando entre el sobrepeso y un peso sano entre los ninos. En general el modelo explicaba 2.9-4.4% de la varianza en el estatus de peso y clasifico de forma correcta un 76.8% de los casos. En terminos de edad, el modelo arrojaba una razon de posibilidades significativa de 1.49, sugiriendo que la probabilidad de tener sobrepeso aumentaba en un factor de 1.5 con un aumento de 1 unidad de edad. Ademas, la probabilidad de que una nina viviendo en un area urbana tuviese sobrepeso o fuese obesa era 0.57 veces el de una nina viviendo en una zona rural. Conclusiones: En general, las ninas de areas urbanas tenian una mayor prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad que las ninas de zonas rurales. Entre los ninos se observaba una tendencia similar pero no tan marcada, excepto que los ninos rurales tendian a tener, en promedio, mas sobrepeso que sus pares de areas urbanas. Dada su relevancia a nivel de salud publica, es importante evaluar periodicamente la prevalencia de los desordenes de peso en ninos y adolescentes de forma que puedan instituirse las estrategias preventivas apropiadas.

Background: The objective was to estimate the prevalence of overweight, obesity and underweight conditions among rural black children in South Africa. A cross-sectional study was undertaken. The setting was Mankweng and Toronto, both rural settlements in Capricorn district, Limpopo province, South Africa.Participants were 1172 school children (541 boys and 631 girls) aged 10–16 years.Method: The prevalence of overweight, obesity and underweight was examined, using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) body mass index (BMI) cut-off points. Height and body weight were measured using standard techniques. Results were analysed with student t-test statistics, with probability level set at p-value ≤ 0.05.Results: The percentage of children who were at risk of overweight were higher in girls (11%) than boys (9.1%), whereas obesity occurred more among the boys (5.5%), compared with the girls (4.4%). Applying the CDC cut-off points of 5th < percentile to define underweight, 25 (4.6%) and 35 ...

Aim: To evaluate a two–year longitudinal development of health–related fitness, anthropometry and body composition status amongst adolescents in Tlokwe Municipality, Potchefstroom, South Africa." "Setting: A total of 283 high–school learners (111 boys and 172 girls) of ages 14 and 15 years who were part of the ongoing Physical Activity and Health Longitudinal Study (PAHLS) participated in the study. For the purpose of the present study, data collected for 2011 and 2012 for anthropometric, body composition and health–related physical fitness were used." "Results: Body mass index (BMI) classification of boys and girls for 2011 and 2012 showed that 24.3% of them were underweight compared with 21% in 2012. In 2011, 50% of boys and girls had normal body weight compared with 52% in 2012, whilst 25.5% of the total group of participants were overweight compared with 27% in 2012. Both boys and girls showed significant increases of 5.9% in body fat (BF) and 3.2 kg in body weight over two years measurements, respectively. Regarding health–related fitness (i.e BAH), boys showed an increase of 14.8 seconds whilst girls gained 9.6 seconds. Significant decreases were found for sit–ups in both boys and girls. A significant VO2max increase of 2.9 mL/kg/min. was found in boys over the time period. A non–significant decrease of –0.5 mL/kg/min. was observed in girls. Regression coefficients showed that changes in BMI were inversely associated with those in health–related physical fitness. The changes in percentage BF were negatively associated with standing broad jump (SBJ), bent arm hang (BAH) and VO2 max in both boys and girls. A low significant positive association was found between changes in waist–to–height ratio (WHtR) and SBJ in both genders, whilst inverse low associations were found between WHtR and BAH in girls and for VO2max in both genders." "Conclusion: Changes in BMI, %BF and WHtR were negatively associated with strength and running performances in the participating children. The relative increase in overweight, especially in girls, negatively affected their endurance running and static strength performances. The health implications of the observed findings are discussed and recommendations offered for physical activity intervention in school physical education (PE) programmes.

The paper examines emerging service factor considered by domestic airline passengers in South Africa and Italy. The findings revealed the emergence of very similar factor structures between the two countries. To an extent, these factors represent the various inter-linking service spheres that passengers encounter along the service value chain offered by airlines. The findings also revealed that both samples had similar views regarding the relative importance of the factors.

OBJECTIVE To explore gender and racial profiling of percentage body fat of 1136 urban South African children attending public schools in Pretoria Central. METHODS This is a cross-sectional survey of 1136 randomly selected children (548 boys and 588 girls) aged 9-13 years in urban (Pretoria Central) South Africa. Body mass, stature, skinfolds (subscapular and triceps) were measured. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations). Differences in the mean body fat percentage were examined for boys and girls according to their age group/race, using independent t-test samples. RESULTS Girls had a significantly (p = 0.001) higher percentage body fat (22.7 ± 5.7%, 95% CI = 22.3, 23.2) compared to boys (16.1 ± 7.7%, 95% CI = 15.5, 16.8). Percentage body fat fluctuated with age in both boys and girls. Additionally, girls had significantly (p = 0.001) higher percentage body fat measurements at all ages compared to boys. Viewed racially, black children (20.1 ± 7.5) were significantly (p = 0.010) fatter than white children (19.0 ± 7.4) with a mean difference of 4.0. Black children were fatter than white children at ages 9, 10, 12 and 13 years, with a significant difference (p = 0.009) observed at age 12 years. CONCLUSION There was a considerably higher level of excessive percentage body fat among school children in Central Pretoria, South Africa, with girls having significantly higher percentage body fat compared to boys. Racially, black children were fatter than white children. The excessive percentage body fat observed among the children in this study has implications for their health and fitness. Therefore, an intervention programme must be instituted in schools to prevent and control possible excessive percentage body fat in this age group.

Background With ageing, the ability to mobilize fat is reduced and this, coupled with gradual decrease in lean body mass (LBM) from lessened exercise, allows for an increased body fat percentage (%BF). Exercising is considered a key to maintaining an appropriate body mass (BM), as it improves fat oxidation, while maintaining LBM. Although the effects of endurance and/or resistance training on fat mass (FM) and LBM in the elderly have well been established, limited data are forthcoming regarding the effects of Pilates as a training modality on these variables in the elderly. Objective The present study was therefore conducted to determine the effects of a mat Pilates programme on body fat in elderly women. Methods Fifty sedentary, apparently healthy females aged 60 years and older were randomly assigned a control (CG, n = 25) or an intervention (IG, n = 25) group. The IG took part in an eight-week progressive mat Pilates exercise programme, three times weekly while the CG were instructed to maintain their normal daily activities throughout the eight-week experimental period. All subjects underwent pre- and post-test in which FM and LBM were assessed. Results Eight weeks of mat Pilates demonstrated a significant (p ≤ 0.05) decrease in % BF (p = 0.016) and FM (p = 0.038), with a significant increase in LBM (p = 0.006), while not showing any significant changes (p ≥ 0.05) in BM (p = 0.979) and BMI (p = 0.992). The CG, however, did not produce any significant (p ≥ 0.05) changes in any of the tested anthropometric variables (BM: p = 0.266; BMI: p = 0.123; % BF: p = 0.516; FM: p = 0.937 and LBM: p = 0.522) after completion of the eight-week Pilates programme. Conclusion An eight-week mat Pilates exercise programme may contradict or even reverse some of the most serious consequences of ageing associated with an increased fat mass and reduced lean body mass in elderly females.

A cooperation project on school physical education (PE) was established between the Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa and the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. The project was funded as part of the international cooperation agreement between South Africa and Sweden. The aim of the project was to investigate discrepancies between intended subscription and actual provision for PE/Life Orientation (LO) in Swedish and South African schools. Presented in this paper are results of the pilot study on the comparative research project which focused on PE as a tool for developing health and social skills among Swedish and South African school children. A major objective of the project was to investigate how provision for PE is defined in formal school settings in both countries. To answer the question we constructed a 23-item questionnaire measuring PE provision and children’s attitudes towards the subject in primary and lower secondary schools. A questionnaire was constructed utilizing a) participant observations of lessons in Sweden and South Africa, b) semi-structured interviews with school principals and PE teachers in both countries, and c) analyses of policy documents in each country. The pilot instrument consisted of four batteries of questions: a) Health promotion (8 items), b) Social development (8 items), c) Personal development (10 items), and d) Physical development and movement (6 items). The questionnaire was developed in two almost identical versions and was completed by primary school pupils in South Africa (n =105) and Sweden (n = 42). In order to improve the reliability and the construct validity of the questionnaire we modified the pilot versions of the questionnaire eliminating poorly fit items using various statistical techniques. Pupils’ answers to the questionnaire were analyzed mainly through structural equation modeling techniques (AMOS). This technique facilitates the simultaneous analysis of the robustness of the whole instrument and the test of each battery of questions. The statistical analyses were aimed at designing a questionnaire with very good fit indices for Swedish and South African contexts. Results yielded substantial Cronbach’s α: whole instrument (α=.84); Health promotion (α=60), Social development (α=60), Personal development (α=79), Physical development (α=76), which showed acceptable reliability estimates for the questionnaire subscales. Key words: Physical Education, health, social skills, quality issues, policy.

Background Menarcheal age is a sensitive indicator of environmental conditions during childhood. The aim of study is to determine the age at menarche and growth status in adolescents in a rural area of Tarka, Wannune, Nigeria. Methods Data on 722 female students (aged 12-18 years) were collected in February 2009. Height and weight were measured. Body mass index (BMI; kg m-2) was used as an index of relative weight. Results Mean and median menarcheal age calculated by probit analysis were 13.02 (SD 3.0) (95% CI: 13.02-13.07), and age 13.00 (SD 2.8) (95% CI: 12.98-13.04), respectively. Girls who reach menarche are significantly heavier and taller with higher BMIs than those of their pre-menarcheal peers. Conclusion The age of menarche is probably still declining in Nigeria. Although BMI is an important factor in the onset of menstruation, some other unmeasured environmental variables may be implicated in this population.

The purpose of this study was to examine age and gender differences in waist-stature ratio (WSR) as a measure of centripetal fat patterning in Nigerian children. A cross-sectional study of 2015 children, aged 9-12 years of age who were attending primary schools in Makurdi, Nigeria was undertaken. Anthropometric measurements included body mass, stature and waist circumference. WSR decreased with age in boys (p ≤ 0.05) with the mean WSR being significantly higher at age nine (p ≤ 0.05) compared to girls. The girls had significant lower WSR (p ≤ 0.001) at age 11 compared to boys. No significant differences in WSR were found at ages 10and 12 in both boys and girls. The proportion of children whose WSR exceeded the 0.500 boundary value was for boys, 9.85% and girls 17.75%. Compared to the boys, girls had higher proportional WSR (5.28% and 6.56%) exceeding 0.500 cut-off values at ages 10 and 11, respectively. Inconsistent gender differences in WSR ≤ 0.500 were observed in both categories of children at all ages. The prevalence of WSR ≤ 0.500 was evident in this sample at all ages, suggesting the existence of central body fatness in the children. The findings demonstrate thatWSR can be used as an alternative measure to body mass index to screen children for risk of metabolic disorders.Key words: Waist circumference, waist-to-stature ratio, central fatness, children.

Soccer is the most popular sport in the world. Due to i ts global acclaim, a lot of scient ific studies have been undertaken on different aspects of the sport, particularly in Europe. Few studies have investigated patterns of body fat distribution in African soccer players, in general and patterns of fat distribution of soccer players by playing positions, in particular. The purpose of this study was to determine the patterns of body fat distribution among Nigerian university soccer players and the possible effect of fat pattern on playing positions. Skinfold measurements were taken on 20 soccer players, using ISAK procedures. Results showed that the midfielders had the least (13.5 ± 3.7 %), while the goalkeepers had the highest percentage body fat (16.8 ± 2.3 %). Skinfold values were found to vary by playing positions. Goalkeepers had the highest biceps skinfold thickness (7.2 ± 2.8 mm). Supra-iliac skinfold thickness was least in the defenders (5.2 ± 0.4 mm) but highest in the midfielders (13.1 ± 6.5mm). Chest and waist girths were least in the midfielders (86.5 ± 5.3 cm; 82.3 ± 3.6cm). It was concluded that the differences in anthropometric variables among soccer players could be due to the demands of the playing posi tions. This view is, however, contestable in view of the present playing style requiring all players (except the goal keepers) to assume different playing posi tions in actual competi tion.

Skipping is a sportive activity consisting of relative jumping cycles of skipping rope round the body. The main purpose of this study was to establish the relationship between heart rate (HR) and skipping frequency in children, using a regression analysis. A second objective was to determine the intensity corresponding to the lowest heart rate and least energy cost of rope skipping. A Repeated ANOVA design requiring the subjects to perform skipping at three different trials and at five different intensities (Scales) was used. To achieve these objectives, the skipping frequency at which each of the 87 school children aged 12.5 ± 2.5 years felt at ease, was gradually increased according to a five- intensity scales or frequencies (Preferred, -10%, +10%, -20% and +20%), and randomly applied at three minutes interval. HR was determined at rest and during rope skipping using the polar HR monitor. The comfortable skipping frequency was determined following three steps and in three days using the standard procedure. Data were analysed using ANOVA repeated measures and a second degree polynomial regression analysis. The results indicate that there is a comfortable skipping frequency (CSF) corresponding to the lowest HR. This CSF was reached at 116± 2 skips.min-1 in the study group. The subjects that maintained a stable skipping rhythm showed better physiological and mechanical results. The study concludes that the attainment of a CSF leads to lower HR;. rope skipping could therefore be recommended as an inexpensive sportive activity that could be used to develop fitness in children. For a clearer understanding of what happens during this activity it is recommended that maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 and max) the electro myographic (EMG) activity of the main muscles involved in the activity must be studied to buttress the results of the study.

The aim of this study was to assess the anthropometric and body composition profiles of Nigerian school children. A cross-sectional study was carried out involving 1036 girls and 979 boys aged 9-12 years. Anthropometric measurements, including body mass, stature, triceps, subscapular and medial calf skinfold thickness, as well as waist and hip circumferences were measured on the children. Body mass index (BMI), percent body fat, fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and subscapular/triceps skinfold ratio (STR) were also calculated. Sexual dimorphism that appears to be related to differential changes in body composition in the older children was observed. Findings showed that the Nigerian children have a low level of adiposity whether assessed by BMI, skinfold or percent body fat, compared to their peers in developed countries. The health implications of the findings were discussed. Keywords : Anthropometry, school children, percentage body fat, sex differences. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance Vol. 14 (2) 2008: pp.130-142

Childhood and adolescent obesity tends to extend into adulthood and predisposes the individual to some chronic diseases in later life. Body composition is a good parameter for evaluating obesity and nutritional status of children. This study aimed to investigate differences in body fat of Nigerian school children in Makurdi, Nigeria. The study sample consisted of a cross-sectional study of 979 boys and 1036 girls who were aged 9-12 years. Anthropometric measures of stature, body mass, triceps, subscapular and medial calf skinfolds were assessed. Percentage body fat in girls ranged from 15.2-17.4%, which was consistently higher than that in boys, i.e. 10.311.9%. Generally, the girls had higher measures of adipose tissue (sum of skinfolds and percentage body fat) than boys. The Nigerian girls at all ages had higher percentage body fat compared to the boys, which indicates gender differences in the children’s body fatness. The study provides a baseline assessment of body fatness in Nigerian children. Future studies on tracking of percentage body fat in relation to nutritional and fitness levels in Nigerian children are needed so that the children, parents and teachers can obtain reliable information about body composition and health related fitness.

This study aimed at the effects of school physical education (SPE) and aerobic training pursued during 12 weeks, on the lipid profile in Beninese adolescents. One hundred and five (105) adolescents aged 13 to 18 years and living in the city of Porto-Novo served as the subjects. The group was randomly organized in three groups : a control group (G1 ; N = 24), a group (G2 ; N = 20) that was exposed to two weekly hours of SPE and a third group (G3 ; N = 61) that, in addition to the two weekly hours of SPE benefitted from a specific aerobic training (mixed programmes). Total cholesterol (TC), plasma triglyceride (TG), HDL - Cholesterol (HDL-C) and a Biologic Index of Atherogenicity (BIA) were assessed in all participants before and after a 12 week period. The results showed that twenty four hours of SPE at the rate of two weekly hours, didn't significantly impact the parameters studied in the G2 subjects (p> 0.05). However, the mixed programme significantly induced a decrease in HDL-C and an improvement of BIA in the adolescents (p < 0.05). The mixed programme did not significantly influence either TG or TC in the G3 subjects. It is concluded from the results that training at a high intensity is not favourable for improving atherosclerosis risk profile in the adolescent population of our study. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance Vol. 13 (1) 2007: pp. 71-82

It is becoming more important for sport scientists from Africa, who are world leaders in their own field, to do research on the sportsmen and women from Africa. Such research has an impact on scientific coaching, development and assistance for athletes from the African continent. Africa will also be able to develop and elevate itself on the terrain of sport science. The purposes of the study were to describe the physique characteristics (body composition and somatotypes) of world class African male and female long distance (LD) runners and to determine by means of a discriminant analysis which variables best discriminated among the male and female LD runners. Anthropometric data were collected on 21 male (mean age = 24.5 ± 5.52 years) and 19 female (mean age 22.1 ± 3.38 years) LD runners. The subjects were part of the athletes who were measured during the 6th All Africa Games held in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1995 (16 males and 15 females) and at the 8th All Africa Games held in Abuja, Nigeria in 2003 (5 males and 4 females). The anthropometric variables and techniques selected were those described in Norton and Olds (1996). Data analysis was performed using Statistica 6 (StatSoft, Inc., 1984-2003). A forward stepwise discriminant analysis was applied to determine which variables best discriminated among the male and female LD runners. The discriminatory power of the classification functions was established using the jack-knifed classification matrix. The male runners were significantly (p Key words: Physique characteristics, distance runners, anthropometry, sexual dimorphism, somatotypes. AJPHERD Vol.11(1) 2005: 6-16

The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship between body size, body composition and physical fitness of Ellisras rural children in South Africa. The study comprised 85 Ellisras rural children (47 boys, 38 girls) who were 7-year-old. Anthropometric measurements (stature, mass, triceps, subscapular, midaxilliary and suprailiac skinfolds) carried out according to the protocol suggested by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) and 3 physical fitness tests which consisted of standing long jump (SLJ), sit ups (SUP), sit and reach (SAR), from EUROFIT test battery and 1 test (50m sprinting) from AAPHERD were administered to these children. Pearson's correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between body size, body composition and physical fitness of the subjects. The results indicated positive relationship between stature and mass and SLJ and SAR in both boys and girls. 50m sprint showed a significant negative association with stature, mass, SSF and BMI between boys and girls (p< 0.05) respectively. It is concluded that physical fitness items were systematically influenced by age, stature and mass in both boys and girls. Key Words: Ellisras rural children, body size, body composition, physical fitness, anthropometry. AJPHERD Vol.10(2) 2004: 154-162

The aim of this study was to investigate the body composition of normal and malnourished children aged 3 to 11 years. A total of 2198 children aged 3 to 11 years who are part of the Ellisras Longitudinal Study were grouped into 2066 normal and 132 stunted and 2070 normal and 128 wasted children using –2 SD of NHANES cut off point. Body composition was evaluated using anthropometric variables (weight, height, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, biceps skinfolds). The anthropometric variables were measured according to the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry. Children were categorized by the age groups as defined by Deitz (1999) for the development of obesity in children. The study showed that percentage body fat was high for the stunted children in the infancy and adipose rebound period (16.8% and 15.3% of stunted children compare to 15.6 and 14.9% normal children respectively), while the normal children had high significant percentage body fat at the adolescence spurt (14.6% compared to 15.5%). Inversely, normal children had high percentage body fat compared to wasting children throughout the age category. The fact that stunted children exhibit high percentage body fat at an early stage may clearly depict that stunting at an early stage of this population may be associated with overweight. Further studies are required to look into the development of obesity among children in this rural population so as to combat this health epidemic at an early stage. Key words: Percentage body fat, malnutrition, obesity, rural South African children. (Af. J. Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance: 2003 9(2): 224-237)

Summary. Menstrual function was assessed in 475 Nigerian athletes in different sports and 606 non-athletes. In general, irregular menstrual cycles and oligomenorrhoea or secondary amenorrhoea (O/A) were more common in the athletes (26% and 21%, respectively) than in the non-athletes (18% and 8%, respectively). Menstruation was more regular and normal in the non-athletes (50%) than in the athletes (22%). It was noted that menstrual dysfunction in the athletes was associated with significantly low body fat, body weight, relative weight for height, and the stress of sports activity. In the groups of athletes the ball game players (35%) and distance runners (51%) most commonly experienced O/A, whereas the incidence of dysmenorrhoea and menorrhagia was most prevalent in the swimmers (37%), and sprinters (42%). Menstrual disturbances were relatively more common in athletes who began training before the menarche (43%).

Differences in motor performance according to chronological age and gender of 341 young Nigerian children (ages 3 to 5) were examined. Motor test items designed by Morris et al. (1981) were administered to the subjects. Analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in the motor performance of the groups. In the whole sample, more age differences than sex differences in performance were noted. Except for the balancing and running performances of the girls, a fairly linear trend of improvement with age was observed in the motor performances of the groups. At each age level the boys consistently performed better than the girls in four of the six motor tests (catching, standing long jump, tennis ball throw and speed run). Generally, the 4- and 5-year-old children performed homogeneously, with a great disparity in performance noted for the 3-year-old children. The results of this study confirm that age and sex differences in motor performance occur at early childhood. Prospective studies should seek to control the extraneous factors which influence motor development and account for the observed differences in motor performance of pre-school children.

Menstrual function was assessed comparatively in different categories of 155 Nigerian athletes, aged 13-19 years, and 135 nonathletes, aged 12-18 years, who answered questionnaires and were interviewed. Menstruation was more regular and normal in the nonathletes (44%) than the athletes (21%). Although both groups generally had similar patterns of menstrual dysfunction, secondary amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea (O/A) was more prevalent in the athletes (25%) than the nonathletes (10%). Among the athletes, only the distance runners were significantly lighter and leaner than nonathletes and athletes of other sports (P less than 0.05). Regardless of sports activity, oligomenorrheic subjects had substantially lower body weight relative to stature and were leaner than subjects of the other menstrual categories. In the oligomenorrheic group, a greater proportion of the athletes (59%) and nonathletes (57%) had lean body mass values below the 41st percentile. The premenarche-trained athletes (48%) reported a higher incidence of menstrual cycle irregularities than the athletes who began training after the menarche. Results support the role of body composition-related factors in the etiology of exercise-associated O/A.

Objectives: While available data exist on total body fat of rural South African children, as measured by body mass index, little is known concerning the abdominal obesity of rural South African children. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of abdominal obesity among rural South African children. Methods : Participants involved 1 172 rural black school children (541 boys and 631 girls) aged 10−16 years, residing in Mankweng and Toronto, both rural black settlements in Capricorn district, Limpopo province, South Africa. Height, weight and waist circumference were measured using standard techniques. Waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) was calculated. A WHtR ≤ 0.50 was used to determine abdominal obesity. Results were analysed using student t-test and Chi-squared statistics, with a p-value of < 0.05. Results : Waist-to-height ratio showed inconsistent results in both sexes and across age groups, with no significant differences among boys and girls in all age groups. The proportion of boys with a WHtR ≥ 0.5 was 69 (12.8%), while girls were 92 (14.6%). The highest proportion of WHtR occurs at age 11 in boys, while this proportionality increases with age in girls, peaking at ages 14-16 years. Overall, 161 (13.7%) children had central obesity. Conclusions : This study indicates that abdominal obesity as measured by WHtR is prevalent among rural black South African children. The prevalence of WHtR ≥ 0.5 (13.7%) among the children is worrisome, as its signals the presence of obesity-related problems and the likely susceptibility of these sample children to future health risks. Therefore, interventions strategies are needed to reduce central obesity among children.