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The aerial parts of the endemic Australian plant Eremophila debilis (Myoporaceae) contain 3% dry weight of the biologically active 5,6,7,3',4',5'-hexamethoxyflavone, which had its structured confirmed using X-ray crystal crystallography. The presence of significant levels of the polypharmacologically active 5,6,7,3',4',5'-hexamethoxyflavone in the edible parts of the plant has potential implications for its use as a food and bush medicine.

Volatile oils of Eremophila longifolia F. Muell. (Myoporaceae) leaves were obtained by hydrodistillation and analysed using GC-MS. A total of 33 compounds were identified in the oils examined and a high degree of intraspecific variability in chemical composition between specimens occurring in separate geographic localities was found. Multivariate statistical analysis of chemical composition of volatile oils enabled classification of three chemotypes in this species.

A detailed investigation of the wood, leaf, branch and root oil of Eremophila mitchellii (Benth.) was carried out by a combination of GC-FID, GC-MS and NMR. The wood oil was composed predominantly of eremophilanes, a rare class of biologically active, bicyclic sesquiterpenoids. The root oil was also found to contain the eremophilanes together with the zizaene sesquiterpene, sesquithuriferone. 9-Hydroxy-1,7(11),9-eremophilatrien-8-one and the known 1(10),11-eremophiladien-9-one (eremophilone), 9-hydroxy-7(11),9-eremophiladien-8-one (2-hydroxyeremophilone), 8-hydroxy-11-eremophilen-9-one (santalcamphor), 8-hydroxy-10,11-eremophiladien-9-one, sesquithuriferone and 8-hydroxy-1,11-eremophiladien-9-one were purified and elucidated by NMR. Three approaches to the purification of the major eremophilanes from the wood oil are described. (+) Spathulenol, α-pinene, globulol, viridiflorene were the major constituents of the leaf oil. All of the essential oils and the eremophilanes exhibited cytotoxicity against P388D(1) mouse lymphoblast cells in-vitro.

Thirty-eight microsatellite loci were developed for the bird pollinated, autohexaploid, Eremophila glabra ssp. glabra. A genomic library was screened with dinucleotide and trinucleotide sequence repeats. Polymorphism ranged from one to 21 alleles per locus. Twenty-four loci exhibited null alleles, based on patterns of inheritance between maternal and progeny phenotypes. Cross-species amplification of nine Eremophila species was successful for most primers, indicating wide applicability across the genus. These microsatellites will be used to study the gene flow patterns of fragmented populations of E. glabra ssp. glabra.

The ethnopharmacology and phytochemistry of Eremophila species (Myoporaceae), important in the pharmacopeia of the Australian Aboriginal people, are discussed with the aim of providing leads for phytopharmacological evaluation.

The traditional, current and potential uses ofMyoporum species are documented. Historically, this genus was valued by the Australian Aboriginal people for cultural purposes and as a food plant of minor importance. Medicinal remedies were also acquired from this shrub.Myoporum species were utilised by Aboriginal people in both coastal and Central Australia and throughout the Pacific region. These hardy shrubs are characterised by their drought, fire, frost and grazing tolerances. They have horticultural potential and are good sources of selected phytochemicals.

Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation from the traditional Australian medicinal plant Eremophila bignoniiflora, characterized chemically and then screened for bioactivity. Characterization and quantification were completed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-flame ionization detection, respectively. Antimicrobial capacity was assessed using disc diffusion and micro-titre plate broth dilution and further characterized using thin layer chromatography followed by bioautography to assign activity to separated individual active components. Antifungal capacity was investigated using micro-titre plate broth dilution against pathogenic Trichophyton species. Free radical scavenging ability was assessed using the diphenylpicrylhydradyl reaction in methanol. The predominant components of the essential oil were fenchyl-acetate and bornyl-acetate. However, bioautography indicated antimicrobial ability to be largely linked to the less abundant, more polar constituents. Oils displayed only modest antifungal ability against pathogenic Trichophyton species associated with dermatophytosis, but moderate to high antimicrobial activity, particularly against the yeast Candida albicans and the bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis. Essential oils exhibited relatively low free radical scavenging ability. Speculation over the role of essential oils in the traditional medicinal applications of E. bignoniiflora follows, exploring correlations between traditional use and investigated bioactivities. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Leaf specimens of Eremophila longifolia were collected from western New South Wales, Australia. Essential oils were extracted using hydro-distillation. Characterizations using GC-MS and GC-FID were consistent with those reported in previous work, but demonstrated greater chemo-variability. Antimicrobial activity from disc diffusions and broth dilutions indicated that oils dominated by hydrocarbon monoterpenes and monoterpenols had moderate antimicrobial activity for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis. Oils dominated by ketones demonstrated less activity but showed substantially greater yields in wet-weight leaves. Bioautography revealed the most active constituents to be related to the most abundant – karahanaenone and menthone – but active constituents also included d-limonene, borneol, sabinene, terpinolene and α-terpineol. Antifungal capacity for Trichophyton interdigitalis, rubrum and mentagrophytes was determined using an agar transplant method. Results indicated very high activity from oils rich in borneol and also for oils that were distilled from leaves accidentally burnt or partially pyrolysed during hydro-distillation. This serendipitous observation may have relevance given the traditional manner of use in smoking ceremonies. Free radical scavenging was determined using the DPPH method in methanol and antioxidant capacity with the FRAP assay. Results indicated that oils dominated by monoterpenols had moderate ability, but became very high when the oils were partially pyrolysed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The secondary metabolites isolated from members of the Myoporaceae are reviewed. More than 200 compounds, whose structures have been elucidated, are listed together with their source in the Appendix.

Pulvinaria dodonaeae are recorded as feeding on Eremophila R. Br. (Myoporaceae) within the arid shrublands of Western Australia. Ten percent of the E. margarethae population (i.e. 90 plants/ha) were killed by this scale. E. fraseri subsp. galeata appears hardier with minimal affects on plant vitality.

Stomatal parameters (stomatal density, stomatal index and stomatal conductance) have been widely used to study vegetation response to long-term CO2 change, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. We tested the applicability of the methods and interpretations to Australian desert vegetation, by using Eremophila deserti A.Cunn. (Myoporaceae) leaves. Subfossil samples dated at 7500 years before present and 3700 years before present from Leporillus species (stick-nest rat) middens from the Flinders Ranges were compared with herbarium and modern samples from the area. Stomatal density and stomatal conductance are problematic in their application to this species, probably because of the effect of the moisture regime on epidermal cell size. Stomatal index, which takes some account of independent variations in cell size, did allow the differentiation of long-term trends. In contrast to most other studies, these trends show an increase in stomatal index with increasing CO2, particularly over the last century. From 7500 years before present until about 1950, it is unclear whether CO2 was the most influential among a complex set of factors including different aspects of the moisture regime. In recent decades, the influence of CO2, as demonstrated statistically, accounts for most but not all the observed variation.

Eremophila R.Br. (Myoporaceae) species are hardy perennial shrubs and trees which are endemic to Australia. They offer potential in revegetation and horticultural programmes and are currently propagated from cuttings, since they have proven difficult to grow from fruits. Fruits of E. maculata (Ker Gawl.) F.Muell. contain multiple seeds, and potential seed viability decreases from 58-74% over the first 3 years to 8% after 10 years. Up to 98% germination is obtained with seeds of E. maculata excised from the fruit, compared to 28% germination from the fruit. Since older fruits, which are characterised by a weathered fruit apex, allow a greater number of seedlings to emerge during optimum conditions, Eremophila germination appears to be controlled primarily by physical dormancy due to the woody endocarp which surrounds the seeds. Chemical dormancy also plays an important role in the establishment of Eremophila, and germination inhibitors have been found within the fruit wall of E. maculata and E. racemosa (Endl.) F.Muell. The inhibitors from E. maculata appear to be water-soluble aromatic glycosides. It is suggested that germination in the field is triggered by leaching of these compounds from the fruit during intense precipitation.

Plants of Myoporum in the Kermadec Islands have been previously assigned to M. laetum of New Zealand or, more recently, to M. obscurum of Norfolk I. They are here described as a new species, M. kermadecense, endemic to the Kermadec Islands but closely related to M. laetum and M. obscurum, and with many similarities also to species in tropical S.E. Polynesia, Australia, and New Caledonia.

Stem calluses of Eremophila fraseri were established on defined media. Resin components secreted by leaf glandular hairs could not be detected in callus extracts. Both calluses and isolated leaves metabolized [2-14C]mevalonic acid but only the leaves incorporated label into resin components. Rates of incorporation in leaf resins were low (1-3 %). These rates varied according to the com- position of the leaf resins.

Eremophila fraseri occurs in arid and semiarid areas of inland and northern Western Australia. The spreading bushes, 1 to 2.5 tn high, are covered with a thick, viscid layer of resin. The flavonoid and terpenoid components of the leaf resins were identified by thin-layer chromatography. Five types of resin patterns were recognized, and each was found to have a distinct geographical distribution. Each occurs sympatrically with at least one other resin pattern. It is suggested that hybridization between two tetraploid races is occurring, and that the progeny can be recognized by their resin com- position.

Australia’s endemic desert shrubs are commonly aromatic, with chemically diverse terpenes and phenylpropanoids in their headspace profiles. Species from the genus Eremophila (Scrophulariaceae ex. Myoporaceae) are the most common, with 215 recognised taxa and many more that have not yet been described, widely spread across the arid parts of the Australian continent. Over the years, our research team has collected multiple specimens as part of a survey to investigate the chemical diversity of the genus and create leads for further scientific enquiry. In the current study, the diversity of volatile compounds is studied using hydrodistilled essential oils and leaf solvent extracts from 30 taxa. Several rare terpenes and iridoids were detected in chemical profiles widely across the genus, and three previously undescribed sesquiterpenes were isolated and are assigned by 2D NMR—E-11(12)-dehydroisodendrolasin, Z-11-hydroxyisodendrolasin and 10-hydroxydihydro-α-humulene acetate. Multiple sampling from Eremophila longifolia, Eremophila arbuscular, Eremophila latrobei, Eremophila deserti, Eremophila sturtii, Eremophila oppositifolia and Eremophila alternifolia coneys that species in Eremophila are highly chemovariable. However, taxa are generally grouped according to the expression of (1) furanosesquiterpenes, (2) iridoids or oxides, (3) mixtures of 1 and 2, (4) phenylpropanoids, (5) non-furanoid terpenes, (6) mixtures of 4 and 5, and less commonly (7) mixtures of 1 and 5. Furthermore, GC–MS analysis of solvent-extracted leaves taken from cultivated specimens conveys that many heavier ‘volatiles’ with lower vapour pressure are not detected in hydrodistilled essential oils and have therefore been neglected in past chemical studies. Hence, our data reiterate that chemical studies of the genus Eremophila will continue to describe new metabolites and that taxon determination has limited predictive value for the chemical composition.

Myoporum is an Australian genus of family Myoporaceae widely cultivated in Libya as an ornamental plant. The hydrodistilled essential oil of fresh Libyan Myoporum acuminatum R. Br fruits (1.2%) was analyzed by GC-MS. Twenty nine constituents were identified. The oil was characterized by high content of oxygenated compounds (60.83%) mainly sesquiterpenes. The major monoterpenoids were D-limonene (34.10%) and (-) carvone (11.76%) while negaione (20.5%) and myomontanone (8.5%) were major furanoid sesquiterpenes. The antimicrobial screening showed that essential oil of this plant has promising antimicrobial activity against a number of tested microorganisms: Gram positive bacteria: Streptococcus pneumonia, Bacillis subtilis, Gram negative bacteria as Escherichia coli and certain fungi named Geotricum candidum, Aspergillus fumigates,Syncephalastrum racemosum

Myoporum bontioides A. Gray (Myoporaceae), a red list plant in Japan, is restricted to only a few East Asian countries like China, Japan and Taiwan, associated to some true mangroves. The leaf is isolateral and has a thick cuticle; stomata are anomocytic, sunken and have a beak-shaped cuticular outgrowth at the inner and outer side of the stomatal pore (ledges); profuse glandular hairs are scattered on both leaf surfaces of young leaves. The mesophyll is compact with palisade and spongy parenchyma cells in the young stage, but at maturity profuse intercellular spaces can be observed. Secretory ducts occur in young leaves. Pear-shaped glandular hairs protrude from the epidermal layer. Hair primordia are well distinct by their larger size and undergo divisions to produce two laterally placed basal cells, two stalk cells and four radiating terminal cells. The cuticle layers of the terminal cells are often separated from the cell wall to form a space, in which ions accumulate for excretion. Inner walls of the basal cells are connected with the mesophyll. Though ontogeny and structure of glandular hairs have resemblance to typical mangroves, considering leaf micromorphology, this plant is better termed as “mangrove associate” instead of “true man

The potential of the leaf beetle Charidotis auroguttata as a biocontrol agent for cat’s claw creeper Macfadyena unguis-cati (Bignoniaceae), an environmental weed in Australia, and risk to non-target plants was evaluated under quarantine conditions. In no-choice tests, C. auroguttata adults and larvae fed on many plant species across different families, but egg to adult development occurred only on the target weed. However, when neonate larvae from the target weed were transferred onto Myoporum boninense australe (Myoporaceae), a non-target native plant, 11.7% completed development, as compared to 95% of larvae that completed development on the target weed. Larval development on this non-target species also took twice as long as on the target weed. No larvae completed development on other test plants. In choice tests, leaf area consumption by adults and larvae was significantly more on the target weed than on other plants, and oviposition occurred only on the target weed. In the no-choice demography trials, adults laid eggs from the second week after emergence on the target weed, with an average of 0.286 eggs/female/day, resulting in an 18-fold increase in the adult population over 16 weeks. On My. boninense australe adult survival remained high, but oviposition commenced only from the 10th week after emergence with an average of 0.023 eggs/female/day, and none of the eggs developed into adults. In the choice demography trials, oviposition on the target weed was evident from the fourth week onwards, while on the non-target plant oviposition commenced only from the 14th week. Only 10% of total adults and 11.3% of total eggs were found on the non-target plant, and none of these eggs developed into adults. Although the biocontrol agent can ‘spill-over’ from the target weed to the non-target native plant and cause adult feeding damage, the non-target plant could not sustain a viable insect population on its own. This agent was not approved for field release in Australia due to perceived risk to non-target species.

Myoporum semotum is described as a new species from the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, where it is known from Pitt Island, and the neighbouring South East, Rabbit, Mangere and Little Mangere islands. Notably, it is absent from Chatham Island where only Myoporum laetum occurs. Myoporum semotum is a coastal species occurring mostly in forest habitats but also in wind-shorn coastal shrubland. This new species is distinguished from M. laetum by its smoother bark, usually wider leaves, the leaf secretory cavities being obscure, smaller and dense, the midrib, petioles and branchlets being smooth and lacking prominent protruding tubercules, and in having slightly larger flowers. The conservation status of M. semotum is assessed as Nationally Vulnerable as it is currently known from between 1000 and 5000 mature plants.

Conspicuous air spaces in Leucophyllum (Scrophulariaceae; Leucophylleae) leaves have been suggested to be developmentally transformed secretory cavities. We reinvestigated air space development in Leucophyllum frutescens, using freehand sections of mature fresh leaves and paraffin sections of several leaf stages. Each of the numerous air spaces per leaf forms because greater separation occurs within a local group of spongy mesophyll cells than in the developing spongy mesophyll elsewhere. We found no anatomical evidence of transitory epithelial cells or lysis of cells in developing air spaces, thus the hypothesis that air spaces are transformed secretory cavities is not supported. However, an important finding was that all leaves had one pair of conspicuous true secretory cavities flanking the midvein at the apex, each lined by an epithelium and filled with oil. We also found conspicuous apical cavities in freehand sections of herbarium specimens of this and three other Leucophyllum species. Cavities were not seen in L. revolutum or in the related Eremogeton grandiflorus. This is the first report and description of a true internal secretory cavity in Scrophulariaceae. In the related family Myoporaceae, we found epithelium-lined cavities scattered abundantly in leaves of cleared samples of three genera.

Extracts of 40 different plant species used in the traditional medicine of the Australian Aboriginal people have been investigated for antiviral activity. The extracts have been tested for activity against one DNA virus, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and two RNA viruses, Ross River virus (RRV) and poliovirus type 1, at non-cytotoxic concentrations. The most active extracts were the aerial parts of Pterocaulon sphacelatum (Asteraceae) and roots of Dianella longifolia var. grandis (Liliaceae), which inhibited poliovirus at concentrations of 52 and 250 microg/ml, respectively. The extracts of Euphorbia australis (Euphorbiaceae) and Scaevola spinescens (Goodeniaceae) were the most active against HCMV. Extracts of Eremophila latrobei subsp. glabra (Myoporaceae) and Pittosporum phylliraeoides var. microcarpa (Pittosporaceae) exhibited antiviral activity against RRV.

Eremophila spp. (Myoporaceae family), endemic to Australia, are evergreen shrubs or small trees occurring in arid, semi-arid, tropical, or temperate regions. In Europe, Eremophila spp. are grown for their horticultural appeal. During 2009 and 2010, extensive wilting was observed on 2-month to 1-year-old potted plants of Eremophila laanii F. Muell., E. glabra subsp. carnosa Chinnock, and E. maculata (Ker Gawl.) F. Muell. grown in a commercial nursery near Catania (southern Italy). Internally, symptomatic plants had conspicuous vascular discoloration from the crown to the canopy. Diseased crown and stem tissues were surface disinfested for 30 s in 1% NaOCl, rinsed in sterile water, plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with 100 mg/liter of streptomycin sulfate, and incubated at 25°C. A Fusarium sp. was consistently isolated from affected plant tissues. Colonies with purple mycelia and violet reverse colors developed after 9 days. On carnation leaf agar, single-spore isolates produced microconidia on short monophialides, macroconidia that were three to five septate with a pedicellate base, and solitary and double-celled or aggregated chlamydospores. A PCR assay was conducted on two representative isolates (ITEM 12591 and ITEM 12592) by analyzing sequences of the partial CaM gene (coding calmodulin protein) and benA (coding beta-tubulin protein) using the primers as reported by O'Donnell et al. (1). Calmodulin sequences of ITEM 12951 and ITEM 12952 isolates (GenBank Nos. FR671157 and FR671158) exhibited 99.8 and 99.5% identity with Fusarium oxysporum strain ITEM 2367 (GenBank No. AJ560774), respectively, and had 99.5% homology between them. BenA gene sequences of ITEM 12951 (GenBank No. FR671426) exhibited an identity of 100% to F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum strain CC-612-3 (GenBank No. AY714092.1), and benA gene sequences of ITEM 12952 (GenBank No. FR671427) exhibited an identity of 100% to F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum strain LA 140 (GenBank No. FJ466740.1), whereas the homology between the two strains is 99.5%. Morphological characteristics, as well as CaM and benA sequences, identified the isolates as F. oxysporum Schlechtend:Fr. Pathogenicity tests were performed by placing 1-cm2 plugs of PDA from 9-day-old mycelial cultures near the crown on potted, healthy, 3-month-old cuttings of E. laanii, E. glabra subsp. carnosa, and E. maculata. Twenty plants for each species were inoculated with each isolate. The same number of plants served as noninoculated controls. All plants were enclosed for 4 days in plastic bags and placed in a growth chamber at 24 ± 1°C. Plants were then moved to a greenhouse where temperatures ranged from 23 to 27°C. Symptoms identical to those observed in the nursery developed 20 days after inoculation with both strains. Crown and stem discoloration was detected in all inoculated plants after 45 days. Wilting was detected on 15% of plants. Control plants remained symptomless. F. oxysporum was consistently reisolated from symptomatic tissues and identified as previously above. To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. oxysporum causing disease of Eremophila spp. worldwide. Reference: (1) K. O'Donnell et al. Mycoscience 41:61, 2000.

Aeration of tissue cultured rare Australian plantsConostylis wonganensis S.D. Hopper (Haemodoraceae);Diplolaena andrewsii Ostenf.;Drummondita ericoides Harvey (Rutaceae);Eremophila resinosa F. Muell. (Myoporaceae);Eucalyptus ‘graniticola’ (Myrtaceae);Lechenaultia pulvinaris C. Gardner (goodeniaceae); andSowerbaea multicaulis E. Pritzel (Liliaceae) has been found to reduce vitrification in sensitive species as well as significantly improving shoot quality and transfer to soil in most study species. A simple 7-mm hole with a double-layer insert of filter paper in the polypropylene screw lids of the culture vessel decreased shoot vitrification over a 4-wk culture period. The method has implications for facilitating the tissue culture of other rare Australian plants and reducing the occurrence of this developmental abnormality.

Plant species of the genus Eremophila (Myoporaceae) are native to Australia and are known to produce a diverse range of unusual secondary compounds. The purpose of this research was to examine the antimicrobial activity of 72 Eremophila species most of which had not been the subject of any previous pharmacological testing. Organic extracts of Eremophila species were screened for antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and yeasts of medical importance. Extracts of a number of Eremophila species showed selective activity against Gram-positive bacteria with MICs for the most active species in the range of 16 to 62 μg/ml for Streptococcus species, and 62 to 250 μg/ml for standard strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Extracts with the greatest activity against standard strains were tested against 68 clinical isolates of multi-resistant methicillin-resistant S. aureus (mMRSA). The majority of the clinical isolates were susceptible to concentrations below 62.5 μg/ml for the extracts of E. drummondii, E. linearis, E. serrulata, E. acrida, E. neglecta, E. virens and a new undescribed species affiliated with E. prolata. The extract of E. virens inhibited growth of all 68 clinical mMRSA isolates at the minimum tested concentration of 31 μg/ml. This study has shown for the first time that a number of different Eremophila species manifest selective antibacterial activity against Gram-positive organisms which are important causes of human disease. It shows that there are several Eremophila species possessing interesting antibacterial activity besides those that have published traditional use. These may yield novel antibacterial compounds with potential to be used in biomedical applications. (© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Twenty-eight extracts from 17 species of Australian native plants traditionally used as general anti-inflammatory medicines by Australian Aboriginal people were examined for inhibition of the enzyme xanthine oxidase (XO). The extracts from nine species were found to have more than 25% inhibition at a concentration of 100 microg/ml in the assay mixture. Extracts from three species Clerodendrum floribundum R. Br. (Verbenaceae), Eremophila maculata (Ker Gawler) (Myoporaceae) and Stemodia grossa Benth. (Scrophulariaceae) showed the greatest activity with inhibitions of 84, 61 and 57%, respectively, at 50 microg/ml, with four other species having more than 40% inhibitory activity at this concentration.

The isolation of two new cembrene diterpenes, 1 from the resin of Eremophila gilesii and 6 from the resins of Eremophila metallicorum and Eremophila viscida var., structures of the cembrenes were assigned by chemical and spectroscopic methods

Publisher Summary The genus Eremophila is one of three genera, together with Myoporum and Bontia, which constitute the small Myoporaceae family. Eremophila species have been of cultural importance in the past; they have been referred to as “poverty bushes.” They have also been regarded by agriculturalists as invasive woody species, sometimes poisonous, and of limited use as fodder. Currently, the ecological importance of Eremophila species has been recognized and their potential in horticulture and revegetation programs is being evaluated. Two hundred and eight species of Eremophila are currently documented and approximately one-half of these have been investigated chemically. The genus is characterized by the variety and uniqueness of the diterpene skeletal types it can produce, nine to date, and the ability of a high proportion of its members to accumulate large quantities of these metabolites. The use of Eremophila as a source of renewable material is an attractive possibility.

The genus Eremophila (Myoporaceae) consists of woody shrubs and trees which typically grow in low rainfall areas and are characterized by the viscid to resinous vegetative parts, ebracteate flowers and indehiscent woody fruit. In terms of biogeographical distribution, Eremophila is one of the most significant Australian desert genera. Of the 210 Eremophila species recognized by Chinnock (pers. comm. 1993), 175 occur throughout Western Australia. Seventy-five percent of the species are entomophilous, the remainder being ornithophilous. The genus is an important component of the semi-arid vegetation of pastoral zones and many species are browsed by animals when the plants are at the seedling stage. Some Eremophila species, e.g. E. gilesii F. Muell. and E. mitchellii Benth., are regarded as woody weeds. Many species occur on impoverished soil and, as a consequence, they are collectively referred to as poverty bush. Since emus favour the fruits of some Eremophila species, the term emu bush is also commonly used.

Three new diterpenes have been isolated from Eremophila macmillania , E. falcata and E. ‘flaccida’ . In contrast to other Eremophila species the leaf resin of E. ‘flaccida’ is composed of flavanones and the sesquiterpene β-eudesmol.

The plants of the Simpson Desert are adapted to one of the driest regions on the Australian continent and grow in generally nutrient-poor soils. Surveys were conducted at three sites in the southern Simpson Desert to determine the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status of 52 species from 28 families of annual and perennial plants. Roots from all plants were examined for the presence of internal and external hyphae, vesicles, arbuscules and coils to determine presence and extent of mycorrhizal colonisation. Of the plant species surveyed, 38 (73%) had formed mycorrhizal associations. The AM status of 47 species is reported for the first time, including of members of the Frankeniaceae and Myoporaceae families. No correlations were found between site (dune or interdune) or life form and the number of species forming AM associations. Two species in the normally non-mycorrhizal Chenopodiaceae, Salsola kali L. and Sclerolaena diacantha (Nees.) Benth. had mycorrhiza. Arbuscules and/or vesicles were observed in the roots of all mycorrhizal plants except three species, Solanum ellipticum R.Br., Gnephosis eriocarpa (F.Muell.) Benth. and Eremophila longifolia (R.Br.) F.Muell., in which only coils of hyphae were observed.

The pollen morphology of Phryma and some of its putative relatives was investigated with the hope that it might clarify the phylogenetic relationships of the genus, which has been placed in the Verbenaceae by some authors and segregated as the Phrymaceae (in the Lamiales or Scrophulariales) by others. The pollen of Phryma is tricolpate (contrary to some previous reports), tectate-perforate to microreticulate, and has simple columellae. These features are equally consistent with a position in the Verbenaceae or Scrophulariales but argue against a close relationship to four taxa that have been thought by some workers to be close to Phryma: Myoporaceae, Verbena, tribe Lantaneae (Verbenaceae), and Avicennia. When gynoecial morphology, inflorescence structure, and leaf epidermal anatomy are considered as well, a position close to (but not within) subfam. Ver- benoideae appears to be best supported. Assignment to a family (Phrymaceae versus Verbenaceae) must await a revision of family limits in the Lamiales.

A new bicyclic sesquiterpene acid has been isolated from Eremophila interstans . The occurrence of two other related sesquiterpene acids previously isolated from E. virgata establishes a chemotaxonomic link between the two species.

In 83 species of the familiesMonotropaceae, Apocynaceae, Oleaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Bignoniaceae, Martyniaceae, Myoporaceae, Verbenaceae, Lamiaceae, Campanulaceae, andLiliaceae, protein bodies in the cell nuclei have been found, in 68 of these species for the first time. On the basis of their structure in accordance with morphological characters the generaBurgsdorfia, Hesiodia, Olisia, andPhlomoides of theLamiaceae are accepted;Lamium is divided intoLamium, Lamiastrum andOrvala; two new combinations are established:Kickxia campyloceras (Rech. fil. E Veronica schmidtiana should not be included inPseudolysimachion. Systematic affinities are discussed primarily withinScrophulariaceae because nuclear protein bodies have been studied already in many species of this family. ForCampanula patula two 2 x populations are reported.

Nine new serrulatane diterpenes have been isolated from various Eremophila species. Chemical and spectroscopic evidence for their structure is presented.

Pollen carried on the probosces of Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) and H. armigera (Hubner) trapped in western Queensland and in cropping areas of eastern Australia in September 1989 and 1990 was identified by scanning electron microscopy. Ninety-five per cent of moths carried pollen. A total of 19 morphological pollen species’, representing 14 plant families, was found. Up to six pollen species were found on individual moths, and 61% carried more than one. Pollen from plants unsuitable for larval survival was common. Pollen loads generally reflected the abundance of locally flowering plants, but there were exceptions which suggested migration. Pollen of Ptilotus (Amaranthaceae), Velleia (Goodeniaceae) and Eremophila (Myoporaceae), and the Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae) were found on moths trapped in the east. These plants either did not occur in the areas where the moths were caught, or did not flower there at the time the moths were caught. However, they were abundant in possible source areas such as western Queensland. Among moths caught in eastern regions, 30% of H. punctigera and 18% of H. armigera carried pollen from such plants. The value and limitations of moth-borne pollen as a marker for migration are discussed.

Teleonemia scrupulosa (Stal) (Hemiptera, Tingidae) is a native of the tropical regions of the Americas and has been extensively used as an agent for the biological control of the noxious weed Lantana camara Linn. (Verbenaceae). It was introduced first into Hawaii1; since then it has been introduced into Fiji2, Australia3, Indonesia4 and other island groups in the Pacific. It is also established in India5, Mauritius, and South6, Central7 and East Africa. In general the level of control achieved in these areas has been disappointing, although severe local defoliation and partial control has been reported from many of these countries, and it is generally considered to be a useful addition to the insect complex used in the control of Lantana. Exhaustive tests in Fiji and Australia showed that this Tingid would feed on none of the plants tested except Lantana8. The bug was reported in Texas on Callirhoe involucrata (Malvaceae) and a plant of the mint family but was unable to breed or live long on them9. Its release in India was not recommended because laboratory tests showed that it could feed on teak (Tectonagrandis Linn.) which is also a member of the Verbenaceae although breeding was slow and Lantana was preferred10. When it escaped at Dehra Dun, however, it became established on Lantana but could not be found on nearby teak5. The only other previous records of attack by T. scrupulosa on other plants are its occurrence on Myoporum sandwicensis (Myoporaceae) and species of Xanthium (Compositae) in Hawaii, ebony in the United States, and Lippia alba (Verbenaceae) in the Antilles, according to the catalogue just published, which includes some hitherto overlooked records11.

Summary. Two new families, Cyvclocheilaceae and JVesogenaceae are described for the nonAustralian genera previously included in the Chloanthaceae. One new genus, Asepalum, is described, and the combination A. eriantherum (Vatke) Marais is made. The genus Nesogenes is reviewed and a key to the species provided. The genera Nesogenes A.DC. and Acharitea Benth. have for years been placed with uncertainty in several families of the Gamopetalae, namely Scrophulariaceae, Myoporaceae and Verbenaceae. Briquet (1897) formalized the situation by placing them in Verbenaceae-Chloanthoideae-Achariteae (sic). Oliver (1895; 1896) described Cyclocheilon in the Scrophulariaceae-Gerardieae. Stapf (1901) moved the genus to the Verbenaceae, placing it next to Nesogenes mainly on the character of the reticulately veined nature of the enlarging fruiting 'calyx'; he admitted that no mature fruit, hence no seeds, of Cyclocheilon s.l. were known to him. Apparently he did not consider the basic difference in form of the outer envelope of the flower as being of any consequence. Airy Shaw (1966) placed Nesogenes and Acharitea, with some doubt, in the Dicrastylidaceae (the correct name for this family is Chloanthaceae, see Munir (1979) and previous papers). Moldenke (1971) states in the key, on p. 750 where he keys them out as a tribe of the Dicrastylidaceae, that the seeds of these two genera, as well as of Cyclocheilon s.l., contain endosperm-but perhaps he is best ignored since in the same work, on p. 738, he states that the tribe Achariteae (sic) belongs to the Stilbaceae. He apparently did not study any specimens. Munir, l.c.: 1-2, and in previous publications in which he has monographed all the Australian genera of the Chloanthaceae, restricts the family to these Australian genera. This conclusion is supported by the work on the morphology of the gynoecium carried out by Junell, l.c.: 214 (1934) who excluded Acharitea, Nesogenes and Cyclocheilon from the Verbenaceae while retaining the Australian genera there in a distinct tribe Chloantheae. Junell, l.c.: 60 also remarked that Nesogenes and Acharitea were very closely related, but did not suggest any affinity. He did suggest that Cyclocheilon s.l. might be related to the Acanthaceae. I had, independently, come to the same conclusion from the gross morphology, before reading this particular remark. The material in Kew Herbarium (which is cited below without indication of location) enabled me to confirm that the herbaceous genus Nesogenes, of which fruiting material of most species is available, does indeed have seeds containing endosperm. I have also examined seeds of Cyclocheilon s.l., a genus of perennial woody plants; these contain no storage tissue around the

Callus tissue cultures of Eremophila denticulata and E. decipiens accumulate up to 20% of their dry weight as a mixture of hydroxyphenylethanol glycosides of which the major component is the caffeoyl ester, verbascoside (acteoside). The production of this compound under a variety of growth conditions has been studied. Verbascoside has also been isolated from callus tissue of E. clarkei, E. drummondii, E. glabra and E. viscida.

Three new serrulatane diterpenes have been isolated from Eremophila species. Evidence is presented for the structure of (15S)-7,8,16-trihydroxyserrulatan-19-oic acid, isolated as its methyl ester from E. drummondii, serrulat-14-ene-7,8,20-trio1 from E. linearis Chinnock and for (2S)-serrulat-14-ene- 2,7,8,20-tetraol from E. granitica.