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Background Water-soluble anthocyanin pigments are important ingredients in health-improving supplements and valuable for the food industry. Although great attention has been paid to the breeding and production of crops containing high levels of anthocyanin, genetic variation in red or purple cabbages (Brassica oleracea var. capitata F. rubra) has not yet been characterized at the molecular level. In this study, we identified the mechanism responsible for the establishment of purple color in cabbages. Results BoMYBL2–1 is one of the regulatory genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway in cabbages. It is a repressor whose expression is inversely correlated to anthocyanin synthesis and is not detectable in purple cabbages. Sequence analysis of purple cabbages revealed that most lacked BoMYBL2–1 coding sequences, although a few had a substitution in the region of the promoter 347 bp upstream of the gene that was associated with an absence of BoMYBL2–1 expression. Lack of transcriptional activity of the substitution-containing promoter was confirmed using transgenic Arabidopsis plants transformed with promoter::GUS fusion constructs. The finding that the defect in BoMYBL2–1 expression was solely responsible for purple coloration in cabbages was further demonstrated using genomic PCR and RT-PCR analyses of many other structural and regulatory genes in anthocyanin biosynthesis. Molecular markers for purple cabbages were developed and validated using 69 cabbage lines. Conclusion Expression of BoMYBL2–1 was inversely correlated to anthocyanin content, and purple color in cabbages resulted from a loss of BoMYBL2–1 expression, caused by either the promoter substitution or deletion of the gene. This is the first report of molecular markers that distinguish purple cabbages. Such markers will be useful for the production of intraspecific and interspecific hybrids for functional foods, and for industrial purposes requiring high anthocyanin content. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12870-018-1290-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. Acephala Group) is the rich source of medicinal value sulphur compounds, glucosinolates (GLSs). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different proportion of sulphur (S) supplementation levels on the accumulation of GLSs in the leaves of the kale cultivar ('TBC'). High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation method guided to identify and quantify six GSLs including three aliphatic (progoitrin, sinigrin and gluconapin) and three indolyl (glucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin and neoglucobrasscin) respectively. Analysis of these distinct levels of S supplementation revealed that the accumulation of individual and total GLSs was directly proportional to the S concentration. The maximum levels of total GLSs (26.8 µmol/g DW) and glucobrassicin (9.98 µmol/g DW) were found in lower and upper parts of the leaves supplemented with 1 mM and 2 mM S, respectively. Interestingly, aliphatic GSLs were noted predominant in all the parts (50.1, 59.3 and 56% of total GSLs). Among the aliphatic and indolyl GSLs, sinigrin and glucobrassicin account 35.3 and 30.88% of the total GSLs. From this study, it is concluded that supply of S enhance the GSLs accumulation in kale.

The present study aimed to investigate the contents of glucosinolates (GSLs) and carotenoids in eleven varieties of Chinese cabbage in relation to the expression level of the important transcription factors. MS and HPLC analysis identified the presence of 13 GSLs (progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoalyssin, gluconapoleiferin, gluconapin, glucocochlearin, glucobrassicanapin, glucoerucin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, neoglucobrassicin and gluconasturtiin) and four carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, α-carotene and β-carotene). GSL contents were varied among the different cabbage varieties. The total GSL content ranged from 2.7 to 57.88μmol/gDW. The proportion of gluconapin (54%) and glucobrassicanapin (22%) was higher in all the varieties, respectively. Results documented the variation in total and individual carotenoid contents that have also been observed among different varieties; however, the total carotenoid contents ranged from 289.12 to 1001.41mgkg−1DW (mean 467.66). Interestingly, the proportion of lutein (66.5) and β-carotene (25.9) were higher than α-carotene (5.1) and zeaxanthin (2.5%). Consequently, the expression level of the regulatory gene, MYB28 was higher in ‘K0648’ and was directly proportional to GSL content. Similarly, the expression levels of 1-PSY were higher in ‘K0112’; however, the expression levels of 2-ZDS, 3-LCYB, 4-LCYE, 5-CHXB and 7-NCED genes showed no significant difference. In addition, the correlation between GSL and carotenoid contents and gene expression level showed moderate significant difference in each Chinese cabbage.

To glucosinolate (GSL) contents on flower buds depending on their position orders in turnip rape ( Brassica rapa ), three Japanese ‘Nabana’ cultivars such as cv. No. 21 ( Brassica rapa , early type), cv. Husanohana ( B. rapa , late type) and cv. Norin No. 20 ( B. napus ) were investigated using HPLC analysis. Ten GSLs including glucoraphanin, sinigrin, glucoalyssin, napoleiferin, gluconapin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucobrassicanapin, glucobrassicin, and gluconasturtiin were detected. Differences in individual and total GSL contents were found between two plant varieties, which are also depending on various developmental stages. Among the GSLs, gluconapin (mean 23.11 μmole/g dry weight (DW) and glucobrassicanapin (mean 13.41 μmole/g DW) documented the most abundant compounds and contributed average 39 and 27% of the total GSLs, but indolyl and aromatic GSLs together accounted >10% of the total GSLs. The presence of significant quantities of gluconapin in the cultivars should be studied more extensively, since the GSL is mainly responsible for the bitter taste.

Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is a dietary Brassica vegetable with noted health-beneficial properties associated with its numerous metabolites. The aim of this study was to elucidate phenotypic variation between the two cultivars through comprehensive analysis of the relationship of their primary and secondary metabolites. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS) are considered useful tools for profiling primary and secondary metabolites. A total of 45 metabolites, including organic acids, amino acids, sugars, and an amine, were identified in pale green and purple kohlrabies using GC-TOFMS-based metabolic profiling. The resulting data sets were analyzed by principal component analysis to determine the overall variation, and the purple and pale green vegetables were separated by the score plots generated. Additionally, HPLC analysis of anthocyanins in both cultivars revealed that green kohlrabies did not contain any anthocyanidins, while 11 anthocyanins were quantified in the purple ones. Cyanidin was the dominant anthocyanin found in the purple cultivar, with cyanidin-3-(feruloyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside being the major one. This study suggests that GC-TOFMS and HPLC are suitable tools to determine metabolic connection among various metabolites and describe phenotypic variation between green and purple kohlrabies.

Plants take up sulfur (S), an essential element for all organisms, as sulfate, which is mainly attributed to the function of SULTR1;2 in Arabidopsis. A disruption mutant of SULTR1;2, sel1-10, has been characterized with phenotypes similar to plants grown under sulfur deficiency (−S). Although the effects of −S on S metabolism were well investigated in seedlings, no studies have been performed on mature Arabidopsis plants. To study further the effects of −S on S metabolism, we analyzed the accumulation and distribution of S-containing compounds in different parts of mature sel1-10 and of the wild-type (WT) plants grown under long-day conditions. While the levels of sulfate, cysteine, and glutathione were almost similar between sel1-10 and WT, levels of glucosinolates (GSLs) differed between them depending on the parts of the plant. GSLs levels in the leaves and stems were generally lower in sel1-10 than those in WT. However, sel1-10 seeds maintained similar levels of aliphatic GSLs to those in WT plants. GSL accumulation in reproductive tissues is likely to be prioritized even when sulfate supply is limited in sel1-10 for its role in S storage and plant defense.

The main flavonoid compound rutin is highly expressed in the crop plant buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.) and plays important roles in the human diet. In this study, phenylpropanoid production in buckwheat hairy roots was evaluated following ethephon treatment. Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and high-performance liquid chromatography, we analysed the relationship between flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway gene regulation and the relative accumulation of the secondary compounds in ethephon-treated buckwheat hairy roots. Generally, the transcription of the biosynthetic pathway genes varied between the treated samples and controls. Most of the flavonoid biosynthetic genes were upregulated by ethephon, typically after four days of treatment. The application of 0.5 mg/L ethephon markedly induced anthocyanin production in hairy roots compared to that induced by the other concentrations tested (0, 1 and 2 mg/L). These data indicate that anthocyanin biosynthesis may play an important role in the response of buckwheat to ethephon-induced stress.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflora Hort.) plants are a perennial favorite, known for their beautiful flowers of many different colors. In this study, we determined metabolic differences between seven Gladiolus cultivars with differently colored flowers by monitoring anthocyanin, carotenoid, and hydrophilic metabolites. We detected nine anthocyanins in the seven cultivars. Only the ‘Violetta’ cultivar contained all nine anthocyanins and it exhibited the highest anthocyanin content, whereas no anthocyanins were detected in the ‘New Wave’ (white color) or ‘Limoncello’ (yellow color) cultivars. In addition, we detected seven carotenoids, the contents of which varied significantly among the cultivars depending on the flower color. ‘Limoncello’ exhibited the highest levels of carotenoids. Of the seven carotenoids, β-carotene and lutein accumulated in the most cultivars. In addition, we identified 43 metabolites using gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The levels of organic acids and sugars in the ‘New Wave’ cultivar differed significantly from those in the ‘Violetta’ and ‘Limoncello’ cultivars with a P value

Ca is material to used in Chinese cabbage (Brasica rapa L. spp. pekinensis). The variation of inorganic ions and GSLs in Chinese cabbage cultivated to control additional Ca contents in slaked lime. The additional fertilizer of slaked lime differ four grade that 0 g (Ca-0), 0.28 g (Ca-1), 0.56 g (Ca-2), 0.84 g (Ca-3) are week intervals with a total of 8 times after transplanting. Inorganic ions in Chinese cabbage (`Bulam plus`) were analyzed to use inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectometry(ICP). The more additional slaked lime input, the more almost macronutrients contents were high except Ca. Ca contents were higher in Ca-0 (153.10) and lower in Ca-3 (130.55 mg/kg dry weight, DW). GSLs were identified based on peak retention time in previous results of our laboratory. Seven GSLs including two aliphatic (gluconapin, glucobrassicanapin), one aromatic (gluconasturtiin), four indolyl (glucobrassicin, neoglucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin) were detected using HPLC. Progoitrin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, and gluconasturtiin contents increased in proportion to the input in additional slaked lime. Total GSLs contents were Ca-0 (11.95), Ca-1 (17.02), Ca-2 (19.63), Ca-3 ( dry weight, DW). Total Ca and GSLs contents (Ca-1,2,3; mean 17.92) are higher than non treatment (Ca-0; DW).

Reflectance difference and cross correlation decreased as sampling number increased.Optimum number of reflectance sampling points was 12 for cabbage leaf.Optimum number of reflectance sampling points was 9 for kale leaf. Visible and near-infrared spectroscopy provides a variety of information regarding leafy vegetables. However, various factors including optical propagation, environmental issues, and experimental issues affect the quality of spectral measurements. Therefore, stability and performance of optical reflectance sensors are affected significantly by sampling scheme. This study investigated the effects of the number of sampling on optical reflectance measurement of Chinese cabbage and kale plant leaves. For that purpose, variability and similarity of multiple measurements for different number of sampling of the leaves were evaluated. A combination of a median filter and the 2nd Savitzky-Golay (S. Golay) method was used to reduce the noise on the reflectance spectra introduced by background effects and other uncertainties. Reflectance difference and cross correlation were used as criteria to evaluate stability (or similarity) of the measurements. Results indicated that the standard deviation of reflectance difference was not considerably different for cabbage and kale leaves with 12 and 9 sampling points, respectively. For similarity of multiple measurements, results of cross correlation showed that the standard deviation of cross correlation was not greater than 5% with 12 and 9 sampling points for cabbage and kale leaves, respectively. Thus, this study concluded that 12 sampling points (cabbage) and 9 sampling points (kale) on a single leaf were the optimal number for spectral reflectance measurement. This study may provide guidelines on the number of sampling for optimum reflectance measurement of leafy vegetables.

The aerial surfaces of plants are covered with a wax layer that serves the essential functions of limiting non-stomatal water loss and acting as protective barrier against environmental stresses. We selected two broccoli lines, bloomed (MC91) and bloomless (MC117), and analyzed their phenotypes related to cuticular wax accumulation. The total wax amount was 1.93-fold higher in MC91 leaves compared to MC117 leaves. All of the studied cuticular wax compounds were 1.07–3.79-fold higher in MC91 plants compared to MC117 plants except for the C 31 alkane. The wax compositions did not essentially different between the two broccoli lines, but some compounds were found at significantly higher levels in MC91 plants compared to MC117 plants, mainly reflecting differences in C 29 alkanes, C 29 secondary alcohols and C 29 ketones. To investigate gene regulation by bloom phenotype, we analyzed the mRNA expression patterns of various cuticular wax biosynthetic genes. Our results revealed that LACS1 , KCS1 , KCR1 , ECR , CER3 and MAH1 were expressed more in MC91 plants compared to MC117 plants at both 3 and 10 weeks. The expression levels of the studied cuticular wax biosynthetic genes were significantly induced by drought stress, which is known to induce cuticular wax deposition. Together, these results show that the cuticular wax accumulation of broccoli is regulated by cuticular wax biosynthetic gene expression and can be affected by environmental signals.

Plants must constantly adjust their growth and defense responses to deal with the wide variety of stresses they encounter in their environment. Among phytohormones, brassinosteroids (BRs) are an important group of plant steroid hormones involved in numerous aspects of the plant lifecycle including growth, development and responses to various stresses including insect attacks. Here, we show that BRs regulate glucosinolate (GS) biosynthesis and function in insect herbivory. Preference tests and larval feeding experiments using the generalist herbivore, diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), revealed that the larvae prefer to feed on Arabidopsis thaliana brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (bri1-5) plants over wild-type Ws-2 or BRI1-Flag (bri1-5 background) transgenic plants, which results in an increase in larval weight. Analysis of GS contents showed that 3-(methylsulfinyl) propyl GS (C3) levels were higher in bri1-5 than in Ws2 and BRI1-Flag transgenic plants, whereas sinigrin (2-propenylglucosinolate), glucoerucin (4-methylthiobutylglucosinolate) and glucobrassicin (indol-3-ylmethylglucosinolate) levels were lower in this mutant. We investigated the effect of brassinolide (BL) on GS biosynthesis in Arabidopsis and radish (Raphanus sativus L.) by monitoring the expression levels of GS biosynthetic genes, including MAM1, MAM3, BCAT4 and AOP2, which increased in a BL-dependent manner. These results suggest that BRs regulate GS profiles in higher plants, which function in defense responses against insects.

Objective of this study was to investigate effects of pre-processing method and number of sampling leaves on stability of the reflectance measurement for Chinese cabbage and kale leaves. Chinese cabbage and kale were transplanted and cultivated in a plant factory. Leaf samples of the kale and cabbage were collected at 4 weeks after transplanting of the seedlings. Spectra data were collected with an UV/VIS/NIR spectrometer in the wavelength region from 190 to 1130 nm. All leaves (mature and young leaves) were measured on 9 and 12 points in the blade part in the upper area for kale and cabbage leaves, respectively. To reduce the spectral noise, the raw spectral data were preprocessed by different methods: i) moving average, ii) Savitzky-Golay filter, iii) local regression using weighted linear least squares and a 1 st degree polynomial model (lowess), iv) local regression using weighted linear least squares and a 2 nd degree polynomial model (loess), v) a robust version of ‘lowess’, vi) a robust version of ‘loess’, with 7, 11, 15 smoothing points. Effects of number of sampling leaves were investigated by reflectance difference (RD) and cross-correlation (CC) methods. Results indicated that the contribution of the spectral data collected at 4 sampling leaves were good for both of the crops for reflectance measurement that does not change stability of measurement much. Furthermore, moving average method with 11 smoothing points was believed to provide reliable pre-processed data for further analysis.

Glucosinolate (GSL) and antioxidant activity in 62 varieties of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis) were determined by HPLC and DPPH, HRSA, and FRAP assays. Five aliphatic GSLs: progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoalyssin, gluconapin, and glucobrassicanapin; four indolyl GSLs: 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, and neoglucobrassicin; one aromatic GSL: gluconasturtiin were identified. Glucobrassicanapin and gluconapin documented the most abundant (average 4.52 and 3.72 μmol/g DW, respectively). The contents of total GSLs varied extensively among 62 varieties (range from 2.83 to 48.53 μmol/g DW). Comprehensive differences in total and individual GSL contents have also been observed among different varieties. Indolyl and aromatic GSL together accounted 26% of the total GSLs; but there are few differences among varieties. FC7 and FI17 could be good candidates for future breeding programs since they had a high quantity of glucobrassicin (2.10 and 1.66 μmol/g DW, respectively). Most of the Chinese cabbage varieties showed significant antioxidant activities when compare with positive control. However, three antioxidant assays were not significantly correlated with total GSLs. The presence of significant quantities of glucobrassicin in some varieties should be studied more extensively, since GSL is the precursor of indole-3-carbinol, a potent anticancer isothiocyanate.

Metabolite profiling of phenolic acids, anthocyanidins and flavonols in Brassica oleracea var. capitata cultivated in the spring and fall seasons were evaluated. Phenolic acids (caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic and sinapic acid), anthocyanidins (cyanidin and peonidin), and flavonols (quercetin and kaempferol) were identified and quantified by LC–MS and HPLC analyses. The total phenolic acid contents (10,633 μg/g DW) were increased 6.3-fold in red cabbages; in contrast, phenolic acids were present in significantly higher levels in the outer parts of the green cabbages in the spring sowing than in those of the fall sowing. In the case of red cabbages, the phenolic acid levels in the outer parts were higher (3147.5 μg/g DW), but the seasonal factor was not significant. Statistical analysis exhibited a significantly negative correlation between anthocyanidins and quercetin but exhibited a positive correlation between flavonols and phenolic acids in both cultivars. The most dramatic differences in the effect of the tissue position were analyzed by two-way MANOVA. The levels of anthocyanidins were 25–28% higher in the spring than those in the fall cabbages, whereas the contents were similar in the various tissue positions.

In this study, we investigated anthocyanin accumulation and gene expression in response to light and dark conditions during the development of white and red cabbage seedlings. Two-day-old white cabbage seedlings expressed the highest transcript level for most of the genes under light conditions. Red cabbage also showed higher expression under light than under dark conditions, although gene expression (evaluated based on transcript levels normalized to that of a housekeeping gene) in 2-day-old red cabbage sprouts was much lower than that in the corresponding white cabbage sprouts. Trends in anthocyanin accumulation were similar for red and white cabbage but much greater accumulation was observed in red cabbage. Anthocyanin levels were higher in seedlings grown under light conditions compared to those grown under dark conditions for both cabbage cultivars. Especially, red cabbage accumulated 1.94–4.05 times greater total anthocyanin in 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-day-old seedlings, when compared to white cabbage cultivar under light/dark and dark conditions. Our findings can improve understanding of the effects of light on accumulation of secondary metabolites in the seedling stages of various crops.

Glucosinolates (GSLs) are sulfur-containing anionic secondary metabolites that are precursors of biologically active compounds, such as isothiocyanates, in Brassicaceae. The GSLs found in 10 cultivars of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) popularly cultivated in Korea and China were identified and quantified. Three GSL classes (6 aliphatic, 1 aromatic, and 3 indolyl) were identified and quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and HPLC. The concentration of these GSLs varied by season (spring- and fall-sown), leaf position (inside and outside), and cabbage color (green and red). The average total amounts of GSLs in the inner and outer sections of green and red cabbages ranged from 8.55–13.5 μmol∙g−1 dry weight. The spring-sown cabbages contained significantly higher GSL concentration (2.3–4.3 times higher) compared to their fall-sown counterparts. The inner sections of cabbages contained 1.1- to 1.8-fold greater GSL concentrations than the outer sections. These results indicate that an increase in temperature induces GSL accumulation in both green and red cabbages. The green cabbage cultivars contained significantly higher concentration of GSLs synthesized from homo-methionine, whereas the red cabbage cultivars had greater amounts of GSLs synthesized from dihomo-methionine, which suggests that the activities of enzymes involved in the elongation of homo-methionine are greater in red cabbages. The fall-sown red cabbages also contained 2- to 3-fold higher contents of GSLs synthesized from tryptophan compared to the spring-sown cabbages. In conclusion, the color of cabbage, tissue position of cabbage, temperature, and rainfall were all significantly correlated with the amount of GSL accumulation in cabbages.

Buckwheat sprouts are a popular food item in many countries. The effects of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on sprout growth and development, changes in mRNA transcription, and accumulation of phenylpropanoid compounds were studied in tartary buckwheat 'Hokkai T8' sprouts. The highest transcript levels were observed after 2 days of LED exposure for all genes, especially FtPAL and FtF3'H, which showed higher expression in sprouts grown under blue and white light than in those grown under red light. Catechin content in sprouts grown under red light increased dramatically throughout the 10 day time course. Maximum rutin content (43.37 mg/g dry weight (DW)) was observed in sprouts at 4 days after exposure (DAE) to blue light. Similarly, the highest cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside content (0.85 mg/g DW) was detected at 10 DAE to blue light. On the basis of these results, blue LED light is recommended as a light source for enhancing the content of phenolic compounds in tartary buckwheat sprouts.

Lights are very important source of photosynthesis for plant growth and development. Blue and red lights among visible regions are the most useful for the photosynthesis. Recent advancements of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) technologies provide abundant opportunities to study the relationship between plant metabolites and different light sources. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of various LEDs such as red (R), blue (B), red + blue (R + B) lamps on the levels of phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic acid, C -glycosylflavone (orientin, iso-orientin, vitexin, iso-vitexin), rutin and quercetin in seed sprouts of common and Tartary buckwheats at 9 and 12 days after sowing (DAS). Plant growth was significantly influenced at 12 DAS by LED lamps. Their values were higher under B LED light in common buckwheat sprouts, and R LED light in Tartary buckwheat sprouts. Phenolic compounds were significantly affected only at 9 DAS by R LED light in common buckwheat sprouts, but there is no effect on of Tartary buckwheat sprouts by different LED lamps. Total phenolic contents in common buckwheat sprouts were significantly differ, and as mean as follows [9 + 12 DAS] 36.02 > 34.12 > 33.12 mg g −1 DW under R, RB and B LEDs, respectively; in contrast, there were no differences in mean values of Tartary buckwheat sprouts. In particular, rutin values in Tartary buckwheat sprouts were documented 82% ( ca. 29 mg g −1 DW) of the total phenolic compounds; but only 14% (5 mg g −1 DW) in common buckwheat sprouts. These results indicated that the levels of phenolic compounds in common buckwheat sprouts tend to increase by the application of R LED at 9 DAS, but no differences in Tartary buckwheat sprouts.

In this study, the optimum wavelengths of light required for carotenoid biosynthesis were determined by investigating the expression levels of carotenoid biosynthetic genes and carotenoid accumulation in sprouts of tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) exposed to white, blue, and red light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Most carotenoid biosynthetic genes showed higher expression in sprouts irradiated with white light at 8 days after sowing than in those irradiated with blue and red lights. The dominant carotenoids in tartary buckwheat sprouts were lutein and β-carotene. The richest accumulation of total carotenoids was observed in sprouts grown under white light (1282.63 μg g(-1) dry weight), which was relatively higher than that in sprouts grown under blue and red lights (940.86 and 985.54 μg g(-1), respectively). This study might establish an effective strategy for maximizing the production of carotenoids and other important secondary metabolites in tartary buckwheat sprouts by using LED technology.

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), is a major pest responsible for destroying cabbage and other Brassica vegetable crops. A diamondback moth-resistant cabbage line was studied by comparing its metabolite profiles with those of a susceptible cabbage. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed that carbohydrates, aromatic compounds, and amides were the major factors that distinguished the resistant and susceptible genotypes. Gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry profiled 46 metabolites, including 19 amino acids, 15 organic acids, 8 sugars, 3 sugar alcohols, and 1 amine in two genotypes and F1 hybrid cabbages. The levels of glycolic acid, quinic acid, inositol, fumaric acid, glyceric acid, trehalose, shikimic acid, and aspartic acid were found to be very significantly different between the resistant and susceptible genotypes with a P value of

Objective of the study was to compare reflectance spectrum in the blade and the vein parts of cabbage and kale leaves. A total 6 cabbage and kale leaves were taken from a plant factory in Chungnam National University, Korea. Spectra data were collected with a UV/VIS/NIR spectrometer (model: USB2000, Ocean Optics, FL, USA) in the wavelength region of 190 ? 1130 nm. Median filter smoothing method was selected to preprocess the obtained spectra data. We computed reflectance difference by subtraction of averaged spectrum from individual spectrum. To estimate correlation at different parts of cabbage and kale leaves, cross - correlation method was used. Differences between cabbage and kale leaves are clearly manifested in the green, red and near ? infrared ranges. The percent reflectance of cabbage leaves in the NIR wavelength band was higher than that of kale leaves. Reflectance in the blade part was higher than in the vein part by 18%. Reflectance difference in the different parts of cabbage and kale leaves were clear in all of the wavelength bands. Standard deviation of reflectance difference in the vein part was greater for kale, while the value in the blade part was greater for cabbage leaves. Standard deviation of cross ? correlation increased from 0.092 in the first sensor (UV/VIS) and 0.007 in the second sensor (NIR) to 0.099 and 0.015, respectively.

Fresh ginseng has a limited storage life due to the quality change caused by microbial spoilage as well as physiological deterioration. The present study investigated the effects of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment, an inhibitor of ethylene action, on the microbial growth and quality maintenance of fresh ginseng during storage. Harvested fresh ginsengs were treated with 1 μL･L -1 1-MCP for 20 hours at 4°C and then stored at room temperature (RT) for 18 days or low temperature (4°C) for 160 days. After 18 days of storage at RT, the percentage weight loss in 1-MCP treated fresh ginseng (8.3%) is lower than that of control (10.1%). During long- term storage at 4°C, weight losses were increased slightly until 120 days without difference between non-treated and 1-MCP ginsengs. In contrast, after 120 days of storage at 4°C, higher increase in weight loss was observed in non-treated ginsengs than in 1-MCP treated ginsengs. Respiration rate and ethylene production of fresh ginseng were reduced by 1-MCP treatments at RT. The 1-MCP treatment also resulted in lower microbial population compared to those of non-treated ginsengs at RT. However, in ginsengs stored at 4°C for short-term (45 days), no differences were noted in weight loss and microbial population between 1-MCP treated and non-treated ginsengs. Major ginsenosides was not changed by 1-MCP treatment during the 7 days of storage at RT. Results suggest that 1-MCP treatment can be used to maintain the freshness of ginseng at room temperature for short term storage and at low temperature for long term storage. 1-MCP treatment could be applied on fresh ginseng to avoid deleterious effect of exogenous ethylene during storage and shipping.

Glucosinolate (GSL) contents in five varieties and eleven lines of rocket salad (Eruca sativa L.) were quantified using HPLC-UV at 227 nm. Eleven GSLs including five aliphatic (glucoraphanin, glucothiobeinin, glucobrassicanapin, glucoerucin, and dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl GSL), two indolyl (glucobrassicin and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin), one aromatic (gluconasturtiin) and three unknown GSLs were identified based on our data base. Aliphatic GSLs were noted as the predominant group with an average 89% of the total content. The highest total GSL amounts were documented in ‘Herb-Fragrant Vegetable’ (31.12 μol·g−1 dry weight (DW)), whereas the lowest was in line 28612 (9.91). Relatively 73% of lines among the lines documented the content more than 8 μmol·g−1 DW of dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl GSL, particularly lines 28615 and 28619 noted more than > 17 μmol·g−1 DW. The sum of three major GSLs (glucoraphanin, glucoerucin, and dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl GSL) attributed > 8 μmol·g−1 DW in all rocket salads, especially ‘Herb-Fragrant Vegetable’ and line 28613 (87 and 93% respectively) in the total GSL accumulation, likewise line 28612 and 28620 attributed > 90%. Indolyl GSLs were ranged 0.27–1.09 μmol·g−1 DW, accounted less than 6% of the total GSLs in varieties and lines. These results provide valuable information regarding the potential beneficial GSL contents individually in different varieties and lines of rocket salads.

The aim of this study was to establish the optimum harvesting time and the content of flavonoids in the leaves, stems, and roots of Artemisia montana Pamp. A. montana was monitored from June to October in 2012. The yield of A. montana at high density (30 × 10 cm) was higher than that of A. montana at low density (30 × 20 and 30 cm). Yield in terms of dry weight was increased with an extended growth period and development stage. High yield achieved at 2580 and 2757 kg?10 a?1 in September and October, respectively. Among the leaves, stems, and underground plant organs, jaceosidin and eupatilin were mainly detected in the leaves, and the highest levels were observed in June, at values of 66.6 and 158.2 mg?100 g?1, respectively. In contrast, apigenin was the major compound detected in the underground plant organs, with levels ranging from 21.2 to 29.5 mg?100 g?1 until September. Therefore, optimal harvest times were between September and October, generating a high yield and adding economic value although a higher level of total flavonoids was observed in crops harvested in June.

Three anthocyanins (cyanidin 3-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-sambubioside and cyanidin 3-glucoside) together with eleven known alkaloids (lycoricidine, hipppeastrine,O-Demethyllycoramin, lycoricidinol, galanthine, lycorine, lycorenine, lycoramine, galanthamine, homolycorine and pretazettine) were identified in the flower and bulb of Lycoris radiata using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with UV detection and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Anthocyanins play a major role in protecting plant’s DNA from the UV spectrum of sunlight and also in attracting insects for the purpose of pollination. Thus, knowledge on the contents and types of anthocyanins of L. radiata will help to evaluate the adaptive evolution of flowers and provide useful information for the ornamental breeding.

The aim of this study was to determine the variation of phenolic compounds in common and tartary buckwheats collected from China, Japan and Korea. Two buckwheat varieties of each country were cultivated using nutrient solution and vermiculite in the greenhouse from February to May, 2012 and harvested at two-week intervals. Phenolics such as chlorogenic acid, C-glycosylflavones (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, and isovitexin), rutin, and quercetin were quantified using high performance liquid chroma-tography (HPLC). At 17, 29, 44, 58, and 72 days after sowing (DAS), before harvesting each organs, rutin content of cultivars from China and Korea at 17 DAS was the highest (mean 43.63 and 39.95 mg?g–1 DW, respectively) than that of 29 and 44 DAS. However, two varieties from Japan at 44 DAS were documented maximum; whereas, the amount of rutin in “Hokkai T10” harvested at 44 DAS (58.36 mg?g–1 DW) was the highest of all cultivars. Rutin level in the leaves and stems at 72 DAS were comparatively higher than at 58 DAS. The highest of rutin content was found at 72 DAS (73.33 mg?g–1 DW) in “Hokkai T10” leaves followed by “Daegwan No.3-3” (61.13 mg?g–1 DW), “rice tartary” (53.89 mg?g–1 DW). Rutin content of flowers was presented as the highest amount in “Hokkai T10” at 72 DAS (88.3 mg?g–1 DW) was approximately 14-fold higher than that of 58 DAS (6.44 mg?g–1 DW). However, rutin content of flower in “Xiqiao No.2” was 3-fold higher at 72 DAS than at 58 DAS. Rutin and total phenolic compounds content in flowers, leaves, and stems were higher in the order. The content of four C-glycosylflavones in common buckwheat was higher than those in tartary buckwheat, but rutin content which accounted >90% of the total phenolic compounds was higher in tartary buckwheat. The highest amounts of chlorogenic acid and quercetin were measured in the flower of “Xiqiao No.2” (6.85 and 11.69 mg?g–1 DW, respectively). Based on these results, the presence of different phenolic compounds in all the varieties of buckwheat confirmed that it can be regarded as a potent source of functional foods.

Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) is a rich source of numerous health-benefiting compounds, including vitamins, glucosinolates, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids. However, the genetic resources for exploiting the phyto-nutritional traits of kales are limited. To acquire precise information on secondary metabolites in kales, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the transcriptome and metabolome of green and red kale seedlings. Kale transcriptome datasets revealed 37,149 annotated genes and several secondary metabolite biosynthetic genes. HPLC analysis revealed 14 glucosinolates, 20 anthocyanins, 3 phenylpropanoids, and 6 carotenoids in the kale seedlings that were examined. Red kale contained more glucosinolates, anthocyanins, and phenylpropanoids than green kale, whereas the carotenoid contents were much higher in green kale than in red kale. Ultimately, our data will be a valuable resource for future research on kale bio-engineering and will provide basic information to define gene-to-metabolite networks in kale.

The development of an efficient protocol for successful hairy root induction by Agrobacterium rhizogenes is the key step toward an in vitro culturing method for the mass production of secondary metabolites. The selection of an effective Agrobacterium strain for the production of hairy roots is highly plant species dependent and must be determined empirically. Therefore, our goal was to investigate the transformation efficiency of different A. rhizogenes strains for the induction of transgenic hairy roots in Fagopyrum tataricum ‘Hokkai T10’ cultivar; to determine the expression levels of the polypropanoid biosynthetic pathway genes, such as FtPAL, FtC4H, Ft4CL, FrCHS, FrCH1, FrF3H, FtFLS1, FtFLS2, FtF3, H1, FtF3,H2, FtANS, and FtDFR; and to quantify the in vitro synthesis of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins. Among different strains, R1000 was the most promising candidate for hairy root stimulation because it induced the highest growth rate, root number, root length, transformation efficiency, and total anthocyanin and rutin content. The R1000, 15834, and A4 strains provided higher transcript levels for most metabolic pathway genes for the synthesis of rutin (22.31, 15.48, and 13.04 µg/mg DW, respectively), cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (800, 750, and 650 µg /g DW, respectively), and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside (2410, 1530, and 1170 µg /g DW, respectively). A suitable A. rhizogenes strain could play a vital role in the fast growth of the bulk amount of hairy roots and secondary metabolites. Overall, R1000 was the most promising strain for hairy root induction in buckwheat.

We profiled and quantified glucosinolates, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and other secondary metabolites in the skin and flesh of pale green and purple kohlrabis. Analysis of these distinct kohlrabis revealed the presence of 8 glucosinolates, 12 anthocyanins, 2 carotenoids, and 7 phenylpropanoids. Glucosinolate contents varied among the different parts and types of kohlrabi. Glucoerucin contents were 4-fold higher in the flesh of purple kohlrabi than those in the skin. Among the 12 anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-(feruloyl)(sinapoyl) diglucoside-5-glucoside levels were the highest. Carotenoid levels were much higher in the skins than the flesh of both types of kohlrabi. The levels of most phenylpropanoids were higher in purple kohlrabi than in pale green ones. trans-Cinnamic acid content was 12.7-fold higher in the flesh of purple kohlrabi than that in the pale green ones. Thus, the amounts of glucosinolates, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and phenylpropanoids varied widely, and the variations in these compounds between the two types of kohlrabi were significant.

Buckwheat sprouts are considered an excellent dietary source of phenolic compounds. The time duration and amount of light for sprouting strongly affect the nutritional quality of sprouts. In this study, these two factors were investigated in two cultivars of tartary buckwheat sprouts: Hokkai T8 and T10. The transcriptional levels of flavonoid biosynthetic genes were investigated in light/dark- and dark-treated sprouts. Among the main flavonoid biosynthesis structural genes, FtPAL, Ft4CL, FtF3H, FtDFR, and FtANS exhibited higher transcriptional levels than others as compared to that of a housekeeping gene (histone H3) during sprouting; FtF3'H1, FtF3'H2, FtFLS2, and FtANS were substantially upregulated at 2, 4, and 6 days in light/dark-treated T10 sprouts than in dark-treated ones. However, FtDFR was downregulated in 8 and 10 day old light/dark-treated sprouts of both cultivars. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed that increasing the culture time did not affect the accumulation of flavonoids or anthocyanins. However, light contributed the production of anthocyanins in Hokkai T10 sprouts. The anthocyanins included cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, and delphinidin-3-O-coumarylglucoside, which were identified by HPLC and electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Instead of anthocyanins, Hokkai T8 sprouts produced large amounts of 4 flavonoid C-glycosylflavone compounds in both light/dark and dark conditions: orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, and isovitexin. These results indicate that these two types of tartary buckwheat sprouts have different mechanisms for flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis that also vary in light/dark and dark conditions.

Glucosinolates (GSLs) have attracted major interest due to the chemopreventive properties of some of their transformation products. GSLs in the seeds and edible parts of Korean Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. pekinensis) were identified and quantified by LC–ESI–MS and LC–UV. As a result, nine GSLs were identified: progoitrin, glucoraphanin, glucoalyssin, gluconapin, 4-hydroxy-3-indolylmethyl, glucobrassicanapin, glucoerucin, glucobrassicin, and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin. The total GSL levels were 268–198 and 23.0–15.8 μmol/g dry weight (DW) for seeds and edible parts, respectively. Gluconapin (197 μmol/g DW) was the highest individual GSL in seeds, whereas 4-methoxyglucobrassicin (6.08–4.94 μmol/g DW) and glucobrassicanapin (8.18–3.09 μmol/g DW) were found in the edible parts. In addition, LC–MS profiles of the nine GSLs identified from Korean Chinese cabbage were subjected to principal components analysis (PCA) to evaluate differences among samples. The metabolome among the four cultivar seed or edible parts was clearly separated by PCA.

Unfortunately, in the online published article, the second author’s given name was wrongly published. The correct given name should be “Hyeon Ji”. Similarly the fourth author’s given name and family name was swapped. The given name should be “Ye Eun” and family name should be “Park”.

Glucosinolates of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis) from Korea were characterised to determine the total glucosinolate content and the diversity amongst glucosinolates; 24 varieties were analysed. The profiles of 14 glucosinolates identified from the leaves were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to evaluate the differences among varieties. The Kori, Sandun and e-Norang varieties separated from the others based on glucosinolate concentration. Genetically modified Chinese cabbage containing the bar gene could not be separated from non-genetically modified varieties. Glucobrassicanapin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, gluconapin and glucobrassicin in Chinese cabbage were confirmed as the main glucosinolate compounds. The Kori, Sandun and e-Norang varieties appear to be good candidates for future breeding programmes since they have a high glucosinolate content. The presence of indolic glucosinolates in all varieties should be studied more extensively because they are the precursor of indole-3-carbinol, a potent cancer chemopreventive agent.

The phenolic compositions of non-germinated/germinated seeds and seed sprouts (at 6–10 day-old) of common (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and tartary (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) buckwheats were investigated. Phenolic compounds, including chlorogenic acid, four C-glycosylflavones (orientin, isoorientin vitexin, isovitexin), rutin and quercetin, were determined in the seed sprouts by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In the edible parts of common buckwheat sprouts, individual phenolics significantly increased during sprout growth from 6 to 10 days after sowing (DAS), whereas in tartary buckwheat sprouts they did not. While the sum contents of phenolic compounds in the edible part (mean 24.4 mg/g DW at 6–10 DAS) of tartary buckwheat sprouts were similar to those of common buckwheat sprouts, rutin contents in the non-germinated/germinated seeds (mean 14.7 mg/g DW) and edible parts (mean 21.8 mg/g DW) of tartary buckwheat were 49- and 5-fold, respectively, higher than those of common buckwheat. Extracts of the edible parts of both species showed very similar free radical-scavenging activities (mean 1.7 μmol trolox eq/g DW), suggesting that the overall antioxidative activity might be affected by the combination of identified phenolics and unidentified (minor) components. Therefore, buckwheat seed sprouts are recommended for their high antioxidative activity, as well as being an excellent dietary source of phenolic compounds, particularly tartary buckwheat sprouts, being rich in rutin.

The evolution, from 1 to 10 days after germination, of flavonoid content in sprouts of tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.), grown in a greenhouse under low light conditions (16 μmol m−2 s−1), was investigated. Chlorogenic acid and flavonoids including C-glycosylflavones (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin), rutin and quercetin were separated from the sprouts by HPLC and quantified with their commercial standards. Rutin content in the edible portion of the sprouts (mean 20 and 37 mg g−1 DW in ‘Hokkai T 8’ and ‘Hokkai T 10’, respectively) was 3- to 31-fold greater than that in the roots or pericarp. The free radical scavenging activity of seed sprouts was assessed through the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. From 6 to 10 days after sowing, the free radical scavenging activity in the edible portions rose significantly from 1.52 to 2.33 μmol Trolox equiv. g−1 DW in ‘Hokkai T 8’ and from 1.46 to 2.09 μmol Trolox equiv. g−1 DW in ‘Hokkai T 10’, but differences between ‘Hokkai T 8’ and ‘Hokkai T 10’ were not significant. As the results, the sprouts of tartary buckwheat, particularly those of ‘Hokkai T 10’ are strongly recommended as new high rutin food.

The anthocyanin profiles and variety/breeding-line differences of anthocyanin concentrations in petals of common buckwheat flowers have been studied. Four anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin 3-O-rhamnoside, and cyanidin 3-O-galactosyl-rhamnoside were isolated from the petals of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench), separated using high performance liquid chromatography and identified using reversed-phase liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry techniques. In every variety/breeding line tested, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside was detected as the major anthocyanin and the next is cyanidin 3-O-glucoside whereas cyanidin 3-O-rhamnoside and cyanidin 3-O-galactosyl-rhamnoside were trace or not detectable in white and pink flowered buckwheat. Of all the varieties/breeding lines tested, Gan-Chao, a Chinese variety, contained the highest amount of anthocyanins. The largest part of cyanidin moiety was presented as a proanthocyanidin form (PAs-Cy). Anthocyanins and PAs-Cy in petals were increased along with increase of flower development stages. Therefore, fully developed petals of red flowered buckwheat, especially Gan-Chao, are promising as a new anthocyanin-rich material for food processing.

The research presented herein provides valuable data with respect to the phosphorus content of starches from many potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars using an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence technique. In all starches examined, the phosphorus content ranged from 308 to 1244 ppm. Furthermore, the estimation of the starch characteristics of representative samples differing manifestly in their phosphorus content indicated that enhancing the starch phosphate resulted in significant increases in the swelling power, peak viscosity, and breakdown and significant but small increases in the onset and peak temperatures of gelatinization. Other starch quality parameters, such as the amylose content, median granule size, and the gelatinization enthalpy, did not change significantly due to the degree of phosphate substitution of starch.

To investigate the physiological roles of rutin (quercetin 3-O-rutinoside) and flavonol-3-glucosidase (f3g, a rutin-degrading enzyme) during cotyledon growth in tartary buckwheat, changes in rutin and quercetin (aglycone of rutin) concentrations, and f3g activities were measured. The rutin concentration gradually increased (about 50 mg g-1 DW cotyledons) up to 12 d after germination (DAG). The quercetin concentration in the tartary buckwheat cotyledon increased immediately after germination, reached a maximum at 4 DAG, and then remained around 1.5 mg g-1 DW until 12 DAG. The f3g activity in the cotyledon and testa decreased gradually after germination. However, it retained 80% activity at 4 DAG compared with dry seed. In addition, the f3g activity was high on the surface of the cotyledon. We also investigated spatial distribution of rutin and f3g activity in 4 DAG seedlings. While rutin was mostly present in the cotyledon, f3g activity was observed in the testa, the surface of the testa, and root. These results suggest that rutin and f3g activity in tartary buckwheat have different physiological roles during cotyledon growth compared with common buckwheat. Key words: Tartary buckwheat; rutin; quercetin; flavonoid; glucosidase; germination

The effect of storage temperature and duration on nitrate, total vitamin C and glucosinolate (GSL) contents was investigated in rocket salad (Eruca sativa Mill.) grown in soilless culture. Harvested plants were either maintained intact as leaves with roots (RL) or separated as leaves only (LO) before being placed in oriented polypropylene packages and immediately stored at 4 °C (RL and LO) or 15 °C (LO only) in darkness. Packages were sampled after 1, 3, 6 and 10 days of storage (DOS) and, along with fresh samples (0 DOS), submitted to chemical analysis. For RL (4 °C), leaf moisture content decreased gradually with increasing storage duration, from 98.7% at 1 DOS to 93.8% at 10 DOS. For LO (15 °C), leaf colour at 10 DOS had shifted from an initial greenish hue to a yellowish one. Nitrate contents were highest at 10 DOS in all treatments but did not show any significant differences between LO (15 °C) and RL (4 °C). Total vitamin C content ranged from 0.87 to 1.81 mg g−1 fresh weight and was higher in both LO (4 °C) and RL (4 °C) leaves than in those of LO (15 °C) regardless of storage duration. Total GSL content in the leaves of both LO (4 °C) and LO (15 °C) increased up to 3 DOS and decreased thereafter. The correlation between total vitamin C and GSL contents only existed at 0 DOS before storage and at 3 DOS of LO (15 °C) during storage in all treatments. Storage temperature generally had a significant effect on GSLs individually or collectively, except for 4-methoxyglucobrassicin. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Contents of rutin, free amino acids and vitamin C were measured with the sprouts of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, FE) and tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum Gaertn., FT), cultivated in darkness and/or under natural light conditions. Flavonoids, including rutin and quercetin were isolated from the sprouts of FE and FT by using HPLC and quantified with their authentic standard compounds. In FE sprouts, rutin content placed under natural light conditions was higher than from plants grown in darkness. In contrast, in FT sprouts rutin content was significantly affected both by days after seeding (DAS) and by lighting. On average, rutin content (55mg/g dry weight) of FT sprouts was 2.2-fold higher than that of FE sprouts. In both species, free amino acids levels were increased with increased natural light periods, and vitamin C content of the sprouts cultivated in darkness in both species was significantly lower than that of light-grown sprouts. Based on these characteristics, we concluded that the green sprouts of FT are a superior source of rutin, free amino acids and vitamin C. They could therefore be used as ‘functional foods’ fresh vegetables and freeze-dried powder.

Changes in the extent of P700 oxidation (P700 + ) were investigated after chilling of barley, rice, pumpkin, and cucumber leaf segments at 4°C for 1 h under light with various photon flux densities. At 50 μmol photons m -2 s -1 , the decrease in P700 + was observed only in cucumber, but at 150 μmol photons m -2 s -1 , it was found in all plants except barley, revealing their expected chilling sensitivities. However, the decrease in P700 + by this short-term chilling was reversible in the presence of 3-(3',4'-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea or methyl viologen, and it did not show any causal relationship with the decrease in the electron transfer rate nor with the down-regulation of photosystem II through the accumulation of zeaxanthin and the development of non-photochemical quenching. These results led to the suggestion that photosystem I (PSI) acceptor side limitation is a prerequisite for the decrease of P700. Furthermore, PSI acceptor side limitation could be mainly due to limitation of electron-sink pathways such as CO 2 assimilation and ascorbate-glutathione cycle, because treatment with glycolaldehyde which inhibits the former pathway, and with KCN which inhibits both pathways, decreased P700 + by 20-30% in barley leaves after chilling in the light.

Total glucosinolate (GSL) content of edible parts, such as flower buds, leaves, and stems of vegetable turnip rape (Brassica rapa L.) was determined and compared among twelve cultivars consisting of eight early types and four medium or late types. The average dry weight of the edible parts in the medium or late types was 2-fold higher (3.20 g) than that of the early types (1.61 g). The relative proportion of each edible part to the dry weight in the early types was approximately 31, 35, and 35% for the flower buds, leaves, and stems, respectively. However, in the medium or late types, the leaf proportion was six times higher than that of the flower buds. Two GSL compounds, gluconapin, and glucobrassicanapin, were mainly found in all the edible parts. The relative proportion of gluconapin to the total GSL content was higher than that of glucobrassicanapin in the early types, but the reverse was observed in the medium or late types. The total GSL content of edible parts, recalculated by using the p...

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of different l-phenylalanine (l-Phe) concentrations and various light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on the accumulation of phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acid, vitexin, rutin, quercetin, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside) in Tartary buckwheat sprouts. We found that 5mM was the optimum l-Phe concentration for the synthesis of total and individual phenolic compounds. The highest rutin (53.09 mg/g DW) and chlorogenic acid (5.62 mg/g DW) content was observed with Red+Blue and white lights. Comprehensive differences in total and individual anthocyanin content were observed between different lights; however, the total anthocyanin content (9.12 mg/g DW) was 1.5-fold higher in blue light. The expression levels of regulatory genes, such as FtDFR and FtANS, were 7.1-fold higher with l-Phe treatment. Gene expression results showed that the phenolic compounds in Tartary buckwheat sprouts increased with the use of l-Phe and LED lights.

Eight major glucosinolates (GSLs) were identified in ten cultivars of vegetable turnip rape (Brassica rapa L.) by LC/APCI-MS. The GSLs indentified included five alkenyl GSLs (progoitrin, glucoraphanin, sinigrin, gluconapin, and glucobrassicanapin), two indolyl GSLs (4-hydroxyglucobrassicin and glucobrassicin), and one aromatic GSL (gluconasturtiin). The total GSL content in the ten cultivars ranged from 36 to 187 mmol kg-1 DW. The content of indolylglucosinolate (GSL) ranged widely from 0.4 to 8.2 mmol kg-1 DW, which accounted for 0.5 to 10.2%, respectively, of the total GSL content. Although the total GSL content was affected by the harvest dates, the proportion of individual GSLs did not change significantly. Furthermore, the proportion of the individual GSL content between edible parts and seeds in vegetable turnip rapevaried considerably, especially for gluconapin and glucobrassicanapin. Among them, the sum of the contents of gluconapin and glucobrassicanapin accounted for more than 65% of th...

Red-flowered buckwheat ( Fagopyrum esculentum ) is used in the production of tea, juice, and alcohols after the detoxification of fagopyrin. In order to investigate the metabolomics and regulatory of anthocyanin production in red-flowered (Gan-Chao) and white-flowered (Tanno) buckwheat cultivars, quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS), and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were conducted. The transcriptions of FePAL, FeC4H, Fe4CL1, FeF3H, FeANS, and FeDFR increased gradually from flowering stage 1 and reached their highest peaks at flowering stage 3 in Gan-Chao flower. In total 44 metabolites, 18 amino acids, 15 organic acids, 7 sugars, 3 sugar alcohols, and 1 amine were detected in Gan-Chao flowers. Two anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, were identified in Gan-Chao cultivar. The first component of the partial least-squares to latent structures-discriminate analysis (PLS-DA) indicated that high amounts of phenolic, shikimic, and pyruvic acids were present in Gan-Chao. We suggest that transcriptions of genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis, anthocyanin contents, and metabolites have correlation in the red-flowered buckwheat Gan-Chao flowers. Our results may be helpful to understand anthocyanin biosynthesis in red-flowered buckwheat.