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Age, race, and socioeconomic status all play a role in decisions regarding breast cancer adjuvant therapy. Increasing age remains the major risk factor for breast cancer, while in very young women breast cancer may have a poorer prognosis, even when adjusted for disease stage and other variables. More than half of all new breast cancers in the United States occur in women older than 65 years. Because of the higher frequency of coexisting (comorbid) serious illness in older women, the benefits of adjuvant therapy get smaller as age increases. Adjuvant therapy with tamoxifen and/or chemotherapy can statistically significantly improve survival in older women, but older women are less likely to receive chemotherapy and are less likely to be offered participation in clinical trials. Efforts are now under way to overcome age bias among health care providers and to develop clinical trials focusing on older patients. Breast cancer mortality is higher in African-Americans than in white Americans. Although the biologic characteristics of breast cancer are worse in African-Americans, major differences in survival are related to socioeconomic factors and access to care. When matched for disease stage and other major clinical and biologic variables, African-American and white patients have similar survival rates. Few data are available on the effects of adjuvant treatment on early breast cancer outcomes in Hispanic Americans and Asian-Americans. Poverty and lack of insurance are surrogates for poor outcomes; major efforts are needed to guarantee all Americans high-quality cancer care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A response by Hyman B. Muss to a letter to the editor about an article on the use of chemotherapy in older women who are suffering from breast cancer in the May 14, 2009 issue is presented.

Background: The role of molecular markers in predicting the response to treatment of breast cancer is poorly defined. The Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) conducted a randomized adjuvant-chemotherapy trial (CALGB 8541) comparing three doses (high, moderate, and low) of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and fluorouracil in 1572 women with node-positive breast cancer. This study (CALGB 8869) was designed to determine whether the DNA index, the S-phase fraction, c-erbB-2 expression, or p53 accumulation could be used as a marker to identify a subgroup of patients more likely than others to benefit from high doses of chemotherapy. Methods: Tissue blocks were obtained from 442 patients randomly selected from the larger CALGB trial. Paraffin sections from the primary lesions were analyzed for DNA content, S-phase fraction, c-erbB-2 expression, and p53 accumulation. Results: Patients randomly assigned to the high-dose regimen of adjuvant chemotherapy had significantly longer disease-free and overall survival if their tumors had c-erbB-2 overexpression. No further information was gained by adding the data on S-phase fraction or p53 accumulation to the analysis. There was no clear evidence of a dose-response effect in patients with minimal or no c-erbB-2 expression. Conclusions: There is a significant dose-response effect of adjuvant chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and fluorouracil in patients with overexpression of c-erbB-2 but not in patients with no c-erbB-2 expression or minimal c-erbB-2 expression. Overexpression of c-erbB-2 may be a useful marker to identify the patients who are most likely to benefit from high doses of adjuvant chemotherapy. (N Engl J Med 1994;330:1260-6.) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite data demonstrating the safety of omitting axillary surgery in older women with early-stage breast cancer, the incidence of axillary surgery remains high. It was hypothesized that the prevalence of nodal positivity would decrease with advancing age.Methods: The National Cancer Data Base was used to construct a cohort of adult women with early-stage, clinically node-negative, estrogen receptor-positive (ER+), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative breast cancer treated between 2013 and 2015. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between age and nodal positivity, and this was stratified by the axillary surgery category. Modified Poisson regression was used to estimate the proportion of women receiving adjuvant therapy according to age and nodal status.Results: The incidence of axillary surgery among women aged 70 and older (n = 51,917) remained high nationwide (86%). There was a significant decrease in nodal positivity with advancing age in women with early-stage, ER+, clinically node-negative breast cancer from the youngest cohort up to patients aged 70 to 89 years, and this was independent of histologic subtype (ductal vs lobular), race, comorbidities, and socioeconomic factors. Overall, less than 10% of women aged 70 or older who underwent surgery had node-positive disease, regardless of axillary surgery type, and almost 95% of node-positive patients aged 70 or older were at pathological stage N1mi or N1.Conclusions: Axillary surgery may be safely omitted for many older women with ER+, clinically node-negative, early-stage breast cancer. Nodal positivity declines with advancing age, and this suggests varied biology in older patients versus younger patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In older women, breast cancer and its treatment can have profound impact on their physical, mental, and social health, especially in frail patients. This study evaluated the association between frailty and long-term health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in older women undergoing breast cancer treatment.Methods: Using the Carolina Senior Registry (CSR), participants with breast cancer were contacted to complete a follow-up HRQOL questionnaire (median 4 years). Baseline Geriatric Assessment (GA) variables were used to calculate the Carolina Frailty Index (CFI) and categorize participants as robust, pre-frail, or frail. Outcomes included HRQOL domains of physical function, social roles, fatigue, depression, anxiety, pain, and sleep disturbance assessed using PROMIS® instruments. Regression modeling compared outcomes between frailty groups using adjusted mean differences (AMD).Results: Of 190 eligible patients, 63 completed follow-up HRQOL survey. Mean age was 70 years (range 65-86) and 91% were white. Based on the CFI, 49 (78%) patients were robust, 11 (18%) pre-frail, and 3 (5%) frail. After controlling for age and cancer stage, patients identified as pre-frail/frail reported worse physical function (AMD - 9.2, p < 0.001) and social roles (AMD - 7.2, p = 0.002) and more fatigue (AMD 7.6, p = 0.008), depression (AMD 5.6, p = 0.004), and sleep disturbance (AMD 6.9, p = 0.008) compared to robust patients at follow-up.Conclusions: Frailty in older women with breast cancer was associated with worse long-term HRQOL outcomes. Further research is needed to develop interventions for frail patients at-risk for reduced HRQOL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Platelets and their granular contents influence both angiogenesis and breast cancer progression. This study was performed to assess the effect of breast cancer and its treatment on platelet biology and the response to inhibition of the platelet P2Y12 receptor. Receptor-specific platelet activation and inhibition was studied for three platelet-associated proteins important in cancer angiogenesis and progression, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), thrombospondin1 (TSP1), and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1). Twenty-four women with active breast cancer and 10 healthy controls not receiving antiplatelet therapy participated in the study.Ex vivoactivation of platelets in whole blood was accomplished using PAR1AP, PAR4AP, convulxin, and ADP. Platelet inhibition was accomplished using the P2Y12 receptor antagonist cangrelor (the in vitro equivalent of clopidogrel). VEGF, TSP1, and TGF-β1 were measured using standard ELISA. Platelet activation by ADP, PAR1, PAR4, and collagen receptors increased VEGF, TSP1, and TGF-β1 secretion in patients with breast cancer. Agonist-induced release of VEGF was greater in cancer patients as compared to healthy controls (p= 0.02 for ADP,p< 0.001 for PAR1AP, PAR4AP, and convulxin) despite a decrease in the efficiency of VEGF secretion in patients with breast cancer. These differences were not observed for TSP1 and TGF-β1 secretion. P2Y12 receptor inhibition decreased VEGF, TSP1, and TGF-β1 secretion. In patients with cancer, cangrelor inhibited TSP1 release to a greater extent than VEGF and TGF-β1 release. In patients with breast cancer, the magnitude of platelet inhibition achieved by cangrelor was greater than that achieved with healthy controls for all agonists and platelet proteins studied. While platelets are known to influence progression of breast cancer, our results show that breast cancer and its treatment influence the platelet phenotype by increasing the secretion of pro-angiogenic proteins following platelet activation, modulating the efficiency of platelet protein release as well as increasing the response to antiplatelet therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Treatment of breast cancer with aromatase inhibitors is associated with damage to bones. NCIC CTG MA.27 was an open-label, phase 3, randomised controlled trial in which women with breast cancer were assigned to one of two adjuvant oral aromatase inhibitors—exemestane or anastrozole. We postulated that exemestane—a mildly androgenic steroid—might have a less detrimental effect on bone than non-steroidal anastrozole. In this companion study to MA.27, we compared changes in bone mineral density (BMD) in the lumbar spine and total hip between patients treated with exemestane and patients treated with anastrozole. Methods: In MA.27, postmenopausal women with early stage hormone (oestrogen) receptor-positive invasive breast cancer were randomly assigned to exemestane 25 mg versus anastrozole 1 mg, daily. MA.27B recruited two groups of women from MA.27: those with BMD T-scores of −2·0 or more (up to 2 SDs below sex-matched, young adult mean) and those with at least one T-score (hip or spine) less than −2·0. Both groups received vitamin D and calcium; those with baseline T-scores of less than −2·0 also received bisphosphonates. The primary endpoints were percent change of BMD at 2 years in lumbar spine and total hip for both groups. We analysed patients according to which aromatase inhibitor and T-score groups they were allocated to but BMD assessments ceased if patients deviated from protocol. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00354302. Findings: Between April 24, 2006, and May 30, 2008, 300 patients with baseline T-scores of −2·0 or more were accrued (147 allocated exemestane, 153 anastrozole); and 197 patients with baseline T-scores of less than −2·0 (101 exemestane, 96 anastrozole). For patients with T-scores greater than −2·0 at baseline, mean change of bone mineral density in the spine at 2 years did not differ significantly between patients taking exemestane and patients taking anastrozole (−0·92%, 95% CI −2·35 to 0·50 vs −2·39%, 95% CI −3·77 to −1·01; p=0·08). Respective mean loss in the hip was −1·93% (95% CI −2·93 to −0·93) versus −2·71% (95% CI −4·32 to −1·11; p=0·10). Likewise for those who started with T-scores of less than −2·0, mean change of spine bone mineral density at 2 years did not differ significantly between the exemestane and anastrozole treatment groups (2·11%, 95% CI −0·84 to 5·06 vs 3·72%, 95% CI 1·54 to 5·89; p=0·26), nor did hip bone mineral density (2·09%, 95% CI −1·45 to 5·63 vs 0·0%, 95% CI −3·67 to 3·66; p=0·28). Patients with baseline T-score of −2·0 or more taking exemestane had two fragility fractures and two other fractures, those taking anastrozole had three fragility fractures and five other fractures. For patients who had baseline T-scores of less than −2·0 taking exemestane, one had a fragility fracture and four had other fractures, whereas those taking anastrozole had five fragility fractures and one other fracture. Interpretation: Our results demonstrate that adjuvant treatment with aromatase inhibitors can be considered for breast cancer patients who have T-scores less than −2·0. Funding: Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute, Pfizer, Canadian Institutes of Health Research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aspirin has a range of antineoplastic properties linked to inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes in tumor cells, platelet inhibition and to inhibition of angiogenesis. We undertook a prospective study to determine the influence of a 45-day course of aspirin therapy on circulating and intraplatelet levels of selected proangiogenic (vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]) and antiangiogenic (thrombospondin-1 [TSP-1]) proteins, and platelet protein release in women diagnosed with breast cancer who were receiving tamoxifen therapy. Initiation of aspirin therapy increases serum and intraplatelet levels of TSP-1 without a corresponding increase in VEGF levels. Following aspirin therapy, VEGF levels decreased (relative to pretreatment levels) while TSP-1 returned to pretreatment levels. Plasma TSP-1 and VEGF levels did not change on aspirin therapy. Aspirin use also decreased thrombin receptor mediated release of TSP-1 and VEGF from platelets. The selective impact on platelet angiogenic protein content and release supports one mechanism by which aspirin can modify the angiogenic balance in women receiving tamoxifen therapy. Aspirin therapy appears to favor an overall antiangiogenic balance in women with breast cancer who are receiving tamoxifen therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a parallel, randomised trial which assessed the benefit of adding chemotherapy to adjuvant tamoxifen and whether tamoxifen should be given concurrently or after chemotherapy in postmenopausal women with endocrine-responsive, node-positive breast cancer. The patients used in the study were randomly assigned by a computer algorithm. An analysis by intention was also conducted to treat eligible patients. Findings revealed the effectiveness of chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and fluorouracil (CAF) plus tamoxifen given sequentially than adjuvant therapy.

This phase I/II trial investigates the safety and feasibility of six cycles of concurrent taxane, anthracycline and cyclophosphamide on a dose dense schedule. Patients with stage II/III breast cancer were treated with docetaxel (T) 75 mg/m2, epirubicin (E) 75 mg/m2 (cohort 1, n = 3) or 100 mg/m2 (cohort 2, n = 12), and cyclophosphamide (C) 500 mg/m2 IV on day 1, with pegfilgrastim 6 mg subcutaneously on day 2, every 2 weeks for six cycles. Patients were assessed for toxicity every 2 weeks; cardiac function and response (if neoadjuvant) were assessed after six cycles. All patients in cohort 1 received 100% planned dose intensity; in cohort 2, five of twelve patients received 100% and 11/12 received >80%. There were no dose reductions or delays for day 1 myelotoxicity. Dose reductions as a result of febrile neutropenia (FN) occurred in cohort 2, with six of twelve patients experiencing FN in seven of sixty-nine cycles. Six patients had anemia ≥grade 3; five received RBC transfusion and seven received an erythropoietic growth factor. Four patients required dose reductions for nonhematologic toxicity (two mucositis; one neurotoxicity; one diarrhea + cellulitis). Four patients developed thrombophlebitis, which was associated with FN in one of four. Two of fourteen evaluable patients had asymptomatic decreases in LVEF >10%; all remained within normal range. All four patients receiving neoadjuvant TEC had significant clinical responses (one CR, three PR). No pathologic CRs were seen. Conclusions: Dose dense TEC chemotherapy is feasible, has acceptable toxicity at doses equivalent to TAC (docetaxel 75 mg/m2, epirubicin 75 mg/m2, cyclophosphamide 600 mg/m2), and has moderate but manageable toxicity using a higher epirubicin dose of 100 mg/m2, with FN occurring in six of twelve patients at the higher dose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Senescent cells, which express p16INK4a, accumulate with aging and contribute to age-related pathology. To understand whether cytotoxic agents promote molecular aging, we measured expression of p16INK4a and other senescence markers in breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy. Methods Blood and clinical information were prospectively obtained from 33 women with stage I to III breast cancer at four time points: before anthracycline-based chemotherapy, immediately after anthracycline-based chemotherapy, 3 months after anthracycline-based chemotherapy, and 12 months after anthracycline-based chemotherapy. Expression of senescence markers p16INK4a and ARF mRNA was determined using TaqMan quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in CD3+ T lymphocytes, telomere length was determined by Southern analysis, and senescence-associated cytokines were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Findings were independently assessed in a cross-sectional cohort of 176 breast cancer survivors enrolled a median of 3.4 years after treatment; 39% previously received chemotherapy. All statistical tests were two-sided. Results In prospectively analyzed patients, expression of p16INK4a and ARF increased immediately after chemotherapy and remained elevated 12 months after treatment. Median increase in log2p16INK4a was 0.81 (interquartile range = 0.28–1.62; Wilcoxon signed-rank P < .001), or a 75% absolute increase in expression, equivalent to the increase observed over 14.7 years of chronological aging. ARF expression was comparably increased (P < .001). Increased expression of p16INK4a and ARF was associated with dose-dense therapy and hematological toxicity. Expression of two senescence-associated cytokines (VEGFA and MCP1) was durably increased by adjuvant chemotherapy. Telomere length was not affected by chemotherapy. In a cross-sectional cohort, prior chemotherapy exposure was independently associated with a log2-increase in p16INK4a expression of 0.57 (repeated measures model, P < .001), comparable with 10.4 years of chronological aging. Conclusions Adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer is gerontogenic, inducing cellular senescence in vivo, thereby accelerating molecular aging of hematopoietic tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]