Search

Insects use sensory cues to select plants for feeding and oviposition. For a better offspring survival and life-history performance, the oviposition-site selection by gravid females usually corresponds with plant suitability for the best offspring development. To test this, we used the three-component interacting system involving Botrytis cinerea, a pathogenic fungus on Vitis vinifera, and the plant-feeding Epiphyas postvittana. We hypothesised that the gravid females of E. postvittana discriminate between B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves of V. vinifera for oviposition to maximise their offspring performance. We characterised volatiles from B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves of V. vinifera. We tested the effect of volatiles from B. cinerea-infected leaves on the olfactory behaviour of E. postvittana using a wind-tunnel assay. We raised the neonate larvae of E. postvittana on B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves to characterise their development and life-history performance. The key vo...

Irradiation is used to provide sterile insects from mass-rearing facilities, but irradiation can degrade insect quality. A system is described that uses repeatable pheromone stimuli to activate male moths housed with clean airflow in a commercially available insect activity meter, for potential use in quality assessment of mass-reared moths in sterile insect programs. We tested sexually mature wild and sterile light brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), males at the commencement of scotophase in a simple assay for increased mate-seeking activity after a 2 s stimulus with a 4-component synthetic pheromone source for 2 s, after a 5 s baseline of activity. Male activity at the upwind end of the glass tube was assessed by infrared beam. Next, we tested if a temperature shock at 30 °C in the pupal stage for various durations (0, 1, 2 or 4 h) would have an effect on male moth response to the sex pheromone. The results indicated similar baseline activity in c...

The Australian light brown apple moth (LBAM) (Epiphyas postvittana) (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a pest in Australia, New Zealand and now California (USA). The use of sterile insects in combination with mating disruption and biological insecticides has the potential to eradicate outbreaks in urban areas. The sexual competitiveness of irradiated insects is an important component of the effectiveness of the sterile insect technique (SIT), but standard techniques to measure the sexual competitiveness have been developed only for irradiated tephritid fruit flies. In particular, field cage trials have been used to measure the compatibility and competitiveness of irradiated fruit flies in comparison with wild fruit flies. Trials were carried out to determine if such tests could be adapted for a moth species. Parameters of quality or competitiveness evaluated were the proportion of the moths that mated, relative sterility index, index of sexual isolation, and mating competitiveness based on the egg hatch in the various crosses. Results showed that with the release of sterile moths of both sexes (bisex) there was little difference in competitiveness—expressed as the Relative Sterility Index (RSI)—between moths irradiated at 200, 250 and 300 Gy (irradiated either in the pupal or adult stages), but if a Fried competitiveness test was used to generate competitive C values then greater competitiveness was found at the lower doses of irradiation, but this difference was not statistically significant. Modified test procedures were developed in which the moths in field cages—after having had sufficient opportunity to mate—were egged individually and dissected to determine the presence of 1 or more spermatophores; then egg sterility and spermatophore presence were used to determine the mating type, e.g., wild female × irradiated laboratory male, etc. Results indicated that sterile-male-only releases have the potential to increase mating competitiveness of the released irradiated moths, but this conclusion requires additional experiments for confirmation.

While biological invasions are increasing, in some cases exotic species exhibit an initial phase of population growth and spread, followed by a subsequent phase of natural decline. The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), provides a unique opportunity to examine potential mechanisms for the natural suppression of an exotic insect species that has become established in coastal California. We recently discovered a microsporidian pathogen, Nosema fumiferanae postvittana, from E. postvittana in its novel range. In the laboratory, we examined the pathogenicity and latent period of this microsporidium, and in the field we determined its prevalence and intensity in five locations using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). In the laboratory, when comparing healthy larvae to larvae infected with up to 10(5) spores, we found a reduction in juvenile survivorship (from 100% to 26%), a prolongation of juvenile development time (of up to 9-10 days), a reduction in viable lifetime fecundity (from 788 to 1) and a reduction in the intrinsic rate of increase (from 0.18 to 0.008). The median lethal dose (LD50) was estimated to be 1.8 × 10(4) spores, and the mean latent period for infections with 10(3) spores was 12.67 days. Our field sampling revealed that E. postvittana populations have further declined from previously reported densities in San Francisco and Santa Cruz. We detected N. fumiferanae postvittana in all five locations with an overall prevalence of 5%, which did not appear to be influenced consistently by either host density or season. Mean microsporidian intensity in field-infected individuals was 226 spores. Although the laboratory results demonstrated the potential for host suppression, the field sampling indicated that the prevalence and intensity of microsporidian infection were too low to account for the continued decline in population densities of E. postvittana in coastal California.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), eggs were subjected to oxygenated phosphine fumigation treatments under 70% oxygen on cut flowers to determine efficacy and safety. Five cut flower species: roses, lilies, tulips, gerbera daisy, and pompon chrysanthemums, were fumigated in separate groups with 2,500 ppm phosphine for 72 h at 5°C. Egg mortality and postharvest quality of cut flowers were determined after fumigation. Egg mortalities of 99.7-100% were achieved among the cut flower species. The treatment was safe to all cut flowers except gerbera daisy. A 96-h fumigation treatment with 2,200 ppm phosphine of eggs on chrysanthemums cut flowers also did not achieve complete control of light brown apple moth eggs. A simulation of fumigation in hermetically sealed fumigation chambers with gerbera daisy showed significant accumulations of carbon dioxide and ethylene by the end of 72-h sealing. However, oxygenated phosphine fumigations with carbon dioxide and ethylene absorbents did not reduce the injury to gerbera daisy, indicating that it is likely that phosphine may directly cause the injury to gerbera daisy cut flowers. The study demonstrated that oxygenated phosphine fumigation is effective against light brown apple moth eggs. However, it may not be able to achieve the probit9 quarantine level of control and the treatment was safe to most of the cut flower species.

In this paper we tested the behavior of gravid Epiphyas postvittana in select- ing the most-appropriate site for oviposition thus benefitting offspring performance. Our hypothesis was built on Jaenike's preference-performance hypothesis (also referred to as the "mother-knows-the-best" hypothesis). To test this, we used the interacting Epiphyas postvittana, its host Vitis vinifera, and the pathogenic microbe Botrytis cinerea system. Populations of E. postvittana and B. cinerea often exist concurrently on V. vinifera in Aus- tralasia and their interaction and mutual influence are currently being explored, although the suggestion presently is that the relationship between E. postvittana and B. cinerea is mutualistic. We tested the effect of volatiles from B. cinerea-infected berries and unin- fected (control) berries of V. vinifera on the oviposition behavior of E. postvittana .W e also characterized the effects of B. cinerea infection on the berries of V. vinifera on the growth and development of E. postvittana. Contrary to the preference-performance hy- pothesis, oviposition choices made by gravid E. postvittana did not result in the best offspring survival, development, and performance. The preference for oviposition by E.postvittanawasstrongly influenced bythe olfactory and tactile cues.Shelaid fewereggs on B. cinerea-infected berries compared to uninfected berries of V. vinifera. The larvae of E. postvittana showed no preference to uninfected berries of V. vinifera .T he larvae fed on B. cinerea-infected berries of V. vinifera showing greater survival rate, shorter time to pupation, greater pupal mass, and on becoming adults they laid more numbers of eggs than the larvae that were enabled to feed on uninfected berries. The larvae of E. postvittana transport the conidia of B. cinerea and transmit grey-mould disease to uninfected berries of V. vinifera.

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker, 1863), or light brown apple moth (LBAM), is a highly polyphagous native Australian species and a major insect pest in Australian vineyards. Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron, 1912) is the most abundant parasitoid of the larval stages of LBAM. The prime objective of our study was to determine the parasitism success of D. tasmanica on different larval stages of E. postvittana. Additionally, we aimed to find out if larval head capsule width could be used to determine the instar number by examining the variability in head capsule size of each instar of LBAM and the effect of rearing temperature on larval head capsule size. To determine which of the first three larval stages of LBAM parasitised is most effectively by D. tasmanica, choice and no-choice tests were conducted in a wind tunnel. Head capsule widths varied with rearing temperature, especially in the final fifth or sixth instar. We showed that the ranges of head capsule widths overlaps between successive instars three through six, which makes it impossible to distinguish these instars of LBAM using head capsule size alone. We showed that first, second and third instars of LBAM are parasitised by D. tasmanica. No-choice and choice tests revealed that there are significant differences in parasitism among the three susceptible instars, with the highest percentage of parasitism found in second instars in no-choice and choice tests (65.1% and 65.8%, respectively) compared with first instars (61.1% and 45.1%) and third instars (27.3% and 37.5%). Wasps developed faster in third instars, but the wasp female's size was not significantly different among the instars attacked. These data confirm that D. tasmanica is capable of parasitising early larval instars, which is important for minimising damage through biological control.

Herbivorous insects use sensory cues to choose their host plants for feeding and/or oviposition by assessing host quality. Olfactory, contact and visual cues of the host mediate such choices. The right-host choice for oviposition by a lepidopteran is essential for the performance of its progeny. In natural conditions, plants are often and concurrently attacked by both herbivorous insects and pathogenic fungi. In such a three-way relationship, the interaction between the plant and insect is usually influenced by the fungal population, and such an influence can be either mutualistic or antagonistic. In the present study, we tested the three-way relationship using the system, Epiphyas postvittana–Vitis vinifera–Botrytis cinerea. We sought answers to the questions: (1) whether the females of E. postvittana prefer to oviposit on V. vinifera leaves infected by B. cinerea; and (2) whether the larvae of E. postvittana prefer to feed on V. vinifera leaves infected by B. cinerea. We found that the host-seeking gravid females of E. postvittana ‘tested’ the infection status of the host plant using olfactory, visual, and tactile cues; in consequence, they laid significantly fewer eggs on the moderately (30–60%) and intensely (90–100%) infected leaves of V. vinifera. The neonate larvae preferred to feed on mildly (5–10%) and moderately (30–60%) infected leaves, as against the uninfected (control) leaves, and showed no preference for intensely (90–100%) infected leaves. External and internal examination of the larvae established that the larvae fed on B. cinerea-infected leaf because viable conidia of B. cinerea occurred on the body surface and within the gut of the neonate larvae.

The invasive light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), has notreacheddamaginglevelsoncropsinCalifornia(USA),suggestingthatitspopulationsandimpact are limited by generalist natural enemies. In a series of laboratoryexperiments, we examined resident spiders as predators of E. postvittana larvae on two host plants, the ornamental Australian tea tree, Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) F. Muell (Myrtaceae), and the weed French broom, Genista monspessulana (L.) L.A.S. Johnson (Fabaceae). Of three abundant spider species in Australian tea tree,twohuntingspidersmeasurablyreducedthenumbersofE. postvittanalarvaeandplantdamage, whereas a web-weaving spider had no detectable impact. The adult stage of the dominant hunting spider Anyphaena aperta Banks (Anyphaenidae) consumed E. postvittana larvae, but neither large nor small juveniles had statistically detectable effects on numbers of larvae. However, plant damage was reduced in the presence of large juvenile A. aperta, suggesting that A. aperta may also have nonconsumptive effects on the feeding behavior of E. postvittana larvae. Anyphaena aperta consumed larvae only when larval densities exceeded a low threshold in a functional response experiment, leading to a type III functional response. Adult A. aperta showed no preference for different E. postvittana instars, whereas Cheiracanthium mildei L. Koch (Miturgidae), an abundant hunting spider on French broom, showed a partial preference for late-instar larvae. The generalist feeding habits of the spidersmayhaveprecludedstrongpreypreferences.Resultsshowthathuntingspidersmayhelplimit E. postvittana populations in California, and that they may in turn reduce the impact of E. postvittanaonits hostplants.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), eggs were subjected to phosphine fumigations under normal atmospheric and elevated oxygen levels in laboratory-scale chamber experiments to compare their susceptibilities to the two different fumigation methods. In fumigations conducted under atmospheric oxygen at 5 and 10°C, egg survivorship decreased with increase in phosphine concentration but then increased at a concentration of 3,000 ppm; this increase was significant at 10°C. Based on egg survivorship data, phosphine fumigations conducted in a 60% oxygen atmosphere were significantly more effective than those conducted under atmospheric oxygen conditions. Oxygenated phosphine fumigations at 5 and 10°C killed all 1,998 and 2,213 E. postvittana eggs treated, respectively, after 72 h of exposure. These results indicate the great potential of oxygenated phosphine fumigation for the control of E. postvittana eggs.

The sterile insect technique (SIT) potentially provides a socially acceptable approach for insect eradication of new pest incursions. The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was discovered in Berkeley (CA, USA) in 2006, leading to an incursion response that included this technology. In this study, we assessed factors affecting mating success from a bisex release of irradiated moths: effects of radiation dose on male multiple mating, male flight competition, female sex pheromone titre and attractiveness of irradiated females to males, and identification of successful mating in vineyards of either irradiated or wild males (identified by isotope analysis of spermatophores from sentinel females). There was a significant negative relationship between male radiation dose and mating frequency. In head-to-head flights of irradiated males against non-irradiated males to a pheromone lure in a wind tunnel, irradiated males reached the lure first only 31% of the time. With increasing radiation dose, the production of the major sex pheromone component in females, (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate, dropped, from 0.7 ± 0.1 ng per female in non-irradiated females to 0.2 ± 0.07 ng per female when irradiated at 300 Gy. Male catch was reduced to 11% of control females in traps containing females irradiated at 300 Gy. Isotope analysis of spermatophores found in the bursa copulatrix of females indicated that mating success of irradiated males inside the live (entry-only) traps containing virgin females was lower (13.1 ± 3.3%) than suggested by male catch (21.2 ± 3.8%) in pheromone traps, the current standard for assessing field competitiveness. Impacts of irradiation on male and female moth fitness should be taken into account to improve estimates of irradiated to wild male E. postvittana overflooding ratios needed for population suppression.

Methyl bromide (MB) chamber fumigations were evaluated for postharvest control of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in fresh fruit destined for export from California. To simulate external feeding, larvae were contained in gas-permeable cages and distributed throughout loads of peaches, plums, nectarines (all Prunus spp.), apples (Malus spp.), raspberries (Rubus spp.), or grapes (Vitis spp.). Varying the applied MB dose and the differential sorption of MB by the loads resulted in a range of exposures, expressed as concentration x time cross products (CTs) that were verified by gas-chromatographic quantification of MB in chamber headspace over the course of each fumigation. CTsor = 60 andor = 72 mg liter(-1) h at 10.0 +/- 0.5 and 15.6 +/- 0.5 degrees C (x +/- s, average +/- SD), respectively, yielded complete mortality of approximately 6,200 larvae at each temperature. These confirmatory fumigations corroborate E. postvittana mortality data for the first time in relation to measured MB exposures and collectively comprise the largest number of larval specimens tested to date. In addition, akinetic model of MB sorption was developed for the quarantine fumigation of fresh fruit based on the measurement of exposures and how they varied across the fumigation trials. The model describes how to manipulate the applied MB dose, the load factor, and the load geometry for different types of packaged fresh fruit so that the resultant exposure is adequate for insect control.

Pediobius ni Peck (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is a eulophid parasitoid indigenous to North America that was found attacking the invasive light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in California. We investigated host age suitability, fecundity, and temperature-dependent developmental time for P. ni as a parasitoid of E. postvittana. Parasitoid offspring survival was higher on E. postvittana presented as prepupa or young pupa (3d old), and P. ni would not attack mature E. postvittana larva. Parasitoid developmental time increased with advanced host age. At 24°C, P. ni parasitized 6.8 ± 0.7 hosts, and produced 119.5 ± 16.8 offspring during a 21.5 2± 3.0 d adult lifetime when provided food and host pupae. The developmental rate of P.ni was a positive linear relationship between 15–28°C, but it failed to develop at constant temperatures >29°C. The estimated lower developmental threshold is 13.0°C, and degree-day requirements (DD) are 278 DD. As a comparison of host species suitability, P.ni was tested with obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); omnivorous leafroller, Platynota stultana Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); orange tortrix, Argyrotaenia franciscana (Walsingham) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); and peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). The parasitoid readily attacked all tested host species; percentage parasitism was lower on A. lineatella than on A. transitella, P. sultana, and C. rosaceana, but similar among the other tested species. Clutch size generally increased with host size, but percentage adult emergence and sex ratio was not affected by host species. Exposure of hosts to multiple P.ni increased the numbers of emerged wasps per parasitized host without obvious costs to offspring fitness.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), is a newly invasive pest in California. Habrobracon gelechiae Ashmead is an indigenous North American ectoparasitoid of lepidopterans. Using E. postvittana as the host, we determined H. gelechiae host stage preference for oviposition and suitability for larval growth: the parasitoid attacked second to fifth instars, but preferred older (third to fifth) host larvae for oviposition, laying more eggs per clutch on the largest (fifth instar). Offspring survival was better on larger (third to fifth instars) hosts. Adult survival and fecundity and immature temperature development were studied at three key temperatures. At 12°C, H. gelechiae failed to oviposit. At 22 and 30°C, H. gelechiae had, respectively, egg to adult developmental times of 15.4 and 8.7 days, adult female survival of 54.8 and 27.2 days, lifetime parasitism of 39.9 and 21.8 hosts and 181 and 151 eggs per female, an intrinsic rate of increase of 0.107 and 0.165, and mean generation...

Plants release volatiles in response to caterpillar feeding that attract natural enemies of the herbivores, a tri-trophic interaction which has been considered an indirect plant defence against herbivores. The caterpillar-induced plant volatiles have been reported to repel or attract conspecific adult herbivores. To date however, no volatile signals that either repel or attract conspecific adults under field conditions have been chemically identified. Apple seedlings uniquely released seven compounds including acetic acid, acetic anhydride, benzyl alcohol, benzyl nitrile, indole, 2-phenylethanol, and (E)-nerolidol only when infested by larvae of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana. In field tests in New Zealand, a blend of two of these, benzyl nitrile and acetic acid, attracted a large number of conspecific male and female adult moths. In North America, male and female adults of the tortricid, oblique-banded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana, were most attracted to a blend of 2-phenylethanol and acetic acid. Both sexes of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana, were highly attracted to a blend of benzyl nitrile and acetic acid. This study provides the first identification of caterpillar-induced plant volatiles that attract conspecific adult herbivores under natural conditions, challenging the expectation of herbivore avoidance of these induced volatiles.

Anthocyanins have diverse roles in plant reproduction and in response to both abiotic and biotic stress. By over-expressing the apple MYB transcription factor, MYB10, we have generated apple trees, Malus × domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae), with highly pigmented red foliage due to the presence of high concentrations of cyanidin-based anthocyanins. In this study, we investigated the impact of the high anthocyanic apple leaves on the behaviour, feeding, and life cycle parameters of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a widespread herbivorous pest of apples. Behaviour of 1- to 3-day-old larvae towards red anthocyanin-rich and green apple leaves was studied in choice and no-choice trials, and survival, growth, and development of larvae feeding on red and green apple leaves from the neonate to pupation were compared. First-instar E. postvittana showed a statistically significant preference for green over red leaves from three transgenic red apple lines and a preference for the less red old leaves over the bright red new leaves. This was significantly different from their behaviour towards wild type green leaves, where new leaves were selected over old. In complete darkness, first-instar E. postvittana showed no significant preference for the green leaves, indicating that visual cues were important. Although larval survival was not greatly affected by feeding on the red foliage, larval growth and development were significantly affected by feeding on leaves from some of the transgenic red apple lines. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of leaf phenolics showed that both anthocyanins and quercetin glycosides were significantly raised in the red transgenic lines compared with wild types.

The aim of the research was to identify alternatives to chlorpyrifos for the control of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana , on nursery and ornamental plants. Viburnum tinus L., a commonly grown nursery plant, were infested with E. postvittana eggs , sprayed to run-off and mortality recorded. Several treatments were identified as equally efficacious as the standard chlorpyrifos spray (500 μg/l). The insecticides that compared most favorably with chlorpyrifos were λ-cyhalothrin and γ-cyhalothrin. Four horticultural mineral oils demonstrated good ovicidal properties when evaluated alone versus when combined with reduced rates of the above insecticides or spinosad, imidacloprid or thiacloprid. The response of some insecticide and horticultural mineral oil combinations varied, suggesting that the oil selected may be important. Chlorpyrifos, λ-cyhalothrin, γ-cyhalothrin and spinosad provided similarly high levels of residual control of neonates for up to 10 d from application. Mixtures of UltraPure, an n C21 horticultural mineral oil, with reduced rates of the above insecticides maintained residual efficacy. Alternative treatments evaluated in this study may provide a high level of E. postvittana control through egg mortality and residual effects on emerging neonates over the hatching period. Field trials are required to verify the potential of these alternatives for commercial application.

A new four-component sex pheromone blend for light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) was examined for efficacy of communication disruption in laboratory and field trials. Vineyard trials using SPLAT LBAM™ examined disruption of traps in the presence of: a) the current two-component ((E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate, 95:5), b) a new four-component blend ((E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate plus (E)-11-tetradecen-1-ol and (E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (10:0.5:0.1:0.05)), c) higher ratio of the two new compounds (10:0.5:10:10), d) four compounds with an antagonist ((Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetate) added, e) three compounds with antagonist minus the most expensive component ((E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate), compared to f) untreated controls. In the laboratory, 69.0% of untreated pairs mated, and communication was suppressed by both attractive blends (41.1% communication (P = 0.024, two-component blend), and 18.4% communication (P = 0.003, four-component blend)). In vineyards, totals of 24,776 and 41,053 male moths were caught in the two trials, respectively, to delta traps baited with four-component lures and virgin females. Communication disruption was achieved at a higher level with a four-component blend for 13/14 weeks in disruption trial one and for 10/10 weeks in disruption trial two, compared with the two-component blend. Disruption was on average improved by 12% with the four-component blend compared to the two-component blend (P = 0.091). Other blends were less effective at communication disruption. The best formulation released from SPLAT™ was only weakly attractive compared to rubber septa, so false trail following to point sources was unlikely to be as important as other mechanisms.

Light brown apple moth [Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)] is now established as an economic and quarantine pest in California, and new technologies are being investigated to increase options for its management. Two new organic formulations for mating disruption, SPLAT LBAM HD-O and organic Hercon Biotie (biodegradable) were field tested at four point source densities (25, 72, 322, and 500/ha) and compared with the standard Isomate LBAM Plus (500/ha, as a positive control) and an untreated (negative) control. Assessment involved trapping using synthetic lures and virgin females. In total, 175,776 male light brown apple moths were caught to both the caged females and synthetic lures, from 10 February to 19 May 2011. The light brown apple moth catch dramatically decreased from baseline measurements after the treatments were applied, with the highest density treatments reducing catch to below 10% of the catch in the untreated controls within the first week (> 90% disruption). In synthetic lure traps, the SPLAT and Biotie treatment performed similarly well over all rates (P = 0.317 for posttreatment percentage communication disruption), but SPLAT performed better at disrupting virgin female traps (P = 0.045). There was a significant increase in disruption with an increasing number of points/ha (P 0.74). Disruption of this species in vineyards is thus highly feasible.

The volatile compounds emitted from uninfested apple seedlings, cv. Royal Gala, and apple seedlings infested with generalist herbivore Epiphyas postvittana larvae were sampled using headspace collection and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Nine additional compounds were only detected in infested apple seedlings [including benzyl alcohol, (E)-β-ocimene, benzyl cyanide, indole, (E)-nerolidol, and four unidentified compounds]. Infested apple seedlings produced larger amounts of (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, linalool, 4,8-dimethyl-1,3(E),7-nonatriene, methyl salicylate, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, (E,E)-α-farnesene, and (Z)-3-hexenyl benzoate than uninfested plants. Female parasitoids flew exclusively upwind to infested and not to uninfested apple seedlings in wind tunnel choice tests and preferred infested leaflets in still air, even after the removal of larvae. The attraction of a parasitoid to infested apple seedlings in the laboratory and in the field to apple and many other plants in at least six families supports considerable generality of the tritrophic signaling process.

BACKGROUND: Pheromones of two native leafrollers of economic importance to the New Zealand horticulture industry, Planotortrix octo [(Z)-8-tetradecenyl acetate and tetradecyl acetate] and Ctenopseustis obliquana [(Z)-5-tetradecenyl acetate and (Z)-8-tetradecenyl acetate], were reinvestigated and combined with pheromone of Epiphyas postvittana [light-brown apple moth, (E)-11-tetradecenyl actetate and (E, E)-9,11-tetradecen-1-yl acetate] to develop a single dispenser for mating disruption of three pest species for integrated pest management. RESULTS: Additional compounds identified from pheromone gland extracts were characterised as repellents for P. octo. However, for C. obliquana from Central Otago, a change in ratio of (Z)-5-tetradecenyl acetate and (Z)-8-tetradecenyl acetate and the addition of three compounds found in the gland (dodecyl acetate, tetradecyl acetate and hexadecanal) led to a significant improvement in catch over previous lures. Males from Central Otago showed antennal electrophysiological responses to hexadecanal, unlike C. obliquana from Auckland, which did not. Three multiple-species disruption blends were devised in a single dispenser to target E. postvittana, P. octo and C. obliquana. Disruption of traps was recorded in single-tree replicates with all three blends, but the five-component blend was overall most effective at disruption and was deployed area wide in commercial orchard plots. CONCLUSIONS: Deployment of single dispensers into commercial stone fruit orchards led to disruption of trapping for the three species and measurable reductions in insecticide use in cherries, peaches and nectarines without increased fruit damage (assessed in apricots). Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry

The radiation biology of two geographically isolated populations of the light brown apple moth [Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)] was studied in Australia and New Zealand as an initiation of a SIT/F1 sterility program. Pharate andor = 2 d pre-emergence pupae were exposed to increasing radiation doses up to a maximum dose of 300 Gy. Fertility and other life history parameters were measured in emerging adults (parental) and their progeny (F1-F3 adults). Parental fecundity was significantly affected by increasing irradiation dose in pharate pupae only. For both populations, parental egg fertility declined with increasing radiation. This was most pronounced for the irradiated parental females whose fertility declined at a higher rate than of irradiated males. At 250 Gy, femalesor = 2 d preemergence pupae produced few larvae and no adults at F1. No larvae hatched from 250 Gy-irradiated female pharate pupae. At 300 Gy, males still had residual fertility of 2-5.5%, with pharate pupae being the more radio-sensitive. Radiation-induced deleterious inherited effects in offspring from irradiated males were expressed as increased developmental time in F1 larvae, a reduction in percent F1 female survival, decreased adult emergence and increased cumulative mortality over subsequent generations. Males irradiated ator = 150 Gy produced few but highly sterile offspring at F1 and mortality was99% by F2 egg.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is the target of the sterile insect technique, but reduced moth fitness from irradiation lowers the effective overflooding ratio of sterile to wild moths. New measures of insect quality are being sought to improve field performance of irradiated insects, thus improving the cost effectiveness of this technique. Male pupae were irradiated at intervals between 0 and 300 Gy, and adult flight success was assessed in a wind tunnel equipped with flight track recording software. A dose response was evident with reduced successful search behaviors at higher irradiation doses. Irradiation at 250 Gy reduced arrival success to 49% of untreated controls, during 2-min assays. Mark-release-recapture of males irradiated at 250 Gy indicated reduced male moth recapture in hedgerows (75% of control values of 7.22% +/- 1.20 [SEM] males recaptured) and in vineyards (78% of control values 10.5% +/- 1.66% [SEM] recaptured). Males dispersed similar distances in both habitats, and overflooding ratios dropped off rapidly from the release point in both landscapes. Transects of traps with central releases proved to be an efficient method for measuring the quality of released males. Relative field performance of moths was greater than suggested by wind tunnel performance, which could be due to time differences between the two assays, two-minute wind tunnel tests compared with days in the field treatments. Release strategies involving ground releases should consider the effect of limited postrelease dispersal. Aerial release could solve this problem and warrants investigation.

BACKGROUND: Public opposition to aerial application of sex pheromone for mating disruption of light-brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walk.), in California stopped its further use in the ca $ 74 million eradication programme in 2008, underscoring the need for other eradication tactics. It is demonstrated that pheromone-treated sterile Mediterranean fruit flies (medflies), Ceratitis capitata Wied., can disrupt communication in male moths. RESULTS: Medflies topically dosed with moth pheromone (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate showed a no observed effect level (NOEL) of ∼10 µg fly−1, with increasing toxicity from 30 to 100 µg fly−1. Greater potency and longevity of attraction and lower mortality were achieved using microencapsulated pheromone. Releases of 1000 pheromone-treated medflies ha−1 prevented male moth catch to synthetic lures in treated 4 ha plots for 1 day in suburban Perth, Australia. Releases of ca 3000 pheromone-treated medflies ha−1 disrupted catch to single female moths in delta traps, and to synthetic pheromone lures. Percentage disruption on the first four nights was 95, 91, 82 and 85%. CONCLUSIONS: Disruption of moth catch using pheromone-treated medflies is a novel development that, with future improvement, might provide a socially acceptable approach for application of the insect mating disruption technique to control invasive insects in urban environments. Adequacy of payload and other issues require resolution. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry

The adult light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis Forster, (Coleoptera: Apionidae), gorse pod moth Cydia ulicetana Denis and Schiffermuller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and gorse thrips Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) were assessed for their ability to carry and deposit the conidia of a plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium tumidum Sherb. on agar plates in laboratory experiments. Epiphyas postvittana, the largest insect species studied, carried and deposited the highest number of F. tumidum conidia. The number of colony forming units recovered from all insect species after exposing them to F. tumidum sporulating cultures for 24 h, declined with time. In subsequent transmission experiments using only E. postvittana, each insect was loaded with 5,000 conidia of F. tumidum and caged together with potted healthy gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) at eight insects per plant. The insects deposited 310 conidia per plant on average b...

Control of two apple pests, codling moth and light-brown apple moth was compared under two rates of azinphos-methyl, 1.4 kg ha−1and 0.56 kg ha−1applied as a programme of 5 to 7 cover sprays per season to Jonathan and Granny Smith variety apples at Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia. After three seasons, 1971-72 to 1973-74, codling moth damage in Jonathans reached 13.4 per cent and in Granny Smiths 11.1 per cent unmarketable fruit under the lower rate compared with 1.1 and 1.3 per cent respectively under the higher rate. Injury by light-brown apple moth larvae under 0.56 kg ha−1azinphos-methyl made 7.8 per cent Jonathans unmarketable in the third season compared with 3.0 per cent under the full strength sprays. Damage to Granny Smiths was slight. The only significant predators of two-spotted mite were Stethorus spp. under the reduced dosage treatment, but the beetle population did not prevent heavy mite infestation and leaf bronzing. Zusammenfassung Wirkungen von niedrigdosierten Azinphosmethyl gegen den Apfelwickler Cydia pomonella (L.) und die Apfelmotte Epiphyas postvittana (Walk.) in einer Obstplantage Es wurden Bekampfungsversuche gegen C. pomonella und E. postvittana mittels 5-7maligen Spruhens pro Saison mit Azinphosmethyl in zwei Dosen (normale Dosis = 1,4 kg/ha; reduzierte Dosis = 0,56 kg/ha) bei den Apfelsorten Jonathan und Granny Smiths nahe Bathurst/Neusudwales (Australien) durchgefuhrt. Nach Ablauf von 3 Jahren (1971/72 bis 1973/74) betrug der Ausfall an Apfeln durch den Apfelwickler bei der Sorte Jonathan nach Verwendung der niedrigen Dosis 13,4% und bei Granny Smiths 11,1% gegenuber 1,1% und 1,3% nach Verwendung der normalen Dosis. Die Apfelmotten-Larven machten nach Anwendung der reduzierten Dosis 7,8% Apfel der Sorte Jonathan unbrauchbar gegenuber 3% nach Anwendung der normalen Dosis. Der Schaden bei Granny-Smiths-Apfeln war hier gering. Der einzige, wichtige rauberische Feind der Apfelspinnmilbe, ein Marienkafer der Gattung Stethorus, blieb bei der reduzierten Insektiziddosis weitgehend erhalten, doch vermochte seine Population nicht den starken Milbenbefall zu stoppen und die Blattvergilbung zu verhindern.

Fungi and bacteria on the external surfaces of four gorse-associated insect species: gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis Forster (Coleoptera: Apionidae), light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), gorse pod moth Cydia ulicetana Denis and Schiffermuller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and gorse thrips Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), were recov- ered by washing and plating techniques. The isolates were identified by morphology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequencing of internally tran- scribed spacer (ITS) and 16S rDNA. A culture-independent technique (direct PCR) was also used to assess fungal diversity by direct amplification of ITS sequences from the washings of the insects. All insect species carried Alternaria, Cladosporium, Corallomycetella, Penicillium, Phoma, Pseudozyma spp. and entomopathogens. Ninety-four per cent of the 178 cloned amplicons had ITS sequence similarity to Nectria mauritiicola (syn. Corallomycetella repens) .E. postvittana carried the largest fungal spores (spore mean surface area of 126 mm 2 ) and the most fungal colony forming units per insect. Methylo- bacterium aquaticum and Pseudomonas lutea were isolated from all four insect species. P. fluorescens was the most abundant bacterium on the lepidopteran insects. This study presents the diversity of microbial taxa on insect exoskeletons, and provides the basis for developing a novel mycoherbicide delivery strategy for biological control of gorse using insects as vectors of a plant pathogen.

Genomic and proteomic analyses of the antennae of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) were undertaken to identify genes and proteins potentially involved in odorant and pheromone binding and turnover. An EST approach yielded 5739 sequences, comprising 808 contigs and 1545 singletons. InterPro and Blast analyses revealed members of families implicated in odorant and pheromone binding (PBPs, GOBPs, ABPXs and CSPs) and turnover (CXEs, GSTs, CYPs). Of the three pheromone binding proteins (PBPs) identified, two were more highly expressed at the RNA and protein levels in adult male antennae (EpPBP1, EpPBP3), while a third was more highly expressed in female antennae (EpPBP2). To identify proteins involved in the detection of sex-specific signals, differential 2D gel electrophoresis (pH 5-8) followed by mass spectrometry was conducted on antennal proteins from males versus females. Identified male-biased proteins included a pheromone binding protein, a porin, a short chain dehydrogenase/reductase, and a member of the takeout family.

We recently discovered infections by a microsporidium closely related to Nosema fumiferanae in field populations of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in the San Francisco region of California. E. postvittana originates from Australia and was first detected in California in 2006; therefore, our aim was to identify and determine the origin of the Nosema isolate. We characterized the pathogenicity, transmission pathways, and ultrastructure of this new Nosema isolate. In addition, we sequenced fragments of commonly used genetic markers (ITS, SSU, and RPB1), and examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Nosema isolate and other microsporidian species commonly found in lepidopteran hosts. The pathogenicity of the Nosema isolate was investigated by infecting second instar larvae of E. postvittana. Larval and pupal survivorship were reduced by 7% and 13% respectively, and pupation occurred 1-2d later in infected individuals than in healthy individuals. Emerging infected females died 5d earlier than healthy females, and daily fecundity was 22% lower. Hatch rate also was 22% lower for eggs oviposited by infected females. Vertical transmission was confirmed; spores were present in 68% of egg masses and 100% of the surviving larvae from infected females. Ultrastructure images, together with sequences from selected genetic markers, confirmed the Nosema isolate to be a member of the Nosema fumiferanae species complex (Nosema fumiferanae postvittana subsp. n.). The association of this pathogen with E. postvittana contributes further to the biotic resistance that E. postvittana has experienced since its introduction to California.

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (light-brown apple moth) is a polyphagous herbivore of economic significance, which also feeds on Vitis vinifera L. The E. postvittana-V. vinifera interacting system also involves the participation of the fungus Botrytis cinerea Persoon ex Fries. We have been exploring the relationship among E. postvittana-V. vinifera-B. cinerea over the past two years. In this article, we report the preference and performance of the larvae of E. postvittana raised solely on a synthetic diet incorporated with the mycelial material of B. cinerea (Diet B). To characterize the effect of fungus on the development of E. postvittana, another synthetic diet was prepared that included the lyophilized leaf material of V. vinifera (Diet C). When raised on Diets B and C, a decrease in the duration of larval development and an increase in the survival and fecundity rate of E. postvittana occurred. Diet B influenced the pupal mass, but a significant increase occurred when the larvae were fed on Diet C. The larval emergence rate was the greatest in E. postvittana raised on Diet B, followed by those on Diet C. The F(2) generation of the larvae reared on Diet B showed similar effects as F(1) on the life-history performance of the larvae. Diet B enhanced the life-history performance of E. postvittana, although the larvae of E. postvittana showed little preference to Diet B. The greater fertility rate of E. postvittana reared on Diet B suggests the importance of sterols as shown in Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermuller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and in a few Myrmicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which serve as precursors to different ecdysteroids that regulate many critical processes through embryonic development.

Overwintering of Trichogramma (Trichogrammanza) funiculatum Carver was studied under seminatural temperate conditions by considering development time within eggs of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, and survival of adult wasps. Maximum and minimum mean development times were 84 and 63.6 d, respectively, for egg masses parasitized in early winter, and 72.6 and 51.5 d, respectively, for eggs parasitized mid-winter. Adults survived a maximum of 20 d in early winter and 22 d mid-winter. Maternal age did not influence either the development time or longevity of progeny. The lower temperature threshold at which T. funiculatum parasitized host eggs was between 8°C and 9°C. The relationship between temperature and development time in the laboratory was successfully used to predict the emergence of T. funiculatum at low temperatures and under the seminatural conditions. This implies that there is no diapause in T. funiculatum. Instead this species overwinters via a combination of slow deve...

Two biotin-binding proteins, avidin and streptavidin, were found to be insecticidal to the larvae of four species of Lepidoptera - light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (fam. Tortricidae), green-headed leaf-roller, Planotortrix octo (Dugdale) (fam. Tortricidae), brown-headed leaf-roller, Ctenopseustis obliquana (Walker) (fam Tortricidae) and potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (fam. Gelechiidae). Mortality occurred in all species, but there was a wide range in susceptibility. P. operculella larvae were the most susceptible with an LC 50 of respectively, 2.3 μg ml -1 for avidin and 1.4 μg ml -1 for streptavidin after 9 days. E. postvittana larvae had an LC 50 of 43.4 μg ml -1 for avidin after 21 days, and C. obliquana larvae of 45.7 μg ml -1 for avidin after 28 days. Although significant mortality occurred in P.octo at the highest doses of avidin there was no sufficient dose-mortality response to calculate an LC 50 for this species. For all species mortality curves were steep over a close range of doses followed by a plateau where mortality did not increase significantly with dose and did not reach 100%. Mortality was significantly affected by the amount of biotin in the diet on which the parental generation had been reared. Where this was rich in biotin, significant mortality of the offspring was much lower: larval offspring of a colony of E. postvittana, reared for five generations on a biotin-free diet had an LC 50 of 5.1 μg ml -1 after 14 days compared with 76.7 μg ml -1 for larvae from a colony reared on general purpose diet. The implications for use of these proteins to confer insect resistance on transgenic plants are discussed.

An attracticide, based on Novartis' Sirene and consisting of droplets containing pheromone and permethrin, was formulated and tested against Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) in orchards of apple, Malus domestica Borkhauser, in Canterbury, New Zealand. There was no significant difference in the number of E. postvittana caught with traps baited with 3 virgin females, rubber septa, or attracticide droplets. A field trial in an unsprayed 50-ha apple orchard investigated the potential for male moth population suppression. The 0.3-ha plots were placed in the center of 1-ha blocks separated by shelter belts. The treatments, each replicated 6 times, were control, attracticide applied to plastic tape, and caged attracticide droplets. Caged droplets were covered with aluminum mesh to prevent moth contact with the droplet, but still to allow pheromone dispersion. Six delta traps, baited with attracticide droplets and deployed in transects along the middle row of each plot, were checked before, during, and after the droplets were present. There was no significant difference among catches until attracticide droplets were added. Upon treatment, suppression of trap catches (relative to the controls) increased at >50% per day for 4 d, to 96% suppression in the center and 88% at the edge of the plots. Approximately half of this effect was caused by pheromone point-source competition, estimated from suppression in plots with caged attracticide droplets. Zero catches were recorded on 75% of possible trapping occasions in the middle of the attracticide treatment while droplets were present, compared with 17% in the control. Removal of the caged attracticide droplets led to an immediate increase in catch the next day in the center of the plots, to untreated control levels. In contrast, 85% suppression was recorded on the 1st d after removal of the attracticide droplets, showing the effect of moth mortality from the treatment. The potential for attracticide control of this species of leafroller is promising. Further work is needed to determine whether male suppression results in reduced mating frequency and larval populations.

Stimuli from the plant Camellia japonica that influence the host-finding and acceptance behaviors of adult females of the generalist herbivore Epiphyas postvittana were investigated. In a binary choice test in a small (35-cm-diam.) arena, females discriminated between a plant and a laminated card model, laying many more eggs on the plant. Observations of females showed that the greater number of eggs laid on the plant were primarily due to on-plant behaviors, with females spending significantly more time per visit on the plant than on the model. Interestingly, females landed a similar number of times on the plant as on the model, suggesting that volatile chemicals from the plant did not influence host-finding. This observation was further supported by wind-tunnel studies, in which females showed little or no upwind flight activity in response to plants and laid similar numbers of eggs on upwind and downwind plants. Leaf surface texture, a combination of smoothness and fine structure (consisting of the midvein and other raised leaf veins), was found to stimulate egg laying by females. Methanol, dichloromethane, and pentane extracts were made of the waxes on the leaf surface. Of these three extracts, only the nonpolar (pentane) one stimulated egg laying by females. Although we did not find a role for volatile plant chemicals in host finding, they appeared to stimulate increased egg laying when the female was on the plant. It appears likely that these chemical and tactile stimuli in C. japonica are general stimuli, which may be found in a large number of plants and, in combination with the feeding preferences of the larva, may explain the generalist herbivorous nature of this pest.

A native species of Trichogramma, Trichogramma (Trichogrammanza) carverae (Oatman & Pinto), has potential as a commercially viable control option for an Australian tortricid leafroller Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) in wine grapes. Four candidate species of Trichogramma were collected from E. postvittana egg masses in vineyards and assessed in the laboratory for their suitability for commercial use. This led to the isolation of a strain of T carverae for putative commercial release. Inundative release trials using small blocks within commercial vineyards showed that >75% of the egg masses in the vineyard could be parasitized by T. carverae at release rates of 70,000 Trichogramma per hectare with as few as 30 release sites per hectare. Parasitism was higher around release sites within the first 2 d but was fairly evenly distributed over the 0.05-ha release blocks in the 4-5 d trials. The wasps moved upwind when there was little to no wind and downwind when wind speeds were higher (usually >5 km/h). Monitoring systems for E. postvittana were developed to help determine effective timing of releases. This study illustrates a relatively quick and inexpensive approach to the development of new strains of Trichogramma for commercial use that could be adapted for other agricultural systems.

Our objective was to characterize endemic strains of Trichogramma for further assessment of their potential commercial use for biocontrol of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), in vineyards. There has been very little work on the endemic Trichogramma fauna in Australia and its potential for commercial use. We collected Trichogramma spp. from E. postvittana eggs at vineyards throughout southeastern Australia and separated species using morphological, electrophoretic, biological, and geographical criteria. The development times of the 4 most commonly collected species were useful in separating an undescribed Trichogramma (Trichogrammanza) species which had not been clearly identified morphologically. This new species may be adapted to lower temperatures than the other species collected, but its commercial potential is currently limited by its rejection of Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) as a rearing host. An all-female thelytokous strain of this species was isolated. Another endemic species, Trichogramma (Trichogrammanza) carverae (Oatman and Pinto) has been mass reared successfully on S. cerealella and is being evaluated in field trials for control of E. postvittana.

The use of heat treatments for disinfestation purposes is becoming widespread. The efficacy of such treatments may be influenced by exposure of insects to a range of temperatures in the environment before heat treatment disinfestation. We exposed 5th-instar light brown apple moth ( Epiphyas postvittana Walker) to a range of temperatures and durations in hot air before treatment, and examined the effects of these conditions on mortality in a 43°C hot-water treatment and on the induction of heat shock protein synthesis. Insect ther-motolerance increased substantially with increased pretreatment temperature and duration; the time until 99% mortality increased from 23.0 min with no pretreatment, to 37.4 min after 8 h at 35°C. Long periods at temperatures before treatment as low as 28°C increased ther-motolerance, and periods as short as 15 min increased thermotolerance at higher temperatures. Correlated with this increased thermotolerance was the de novo synthesis of several proteins observed by radiolabeling with [35S]-methionine. Commercially available monoclonal antibodies of broad species cross reactivity to known heat shock proteins (HSP25, HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90) bound to constitutive forms of these proteins in Western blots but were not induced as a result of heat pretreatment. A protein of Mr 78 kDa was the predominant protein synthesized, which is in agreement with a recent report of a new class of heat shock proteins in the Lepidoptera. These data indicated that thermal conditions experienced by insects before disinfestation can greatly influence thermotolerance.

Mortality data for non-acclimated and acclimated 3rd instar larvae and mid-term eggs of Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae) were obtained after immersing in hot water at 46 °C. Acclimation consisted of holding the larvae and eggs at 35 °C for 20 and 11 h respectively just prior to heat-treatment. The median lethal time (LT50) for acclimated larvae was found to be 6.9 min compared to 2.5 min for non-acclimated larvae. LT99.999 for acclimated larvae was 20.9 min compared to 8.7 min for non-acclimated larvae. LT50 for acclimated eggs was 5.0 min compared to 2.4 min for non-acclimated eggs. LT99.999 for acclimated eggs was 26.0 min compared to 6.6 min for non-acclimated eggs. For 3rd instar larvae, most acclimation effect on mortality had occurred by 8 h. A notable residual response was present 20 h after acclimation had occurred, reducing mortality at 46 °C for 4.5 min by roughly 25%. Mortality data at 46 °C were also obtained for non-acclimated and acclimated late instar larvae of Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). With this species, LT50 for acclimated larvae was 2.5 min compared to 1.1 min for non-acclimated larvae. LT99.999 for acclimated larvae was 9.5 min compared to 4.6 min for non-acclimated larvae.

Uptake and release of pheromone and behavioral inhibitor ofEpiphyas postvittanna by apple leaves was tested using field electroantennograms (EAG), trap catches to synthetic lures and virgin females, and chemical analysis. Trap catches in single apple trees (N=3) were monitored for six cycles of six days' duration, using delta traps baited with synthetic pheromone. Polyethylene dispensers (0, 1, 10 per tree) releasing pheromone and inhibitor were present for only the first three days of each cycle. Application of 10 dispensers per tree resulted in complete disruption of trapping, which continued for one day after dispensers were removed. Over the three nights following the removal of the dispensers (days 4-6), trap catch was 0, 10, and 15% of the control catch. In contrast, the presence of only one dispenser per tree led to 0-20% of control catches, but on the three nights following dispenser removal catches were 35, 40, and 80% of the control catch. Field EAGs indicated significantly higher relative pheromone concentrations in the trees with 10 dispensers present, compared to trees with single dispensers, but removal of dispensers produced no detectable treatment effect compared to the control trees one day after dispenser removal. In a second experiment, releases of marked male moths into apple orchard plots following the removal of polyethylene dispensers (1 hr earlier that day) resulted in significantly lower catches in traps baited with virgin females in blocks that had been treated, compared to controls. Recovery of pheromone by solvent washing of leaves loaded with 50 µg of the main component of the sex pheromone (1.26 µg/cm(2)) was low (2.5%). Leaves held in a pheromone-saturated atmosphere were loaded with 0.045±0.007 µg pheromone/cm(2). Analysis of apple leaves taken from a pheromone-treated tree at different distances from the pheromone dispenser showed a decay of the pheromone load per square centimeter with increasing distance from the dispenser, as previously indicated by EAG.

A bioassay method based on freeze-dried artificial diet for assessing feeding and contact toxicity in light brown apple moth, Epiphyas Postvittana Walker, larvae is described. Diet disks were vacuum freeze-dried. Organic solvent extracts were added to the disk (120 μl), vacuum evaporated for 3 h, and reconstituted with distilled water before adding the neonate larvae(40 per replicate). This technique took 42 min per extract to set up and evaluate. Results for a range of foliage extracts of New Zealand gymnosperms are discussed. Ability to test the activity of extracts dissolved in volatile organic solvents was seen as a major advantage of this technique.

The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), an Australia native tortricid, was found in California in 2006. A field survey of host plants used by E. postvittana was conducted in an urban region of the San Francisco Bay Area. An inspection of 152 plant species (66 families), within a 23-ha residential community, found E. postvittana on 75 species (36 families). Most (69 species) host plants were not Australian natives, but had a wide geographic origin; 34 species were new host records for E. postvittana. Heavily infested species were the ornamental shrubs Myrtus communis L., Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) W.T. Aiton, Euonymus japonicus Thunb., and Sollya heterophylla Lindl. To survey for parasitoids, four urban locations were sampled, with E. postvittana collected from five commonly infested plants [M. communis, P. tobira, E. japonicus, Rosmarinus officinalis L., and Genista monspessulana (L.) L.A.S. Johnson]. Twelve primary parasitoid species and two hyperparasitoids were reared; the most common were the egg parasitoid Trichogramma fasciatum (Perkins), the larval parasitoids Meteorus ictericus Nees, and Enytus eureka (Ashmead), and the pupal parasitoid Pediobius ni Peck. Meteorus ictericus accounted for >80% of the larval parasitoids, and was recovered from larvae collected on 39 plant species. Across all samples, mean parasitism was 84.4% for eggs, 43.6% for larvae, and 57.5% for pupae. The results are discussed with respect to the potential for resident parasitoid species to suppress E. postvittana populations.

Adult Epiphyas postvittana Walker were irradiated using a Cobalt 60 source to determine the dose needed to achieve complete egg sterility of mated female moths, and egg sterility of female moths mated to F1 generation males. Adult male and female E. postvittana were irradiated at 100, 200, 250, and 300 Gy and their fertility (when crossed with normal moths) was compared with nonirradiated moths. Viable progeny (determined by egg hatch) were found at doses of 100 and 200 Gy, but very little at 250 and 300 Gy. In particular, there was no survival of female progeny into the F1 generation. Males irradiated at 250 and 300 Gy had very low egg eclosion rates (2.25 and 1.86% at 250 and 300 Gy, respectively) when mated with normal females. The F2 generation from those male progeny had a mean percent hatched of

A rapid and highly significant drop in frequency of the azinphosmethyl resistant phenotype of Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) was detected along the coastline away from the center of a small group of apple orchards. This decline was detected by three assessment methods: (1) topical application of males attracted by sex pheromone, (2) bioassays of the offspring from tethered susceptible females mated to wild males, and (3) bioassays of the offspring from mated, field-collected females. Frequencies of susceptible-susceptible crosses were not significantly different in (2) and (3) assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The estimated size of the selection coefficient favoring the susceptible phenotype was 0.004; the slope of the cline was estimated to be 0.7 x 103 units of susceptible phenotype frequency per m. We used electrophoresis to study allelic frequencies from four sites in the Nelson district and one in Canterbury. Five polymorphic loci were detected for phosphoglucomutase (PGM), phosphoglucose isomerase (GPI), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH A and B), and mannose phosphate isomerase (MPI). Samples from four sites in the Nelson district (three at Mariri) showed no difference in allelic frequencies with PGM, GPI, and IDH, although a difference between sites 20 km apart was detected for MPI. The average heterozygosity per locus fit the expected values for an interbreeding population, indicating that Hardy-Weinberg criteria were met at scrub and orchard sites at Mariri (where the localized insecticide-resistant population is present).

The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, a leafroller native to southeastern Australia was discovered in California in 2006. The highly polyphagous nature of this pest adds to the importance of being able to predict the potential distribution of this invader across the North American continent. The spread of ectothermic species that lack winter diapause, such as E. postvittana, can be limited by their ability to tolerate cold temperature extremes. In this study we examined the cold hardiness of 4th to 6th instar E. postvittana, the only life stages known to overwinter in California, through a combination of supercooling point (SCP) and mortality at low temperatures. Our results showed that the mean SCP for E. postvittana ranged from -14.1 degrees C for 6th instars to -16.0 degrees C for 4th instars. Lethal time leading to 50% mortality (LT(50)) for the three instars combined were 2.5 h at -10.5 degrees C, 41 h at -6.5 degrees C and 198 h at -0.9 degrees C. At 3 degrees C, the LT(50) of 4th instars was significantly lower at 775 h than that for 5th and 6th instars combined at 1029 h. The cold hardiness characteristics of later-instar E. postvittana larvae were comparable to those of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, a diapausing invasive with a geographic distribution restricted to southern California. Slightly greater cold hardiness is shown by the indigenous non-diapausing leafroller Argyrotaenia franciscana, which is restricted to the Pacific Coast of North America. We therefore conclude that the moderate cold hardiness of E. postvittana will substantially limit its spread into northern temperate regions of North America.

A molecular protocol using a hemi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) is reported for the diagnosis of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in California. This protocol distinguishes the light brown apple moth from other moths in California based on size differences of PCR amplicons that are visualized on agarose gels. The molecular diagnostic tool generated no false negatives based on analysis of 337 light brown apple moths collected from California, Hawaii, England, New Zealand, and Australia. Analysis of a data set including 424 moths representing other tortricid species generated correct identification for >95% of the samples and only two false positives. Of the 761 moths tested only fourteen produced no PCR amplicons and five generated inconclusive data.

Artificial diets were developed for coccinellid beetles of the genus Chilocorus, which prey on armoured scale insects. Comparisons were made between 3 insect diet bases; bee brood, wasp brood and pupae of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, with various additives. A freeze-dried wasp brood-based diet was found to be the most successful for rearing the larvae of these ladybirds. Adults of C. infernalis reared through the larval stages on scale insects, were able to oviposit normally when fed the artificial wasp brood diet, but C. bipustulatus and C. cacti did not oviposit readily unless fed the natural host scale insects.

Light brown apple moth genotypes were sampled from the field by allowing wild males to cross with tethered females and by collecting mated wild females. The progeny were used to estimate the phenotypic frequency of azinphosmethyl resistance from the two sources: susceptible (laboratory) female × unknown genotype (wild) male and unknown genotype (wild) female × unknown genotype (wild) male. The crosses occurred within a known zone of azinphosmethyl resistance and the offspring were screened with diagnostic insecticide concentrations to determine the frequency of susceptible × susceptible crosses in the population. The frequency of resistant male parents within the population was estimated as 83% ( n = 18) from the first type of cross, while the frequency of resistant male and/or female parents was estimated as 100% ( n = 17) from the second type of cross. The offspring were also selected with azinphosmethyl at the LC 99 of susceptibles, and the survivors were compared with their unselected siblings for glutathione S -transferase activity. Adults, selected as larvae, had significantly higher glutathione S -transferase levels than their unselected siblings ( P S -transferase activity. This could not be explained by the removal of susceptible individuals with the insecticide or by induction of the enzyme by insecticide treatment. Insertion of the resistance into a susceptible genome through five generations of backcross and selection with azinphosmethyl resulted in significantly higher glutathione S -transferase activity in larvae of the resistant strain compared to the susceptible strain which shared a ca. 97% common genome.