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Lactifluus (Pers.) Roussel is an ectomycorrhizal genus that was recently recognized to be distinct from the genus Lactarius. To date, 216 Lactifluus species have been reported worldwide. Misidentification of Lactifluus species is common because of intraspecific morphological variation, cryptic diversity, and the limited number of taxonomic keys available. Molecular data are indispensable for species delimitation; a multilocus phylogenetic analysis showed that most Asian Lactifluus species are not conspecific with morphologically similar species present on other continents. In particular, Korea has misused European and North American Lactifluus names. In this study, we evaluated the taxonomy of Lactifluus in Korea using both morphological and multilocus molecular (ITS, nrLSU, rpb1, and rpb2) data. We examined 199 Lactifluus specimens collected between 1980 and 2016, and a total of 24 species across the four Lactifluus subgenera were identified. All Korean species are distinct and clearly separated from European and North American species. Five taxa corresponded to previously described species from Asia and the remaining 19 taxa are confirmed as new species. Herein, we provide keys to the Korean Lactifluus species within their subgenera, molecular phylogenies, a summary of diversity, and detailed description of the new species.

In the present communication, a species of Lactarius (L. sinozonarius) belonging to L. sect. Zonarii has been described from Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It was found under the Quercus sp. and is characterized by yellow fruiting bodies with zonate pileus and white latex. This taxon is presented here as a new record for the Indian mycota and described with detailed morphology, anatomy and nrITS based phylogeny.

Two new species of genus Lactarius from India, Lactarius sarthalanus (L. subg. Plinthogalus) and L. drassinus (L. subg. Lactarius) are presented with detailed descriptions, line drawings and microphotographs. The novelty and placement of these taxa within the genus Lactarius are confirmed with ITS based phylogeny.

Halimium is a genus of Cistaceae, containing a small group of shrub species found in open vegetation types and in degraded forest patches throughout the western and central Mediterranean region. We recently described the morpho-anatomical features of the ectomycorrhizae formed by Scleroderma meridionale on Halimium halimifolium, but the mycorrhizal biology of this host plant genus is still largely unexplored. Here, we report new data on the ectomycorrhizal fungal symbionts of Halimium, based on the collection of sporocarps and ectomycorrhizal root tips in pure stands occurring in Sardinia, Italy. To obtain a broader view of Halimium mycorrhizal and ecological potential, we compiled a comprehensive and up-to-date checklist of fungal species reported to establish ectomycorrhizae on Halimium spp. on the basis of field observations, molecular approaches, and mycorrhiza synthesis. Our list comprises 154 records, corresponding to 102 fungal species and 35 genera, revealing a significant diversity of the Halimium ectomycorrhizal mycobiota. Key ectomycorrhizal genera like Russula, Lactarius/Lactifluus, Amanita, Inocybe, and Cortinarius account for more than half of all mycobionts. A large proportion of Halimium fungal species are shared with other host plants in various ecological settings, suggesting a critical role of common mycorrhizal networks in the function played by this shrub in various Mediterranean ecosystems.

We described the ectomycorrhizae (ECM) of the Japanese Lactarius section Deliciosi species L. akahatsu, L. hatsudake, L. laeticolor, and L. subindigo with the aim of promoting the use of mycorrhizae for taxonomy and expansion of available cultures. Lactarius tottoriensis (sect. Lactarius) was also included as a comparator. The ECM of the four species of sect. Deliciosi showed orange laticifers and plectenchymatous mantles, whereas those of L. tottoriensis showed white laticifers and pseudoparenchymatous mantles. The ECM of L. hatsudake and L. subindigo showed complex rhizomorphs with thicker walls and more developed vessel-like hyphae compared to the other three species. Cystidium-like cells were rarely found on the mantles of L. laeticolor and L. subindigo. Fungal cultures of the five Lactarius species from their ECM were morphologically characterized. Cultures produced laticifers on agar medium, but the five species showed different growth rates. Rhizomorphs of L. hatsudake and L. subindigo in cultures showed a similar morphology to their ECM. Molecular phylogenetic analyses of cultures from the ECM demonstrated that they were of the targeted Lactarius species and suggested the need for taxonomic studies of L. hatsudake, L. subindigo, and L. tottoriensis at the species and section levels.

Lactifluus is a monophyletic genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi with about 200 described species classified in four subgenera: L. subg. Gymnocarpus, L. subg. Lactariopsis, L. subg. Lactifluus, and L. s...

Plant interactions with single symbionts of nitrogen fixing bacteria or mycorrhizal fungi are well studied. However, less is known about how plants interact with multiple symbiont species. The aim of this study was to assess whether multiple symbionts had a synergistic effect on host plant performance compared with a single symbiont and whether increasing the number of non-specific fungal species would increase plant performance due to niche complementarity. Green alder (Alnus viridis ssp. crispa) were inoculated with non-specific ectomycorrhizal fungi (Lactarius torminosus, Lactarius theiogalus, Hebeloma crustuliniforme) alone or in combination, with and without Frankia, and grown in nutrient-poor soil. Frankia significantly increased plant growth by 48.5%, doubled the proportion of plants forming ectomycorrhizae, as well as increased root extracellular phosphatase activity by 8.8% compared to non-Frankia treatments. However, increasing number of fungal species decreased nodulated plant biomass. Plants that formed a Hartig net had reduced nodule number and nodule biomass allocation, as well as total nodule activity compared with plants with no Hartig net. Our results indicated that Frankia inoculation provided benefit for both host plants and ectomycorrhizal fungi in the nutrient-poor soil, while ectomycorrhizal fungi did not. These negative effects of mycorrhizal fungi are likely dependent on soil nutrient P availability.

Russula albonigra is considered a well-known species, morphologically delimited by the context of the basidiomata blackening without intermediate reddening, and the menthol-cooling taste of the lamellae. It is supposed to have a broad ecological range and a large distribution area. A thorough molecular analysis based on four nuclear markers (ITS, LSU, RPB2 and TEF1-α) shows this traditional concept of R. albonigra s. lat. represents a species complex consisting of at least five European, three North American, and one Chinese species. Morphological study shows traditional characters used to delimit R. albonigra are not always reliable. Therefore, a new delimitation of the R. albonigra complex is proposed and a key to the described European species of R. subgen. Compactae is presented. A lectotype and an epitype are designated for R. albonigra and three new European species are described: R. ambusta, R. nigrifacta, and R. ustulata. Different thresholds of UNITE species hypotheses were tested against the taxonomic data. The distance threshold of 0.5% gives a perfect match to the phylogenetically defined species within the R. albonigra complex. Publicly available sequence data can contribute to species delimitation and increase our knowledge on ecology and distribution, but the pitfalls are short and low quality sequences.

Lactarius brunneocinnamomeus found in Shorea robusta (‎Dipterocarpaceae) dominated forest, is proposed as a new species. The species belongs to L. subg. Russularia, sect. Russularia. It is easily recognized by a light brown to orange brown pileus with concentric zones, milky white latex and a palisade to trichopalisade as a pileipellis. Its phylogenetic position inside the genus is based on the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. A complete description, drawings and photographs of the new species are provided. The new species is compared with morphologically similar and phylogenetically allied species.

In the tropics, the diversity of ectomycorrhizal milkcaps is predominantly represented by genus Lactifluus. In Brazil, species traditionally described as Lactarius need to be revised and recombined...

Lactarius viridinigrellus, a milkcap with green-black matted-fibrillose azonate pileus is proposed here as a novel species under L. subg. Lactarius sect. Atroviridi from subalpine forests of Eastern Himalaya in India. Detailed morphological description, supporting illustrations and nrITS-based phylogenetic estimation are presented. Comparison with allied species is also given.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) in Lactarius sect. Deliciosi produce valuable edible mushrooms. Market supplies are harvested from natural populations. Sustainable cultivation could increase commercial...

Lactifluus (Russulaceae) is a genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi, comprising mostly tropical milkcaps with more than 150 described species. In Brazil 24 milkcap species are known, but only thre...

The genus Lactarius Pers. (Russulales) is a cosmopolitan group of Basidiomycota that forms ectomycorrhizal relationships primarily with both deciduous and coniferous trees. Although the genus has been well-studied in Europe and North America, only fragmentary researches have been carried out on Asian species. In particular, the distribution of Lactarius species in South Korea is poorly understood due to insufficient morphological descriptions and a lack of DNA sequence data. In addition, the misuse of European and North American names has added to confusion regarding the taxonomy of Asian Lactarius species. In this study, the diversity of Lactarius in South Korea was evaluated by employing both morphological and phylogenetic approaches. A multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of 729 Lactarius specimens collected between 1960 and 2017 was performed using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, partial nuclear ribosomal large subunit (nrLSU), partial second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2), and minichromosome maintenance complex component 7 (mcm7). 49 Lactarius species were identified in three Lactarius subgenera: L. subg. Russularia (17 spp.), L. subg. Lactarius (22 spp.), and L. subg. Plinthogalus (10 spp.). Among them, 28 Lactarius species were identified as new to science, while just 17 were previously described Lactarius species. Four of the taxa remain un-named due to paucity of materials. A key to Korean Lactarius species, molecular phylogenies, a summary of diversity, and detailed description are provided.

This article is the ninth in the series of Fungal Diversity Notes, where 107 taxa distributed in three phyla, nine classes, 31 orders and 57 families are described and illustrated. Taxa described in the present study include 12 new genera, 74 new species, three new combinations, two reference specimens, a re-circumscription of the epitype, and 15 records of sexual-asexual morph connections, new hosts and new geographical distributions. Twelve new genera comprise Brunneofusispora, Brunneomurispora, Liua, Lonicericola, Neoeutypella, Paratrimmatostroma, Parazalerion, Proliferophorum, Pseudoastrosphaeriellopsis, Septomelanconiella, Velebitea and Vicosamyces. Seventy-four new species are Agaricus memnonius, A. langensis, Aleurodiscus patagonicus, Amanita flavoalba, A. subtropicana, Amphisphaeria mangrovei, Baorangia major, Bartalinia kunmingensis, Brunneofusispora sinensis, Brunneomurispora lonicerae, Capronia camelliae-yunnanensis, Clavulina thindii, Coniochaeta simbalensis, Conlarium thailandense, Coprinus trigonosporus, Liua muriformis, Cyphellophora filicis, Cytospora ulmicola, Dacrymyces invisibilis, Dictyocheirospora metroxylonis, Distoseptispora thysanolaenae, Emericellopsis koreana, Galiicola baoshanensis, Hygrocybe lucida, Hypoxylon teeravasati, Hyweljonesia indica, Keissleriella caraganae, Lactarius olivaceopallidus, Lactifluus midnapurensis, Lembosia brigadeirensis, Leptosphaeria urticae, Lonicericola hyaloseptispora, Lophiotrema mucilaginosis, Marasmiellus bicoloripes, Marasmius indojasminodorus, Micropeltis phetchaburiensis, Mucor orantomantidis, Murilentithecium lonicerae, Neobambusicola brunnea, Neoeutypella baoshanensis, Neoroussoella heveae, Neosetophoma lonicerae, Ophiobolus malleolus, Parabambusicola thysanolaenae, Paratrimmatostroma kunmingensis, Parazalerion indica, Penicillium dokdoense, Peroneutypa mangrovei, Phaeosphaeria cycadis, Phanerochaete australosanguinea, Plectosphaerella kunmingensis, Plenodomus artemisiae, P. lijiangensis, Proliferophorum thailandicum, Pseudoastrosphaeriellopsis kaveriana, Pseudohelicomyces menglunicus, Pseudoplagiostoma mangiferae, Robillarda mangiferae, Roussoella elaeicola, Russula choptae, R. uttarakhandia, Septomelanconiella thailandica, Spencermartinsia acericola, Sphaerellopsis isthmospora, Thozetella lithocarpi, Trechispora echinospora, Tremellochaete atlantica, Trichoderma koreanum, T. pinicola, T. rugulosum, Velebitea chrysotexta, Vicosamyces venturisporus, Wojnowiciella kunmingensis and Zopfiella indica. Three new combinations are Baorangia rufomaculata, Lanmaoa pallidorosea and Wojnowiciella rosicola. The reference specimens of Canalisporium kenyense and Tamsiniella labiosa are designated. The epitype of Sarcopeziza sicula is re-circumscribed based on cyto- and histochemical analyses. The sexual-asexual morph connection of Plenodomus sinensis is reported from ferns and Cirsium for the first time. In addition, the new host records and country records are Amanita altipes, A. melleialba, Amarenomyces dactylidis, Chaetosphaeria panamensis, Coniella vitis, Coprinopsis kubickae, Dothiorella sarmentorum, Leptobacillium leptobactrum var. calidus, Muyocopron lithocarpi, Neoroussoella solani, Periconia cortaderiae, Phragmocamarosporium hederae, Sphaerellopsis paraphysata and Sphaeropsis eucalypticola., Rungtiwa Phookamsak thanks CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for Young Staff 2019–2021 (grant number 2019FY0003), the Research Fund from China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. Y71B283261), the Yunnan Provincial Department of Human Resources and Social Security (Grant No. Y836181261), and National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) project code 31850410489 for financial research support. Kevin D. Hyde thanks the Foreign Experts Bureau of Yunnan Province, Foreign Talents Program (2018; Grant No. YNZ2018002), Thailand Research grants entitled Biodiversity, phylogeny and role of fungal endophytes on above parts of Rhizophora apiculata and Nypa fruticans (Grant No: RSA5980068), the future of specialist fungi in a changing climate: baseline data for generalist and specialist fungi associated with ants, Rhododendron species and Dracaena species (Grant No: DBG6080013), Impact of climate change on fungal diversity and biogeography in the Greater Mekong Subregion (Grant No: RDG6130001). Jianchu Xu thanks the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. QYZDY-SSW-SMC014). Peter E Mortimer would like to thank the National Science Foundation of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences for financial support under the following grants: 41761144055, 41771063 and Y4ZK111B01. Olivier Raspé is grateful to the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique-FNRS (Belgium) for travel grants. Samantha C. Karunarathna thanks CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for funding his postdoctoral research (Grant No. 2018PC0006) and the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC, project code 31750110478). Dhanushaka N. Wanasinghe would like to thank CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for funding his postdoctoral research (Grant No. 2019PC0008). E.B. Gareth Jones is supported under the Distinguished Scientist Fellowship Program (DSFP), King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia., Aniket Ghosh, Kanad Das, Priyanka Uniyal, Rajendra P. Bhatt, Tahir Mehmood, and Upendra Singh are grateful to the Head, Department of Botany & Microbiology & USIC Dept. HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal and thank to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata for providing all kinds of facilities during the present study and UGC for providing fellowship to Aniket Ghosh, Priyanka Uniyal and Tahir Mehmood. K. P. Deepna Latha acknowledge the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) in the form of a PhD fellowship (Grant No. 001/FSHP/2011/CSTE) and the Principal Chief Conservator of forests, Kerala State, for granting permission (No. WL10- 4937/2012, dated 03-10-2013) to collect agarics from the forests of Kerala. K. N. Anil Raj thanks the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India, in the form of an award of CSIR Research Associateship (09/043(0178) 2K17 dated: 31/03/2017). Mao-Qiang He and Rui-Lin Zhao thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project ID: 31470152 and 31360014) and the Foundation of Innovative Group of Edible Mushrooms Industry of Beijing (Project ID:BAIC05-2017). Mingkwan Doilom would like to thank the 5th batch of Postdoctoral Orientation Training Personnel in Yunnan Province and the 64th batch of China Postdoctoral Science Foundation., Tatiana Baptista Gibertoni and Renato Lu´cio Mendes Alvarenga acknowledge Dr. Viacheslav Spirin for the taxonomic and morphological advises, CNPq for the Ph.D scholarship of RLMA (140283/ 2016-1), Po´s-Graduac¸a˜o em Biologia de Fungos (UFPE, Brazil), Capes (Capes-SIU 008/13), CNPq (PQ 307601/2015-3) and FACEPE (APQ 0375-2.03/15) for funding the research. Margarita Duen˜as, M. Teresa Telleria and Marı´a P. Martı´n acknowledge financial support from the Agreement ENDESA and San Ignacio de Huinay Foundations and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, CSIC (Projects No. 2011HUIN10, 2013CL0012, 2014CL0011), the AECID (Agencia Espan˜ola de Cooperacio´n Internacional para el Desarrollo) and Plan Nacional I ? D?i project no. CGL2015–67459–P; to Reinhard Fitzek (San Ignacio del Huinay Foundation, Chile) for his invaluable help during fieldwork, and M. Glenn (Seton Hall University, US) for revising the text and Miguel Jerez and Yolanda Ruiz Leo´n for SEM technical assistance. Sandra Nogal-Prata was supported by a Predoctoral Grant from the Ministerio de Economı´a y Competitividad (Spain) (BES-2016-077793). Armin Mesˇic´ and Zdenko Tkalcˇec thank Croatian Science Foundation for their partial support under the project HRZZ-IP-2018-01-1736 (ForFungiDNA) and are grateful to Milan Cˇ erkez for collecting specimens of coprinoid taxa for this study. Hyang Burm Lee was supported by the Graduate Program for the Undiscovered Taxa of Korea, and the Project on Survey and Discovery of Indigenous Fungal Species of Korea funded by NIBR and Project on Discovery of Fungi from Freshwater and Collection of Fungarium funded by NNIBR of the Ministry of Environment (MOE), and in part carried out with the support of Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science and Technology Development (PJ013744), Rural Development Administration, and BK21 PLUS program funded by Ministry of Education, Republic of Korea., Mubashar Raza would like to thank the CASTWAS for the PhD Fellowship. Sanjay K. Singh, Paras Nath Singh, Shiwali Rana and Frank Kwekucher Ackah thank Director, MACS, Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, India for providing facilities. Shiwali Rana and Frank Kwekucher Ackah thank UGC (Junior Research Fellowship) and DST, Govt. of India (CV Raman Fellowship for African Researchers), respectively. Gen-Nuo Wang, Huang Zhang, Wei Dong and Xian-Dong Yu thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project ID: NSF 31500017). Bandarupalli Devadatha and V. Venkateswara Sarma thank The Ministry of Earth sciences, Govt. of India (Sanction order: MOES/36/OO1S/ Extra/40/2014/PC-IV dt.14.1.2015) for a funding of the project, T, District Forest Office, Tiruvarur, Tamil Nadu and PCCF (Head of Forest Force), Chennai, Tamil Nadu Forest Department for providing permission to collect samples from Muthupet mangroves, and Department of Biotechnology, Pondicherry University is thanked for providing the facilities. Myung Soo Park, Seung-Yoon Oh and Young Woon Lim thank the Marine Bio Resource Bank Program of the Ministry of Ocean & Fisheries, Korea. Olinto Pereira thanks the CAPES, CNPq and FAPEMIG for financial support. Neven Matocˇec, Ivana Kusˇan and Margita Jadan express their gratitude to Livio Lorenzon, Enrico Bizio and Raffaella Trabucco (MCVE) for their kind help with loan of Sarcopeziza sicula type material; parts of their, research were financed by Public Institutions Sjeverni Velebit National Park and Paklenica National Park. Dong-Qin Dai and LiZhou Tang thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. NSFC 31760013, NSFC 31260087, NSFC 31460561), the Scientific Research Foundation of Yunnan Provincial Department of Education (2017ZZX186) and utilization of endophytes and the Thousand Talents Plan, Youth Project of Yunnan Provinces. Ting-Chi Wen, Chada Norphanphoun and Shi-Ke Huang are grateful to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31760014) and the Science and Technology Foundation of Guizhou Province (No. [2017]5788). Monika C. Dayarathne thanks to Thailand Research Fund (TRF) Grant No MRG6080089 for financial research support. Napalai Chaiwan thanks The Royal Golden Jubilee Ph. D. Program (PHD60K0147) under Thailand Research Fund, for financial research supports on project entitle ‘‘Fungi on limestone outcrops from southern Thailand to lower himalyas’’. Saranyaphat Boonmee and Sirinapa Konta would like to thank the National Research Council of Thailand (Grant No. 61215320023, 61215320013) and the Thailand Research Fund (Grant No. TRG6180001) for research financial support. Saisamorn Lumyong would like to thank the Thailand Research Fund (RTA 5880006) and Chiang Mai University for partially support this research work. Itthyakorn Promputtha would like to thank Chiang Mai University for partially supported this research work. Lei Cai acknowledges China-Thailand Joint Lab on Microbial Biotechnology (Most KY201701011) for financial support. PhD students from Mae Fah Laung and Chiang Mai Universities thank the Mushroom Research Foundation for research financial support and PhD Fellowships.

A survey of wild macrofungi associated with temperate evergreen forests of the Bharsar region of the Pauri Garhwal district, Uttarakhand, India, yielded specimens of 12 different species representing 10 genera. During the field work, we also collected several fruiting bodies unique to their respective genera. These included (1) a fruiting body with a small cap and long slender stipe belonging to the group of species within the genus Lactarius (subgenus Russularia) characterized by a rusty red cap and white latex; (2) a tall species of Hebeloma with a veil and thin crowded gills, and (3) a species of Hygrocybe that stains black. Owing to their special characteristic features, the specimens of Lactarius and Hebeloma are likely to be species new to science, but this requires further investigation. In addition, nine other taxa are briefly described herein, with their major macroscopic features noted. This is the first report of the macrofungal wealth from this diverse forest of the Bharsar region in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. Keywords: Basidiomycota, Diversity, Higher fungi, Northern India, Uttarakhand

Two species of Lactarius are documented from fragments of tropical lowland oak forest in central Veracruz. Lactarius trichodermoides, described here as new, was found in association with Quercus sapotifolia and Lactarius subplinthogalus with Quercus glaucescens. Both Lactarius species were identified morphologically and supported by phylogenetic analyses of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) and D1-D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA sequences. Confirmation of mycobionts in ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associations was verified by molecular identification of ECM root tips. Detailed macroscopic and microscopic descriptions and photographs and illustrations of basidiomes and ectomycorrhizas are presented. The new binomial Lactarius chiangmaiensis is proposed for L. subplinthogalus var. chiangmaiensis.

SUMMARY Seedlings of birch (Betula pendula Roth.) were grown for 12 weeks in small volumes of field soils heated in a microwave (MW) oven for different times and then either supplemented or not with inocula of ectomycorrhizal fungi and, in one case, with fresh agricultural soil. Growth of roots and shoots was assessed, and the incidence of different mycorrhizal types, distinguished by colour and morphology, was recorded. Bacterial and fungal populations were determined by dilution plating after MW treatment of soils. In four soils, shoot and root growth were markedly enhanced by MW treatments that raised the soil temperature to 60°C or more, irrespective of the exposure times (20–50 s) needed for this. Shoot dry weights were increased 1·9- to 2·9-fold by MW treatment of two soils from young (11–16 years) birch stands, compared with 8·0- and 11·4-fold for two soils from old birchwoods. But MW treatment of a colliery spoil reduced shoot growth 5-fold. The growth responses were not related to the size of seedlings in untreated soils. The responses coincided with substantial reductions in the total populations of bacteria and fungi. Hebeloma subsaponaceum Karsten developed similar numbers of mycorrhizas from mycelial inoculum added to untreated and MW treated soil. But Lactarius pubescent (Fr. ex Krombh.) Fr. developed significantly more mycorrhizas from inoculum added to MW-treated soil than to untreated soil. This difference between the fungi accords with their classification as, respectively, early stage and late stage in reported mycorrhizal successions on birch. Some mycorrhizal types developed on seedlings from resident inoculum in soil. Their incidence was reduced by different amounts following MW treatment, suggesting differences in heat-tolerance of their propagules. Hebeloma sacchariolens Quel., which forms sclerotium-like bodies and which probably developed from resident inoculum, was unaffected by MW treatment of soil. Some mycorrhizal fungi, notably Thelephora terrestris (Ehrh.) Fr., developed in place of others in soils treated for long times (80–180 s), and they probably developed from airborne spores.

summary The identity of black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) ectomycorrhizas was investigated using PCR/RFLP analysis of the ITS region from 16 morphotypes sampled at a 60-yr-old black alder stand. A comparison was made with restriction patterns from sporocarps of 28 mycobionts, of which 16 originated from the same stand, the remaining 12 came from two geographically distant alder stands. Eight of the mycorrhizal types could thus be identified, whereas eight mycorrhizal types remained unidentified. The identified mycorrhizas belonged to the genera Russula, Lactarius, Naucoria and Cortinarius. Four of the identified ectomycorrhizal types had identical PCR/RFLP profiles to corresponding fruit bodies from all investigated stands with no detectable intraspecific variation, despite the geographical distance of c.300 km between the sampling locations. By contrast, intraspecific variation between sporocarps from the different locations was detected in Paxillus rubicundulus, mycorrhizas of which were not found. The diversity of fruiting alder mycobionts at the main experimental plot only partly matched the diversity observed from mycorrhizas when comparing their PCR/RFLP profiles. The results are discussed regarding sampling techniques, PCR/RFLP analyses and ecological aspects.

The Lactifluus clarkeae complex is a commonly observed, generally brightly coloured, group of mushrooms that are usually associated with Nothofagus or Myrtaceous hosts in Australia and New Zealand. For this study collections labelled as ' Lactarius clarkeae ', ' Russula flocktoniae ' and ' Lactarius subclarkeae ' were examined morphologically and molecularly. Analyses of molecular data showed a high cryptic diversity, with sequences scattered across 11 clades in three subgenera within Lactifluus, and a single collection in Russula. We select epitypes to anchor the currently accepted concepts of Lf. clarkeae s. str. and Lf. flocktoniae s. str. The name Lf. subclarkeae could not be applied to any of the collections examined, as none had a lamprotrichoderm pileipellis. Lactifluus clarkeae var. aurantioruber is raised to species level, and six new species are described, three in subg. Lactifluus : Lf. jetiae, Lf. pagodicystidiatus, and Lf. rugulostipitatus, and three in subg. Gymnocarpi: Lf. albens, Lf. psammo philus, and Lf. pseudoflocktoniae. A new collection of Lf. russulisporus provides a significant range extension for the species. Untangling this complex will enable better identification of species and increase understanding of diversity and specific habitat associations of macrofungi.

Russula griseocarnosa is one of the uncultivable important mycorrhizal edible fungi. Currently, there is a limited insight into the dynamic composition of the microbial communities associated with Russula. Here, the microbiota in the root and mycorrhizosphere from Russula-Fagaceae nature areas of Fujian province were identified by Illumina MiSeq high-throughput sequencing. First, we compared three types of fungal communities associated with Russula-Fagaceae root mycelia-running stage (stage-1), Russula sporocarping stage-2 (stage-2) and Russula-free Fagaceae root (stage-3). Fungal diversity negatively correlated with Russula. Russula, Tomentella and Lactarius were core EcM in Fagaceae roots. A total of eight genera, including Boletus, are likely a positive indicator of Russula sporocarp production in Russula-Fagaceae roots, while Tomentella and Elaphomyces for Russula symbiosis. Secondly, analysis of fungal and bacterial communities within rhizosphere soils from the three stages revealed six genera, including Dacryobolus and Acidocella, as possible indicator species associated with sporocarping in Russula. Elaphomyces, Tomentella, Sorangium, Acidicaldus, Acidobacterium and Haliangium occurred more frequently in the Russula rhizosphere. Furthermore, operational taxonomic unit (OTU) network analysis showed a positive correlation between Russula,Tomentella, Elaphomyces and Sorangium. Overall, our results revealed a relationship between micro-community and Russula, which may provide a new strategy for improving Russula symbiosis and sporocarp production.

Russula griseocarnosa, an ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus, is a species of precious wild edible mushrooms with very high market value in southern China. Its yield is affected by many factors including the tree species and environmental conditions such as soil microbiome, humidity. How the microbiome promotes the ECM fungus symbiosis with Fagaceae plants and sporocarp-producing has never been studied. In this study, we collected rhizosphere samples from Fujian province, the microbiota in the root and mycorrhizal rhizosphere were identified by Illumina MiSeq high-throughput sequencing. First, we compared three types of fungal communities: root tips infected with ECM Russula (type 1), tips with Russula sporocarp (type 2) and tips without ECM (type 3). Our results showed that the fungal richness was negatively correlated with Russula. Russula, Tomentella and Lactarius were common in Fagaceae ECM roots. As to the mycorrhizal interactions, Boletus may be considered as an indicator species for sporocarp-producing Russula, and Acremonium, Cladophialophora were associated with Russula symbiosis. Second, we analyzed the fungal and bacterial communities in rhizosphere soils from the corresponding to previously three types (type 1, 2, 3). Dacryobolus and Acidocella may be considered as an indicator species for sporocarp-producing Russula. Fungi Tomentella, Saitozyma, Elaphomyces and bacteria Acidicaldus, Bryobacter, Sorangium and Acidobacterium occurred more frequently in the ECM Russula rhizosphere. Furthermore, the indicators Elaphomyces, Tomentella, Sorangium had a positive correlation with Russula symbiosis by network analyses. Overall, our results suggest a relationship between micro-community and ECM Russula formation and Russula sporocarp, which may provide new strategies for improving Russula symbiosis rate and sporocarp production.

Worldwide Mexico is second place on edible mushroom biocultural heritage, after China. Also, Mexico is a diversification center of Pinus and Quercus and other important ectomycorrhizal hosts. In order to develop a sustainable management of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms we must understand their role in ectomycorrhizal plant communities as these sustain the production of their fruit bodies. In this chapter we explore the diversity and structure of ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) communities associated with the main forest ecosystems of the Mexican Neotropics, with particular emphasis on edible species. Thus, we performed extensive and opportunistic sampling of fruit bodies, as well as a systematic sampling of ectomycorrhizae in the temperate forests of Pinus, Abies, Quercus, Alnus and in a tropical dry forest. Samples were genetically characterized by nrDNA ITS sequences. We used DNA sequences, clustered at 97% similarity, both to determine species richness and abundance. We found 693 species of EMF when considering fruit bodies and mycorrhizae. The Chao 1 estimator indicates a potential richness of 2611 species. Few edible species are abundant as mycorrhizas, whereas as fruit bodies, Amanita rubescens s.l., Helvella cf. lacunosa, Laccaria laccata s.l., L. trichodermophora, L. vinaceobrunnea, and Suillus pseudobrevipes are abundant and widely distributed. The richest genera were Tomentella (77 species), Inocybe (57), Russula (54), Sebacina (47), Ramaria (30), Amanita (23), Thelephora (21), Lactarius (19), and Clavulina (16). The ecosystems with the greatest richness were pine-oak forests with 206 species, followed by oak forests with 153, and Abies forests with 83. The potential endemism level of EMF in the Mexican Neotropics is approximately 70%.

During the course of investigation of macrofungi of Uttarakhand Himalaya, India, authors collected several macrofungi from this region. After thorough examination of some of these macrofungal collections identified them as Amanita farinosa, A. sepiacea (family Amanitaceae); Hypomyces lateritius (family Hypocreaceae); Lactarius horakii, L. laeticolor, Lactifluus pilosus, Russula olivobrunnea (family Russulaceae) and Sparassis latifolia (family Sparassidaceae). Critical literature survey established that the present species are taxonomically investigated and reported for the first time from India. Detailed morphological descriptions and photo-illustrations of these species are provided along with taxonomic observations.

Vertical ectomycorrhizal (ECM) community composition was assessed on silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in beech-silver fir forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Organic and upper mineral horizons were described by pedological analyses. Silver fir root tips were divided into vital ECM, old and non-mycorrhizal for each horizon separately. Morpho-anatomical classification of vital ECM root tips with an assessment of abundance was followed by ITS-based molecular characterization and classification into exploration types. The percentage of vital ECM root tips was not affected by the soil horizon. Altogether, 40 ECM taxa were recorded. Several taxa have not previously been reported for silver fir: Hebeloma laterinum, Inocybe fuscidula, I. glabripes, Lactarius acris, L. albocarneus, L. blennius, L. fluens, Ramaria bataillei, Russula badia, R. lutea, R. mairei, Sistotrema sp., Tarzetta catinus, Tomentella atroarenicolor, T. badia, T. cinerascens, T. bryophylla, and T. ramosissima, indicating high potential for diversity of ECM fungi in silver fir stands. No significant differences in community composition and species richness and diversity were detected between mineral and organic horizons. Community composition was affected by CaCO3, organic carbon concentration, organic carbon stock, total nitrogen stock, C/N ratio and soil bulk density. No significant effects of soil parameters were detected for exploration types. The contact exploration type was dominant in both soil horizons. Significantly different relative abundances of dominant taxa Tomentella stuposa, Cenococcum geophilum and Piloderma sp. 1 were detected in the two horizons. Twelve taxa were limited to the organic horizon and eight to the mineral horizon.

The Bieszczady Mts, a mountain range in SE Poland, is a hot spot of fungal richness and diversity in Poland. This paper summarizes 5 years of studies in the Bieszczady Mts, as well as previously published research. A total of 1,377 macromycetes taxa were found, including many (464) which were protected, red-listed, or very rare in Poland. Thirty-eight taxa (nine Ascomycota and 29 Basidiomycota) have been reported in Poland for the first time: Agrocybe gibberosa, Auriporia aurulenta, Bolbitius variicolor, Bulgariella pulla, Chaetosphaerella phaeostroma, Clitocybe subspadicea, Clitopilus passeckerianus, Cortinarius anomalus var. subcaligatus, C. fervidus, C. flexipes var. inolens, C. sylvae-norvegicae, Cudoniella tenuispora, Entoloma bisporigerum, E. olorinum, E. poliopus var. parvisporigerum, E. sericeoides, Galerina caulocystidiata, Gymnopilus josserandii, Hymenoscyphus subferrugineus, Hypholoma olivaceotinctum, Inocybe queletii, Laccaria altaica, Lactarius romagnesii, L. rostratus, Mycena epipterygia var. atroviscosa, M. epipterygia var. candida, M. polygramma f. candida, Octavianina lutea, O. mutabilis, Pachyella violaceonigra, Panaeolus papilionaceus var. capitatocystis, Phaeocollybia jennyae, Psathyrella almerensis, Pyrenopeziza inornata, Scutellinia torrentis, Tricholoma basirubens, Tricholomopsis flammula, and Vibrissea decolorans. For all new taxa, short descriptions based on the collected material have been provided.

In this new series of Fungal Biodiversity Profiles, the authors describe ten species new to science, nine basidiomycetes and one ascomycete, using both morphological and molecular data. Descriptions are provided for Hydnum berkeleyanum sp. nov. (Cantharellales), for Lactarius ambiguus, L. furfuraceus, L. orientaliquietus, L. subhirtipes, Russula blennia, R. pseudociliata (Russulales), Marasmius pseudohypochrysoides, Radulomyces paumanokensis (Agaricales) and Urnula himalayana (Pezizales).

Three new species of Lactarius are described from Northeast China, based on morphological comparisons and analyses on ITS nrDNA sequences. Samples of these species were mostly collected from deciduous or mixed forests with oaks. Lactarius albidocinereus, a member of L. subg. Plinthogalus is very similar to European L. azonites in the morphology and the sequence data. It differs from L. azonites by more ellipsoid spores with thinner ornamentation and shorter terminal cells in the pileipellis. Lactarius dilutisalmoneus belongs to L. sect. Zonarii of L. subg. Lactarius due to the pale salmoneus subzonate pileus with glabrous margin, unchanging latex and spore ornamentation composed of isolated elements. In comparison with its relatives, i.e. European L. zonarioides and North American L. olympianus, this new species has smaller spores with more prominent ornamentation. Lactarius olivaceorimosellus, a member of L. subg. Russularia, has areolate-rimulose pileus and lacks rosettes in the pileus and stipe cortex. Apart from the concentrically cracked pileus and absence of rosettes, the species can be easily distinguished by the olivaceo-brownish tinge of the pileus and spores with more dispersed elements of the ornamentation. Of the three species, at least L. albidocinereus represents a link with the Lactarius mycota of subtropical China.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi are important components of the carbon and nitrogen cycles in forest soils and improve the nutrient uptake of many plants. There have been few assessments of how soil fungal biomass is affected by climate; however, a good understanding of how soil mycelium is correlated with climate is essential to predict long-term responses to global warming. Soil extramatrical mycelia (EMM) of Lactarius vinosus , a highly valued and edible ectomycorrhizal species, was quantified by performing qPCR analyses of soil samples that were collected monthly from 28 long-term experimental plots. The belowground moisture and temperature of these plots were individually recorded every 2 h. L. vinosus soil EMM biomass fluctuated between 44 and 261 kg ha −1 , with the maximum biomass occurring during spring months and the minimum occurring during winter and summer months. Mean mycelial turnover was estimated to occur 7.0 times year −1 . Soil EMM was reduced under low soil temperatures and when there was a combination of high soil temperatures and low soil moisture, most likely caused by reduced C allocation from the host under both winter and summer conditions. Preliminary models using simulated reductions in soil moisture and increases in soil temperature showed that soil EMM increased significantly during winter–spring months, whereas EMM decreased significantly during summer months. These results suggest that warmer conditions would lengthen the period of L. vinosus biological activity during winter months, whereas increasing periods of drought would prevent the growth of this species during summer months. Our study shows significant soil EMM seasonality and highlights potential climate-driven annual cycle shifts of soil mycelia.

Lactarius ferruginascens sp. nov. and L. indoaquosus sp. nov. are described from the East and South districts of Sikkim, a small Himalayan state in India. Macro- and micromorphological descriptions coupled with the illustrations and nrITS-based molecular analyses are given for both species. Lactarius ferruginascens is a species in L. subg. Plinthogalus with striking features such as a sticky pileus surface caused by the ixohymeniderm structure of the pileipellis, watery white latex which is turning rusty brown on the lamellae and the occurrence under Abies sp. in the subalpine mixed forest. Lactarius indoaquosus is a new representative of L. subg. Russularia with completely transparent and unchanging latex and is furthermore characterized by basidiospores with a zebroid ornamentation, the absence of hymenial macrocystidia and the occurrence under Castanopsis sp. in the temperate broadleaf forest. Both species are illustrated and compared with related taxa.

The hypogeous and angiocarpic Lactarius Pers species, Lactarius stephensii (Berk.) Verbeken & Walleyn (Russulaceae) is recorded for the first time from Turkey. The taxon is described briefly and photographs related to macro and micromorphologies are provided., Toprak altında gelişim gösteren ve angiokarpik bir Lactarius Pers türü olan Lactarius stephensii (Berk.) Verbeken & Walleyn (Russulaceae) Türkiye’den ilk kez kaydedilmiştir. Takson kısaca betimlenerek makro ve mikro morfolojilerine ilişkin fotoğrafları verilmiştir., DOI: 10.15318/Fungus.2017.47

An uncommon, small, orange-capped Lactarius Pers. with white latex was confirmed, using molecular studies of the type specimens, to be Lactarius splendens Hesler & A.H. Sm. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the species falls within Lactarius section Deliciosi (Fr.) Redeuilh, Verbeken & Walleyn., very closely related to L. rubrilacteus Hesler & A.H. Sm. and L. porninsis Rolland. Hitherto L. porninsis was the only white-latex species known in the otherwise orange-latex section Deliciosi; both are associated with Larix Mill.

Long-term increases in nitrogen (N) availability resulting from anthropogenic N deposition can strongly influence ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal communities with potential consequences for nutrient cycling, forest composition and carbon storage. In a tropical montane forest in Panama, we used Illumina amplicon sequencing to examine how 9 y of experimental N addition has affected EM communities associated with Oreomunnea mexicana, and fluorescence assays to measure changes in enzyme activity in the soil. Nitrogen addition significantly reduced EM colonization of Oreomunnea roots and altered EM composition. The abundance of Laccaria and Lactarius increased with N addition, while Cortinarius declined. In addition, we found a reduction in soil phosphatase, N -acetyl-glucosaminidase, and β-xylanase activity with N addition. We conclude that a reduction in EM fungal taxa specialized in organic N and phosphorus absorption along with a decrease in EM colonization of host plants could decrease soil enzyme activity and therefore have feedback effects on soil nutrient cycling.

In the 1H NMR-guided fractionation of extracts from the edible mushroom Lactarius deliciosus, two new azulene-type sesquiterpenoids, 7-isopropenyl-4-methyl-azulene-1-carboxylic acid (1) and 15-hydroxy-3,6-dihydrolactarazulene (2), together with seven known compounds were characterized. Their structures were determined on basis of spectroscopic evidence, as well as by comparing with literature data. Amongst the known metabolites, the 13C NMR assignment of 15-hydroxy-6,7-dihydrolactarazulene (3) is reported here for the first time. Moreover, 7-acetyl-4-methylazulene-1-carbaldehyde (5) displayed a moderate antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Graphical Abstract *Digital image of L. deliciosus. Retrieved March 17, 2017 from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Lactarius_deliciosus_1_(1).jpg . Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13659-017-0130-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In the mountains of Veracruz State (east of Mexico), the southernmost limit of Fagus in the Americas, two relict forests of F. grandifolia var. mexicana were visited between 2007 and 2009 and 2013–2014, in order to study the ectomycorrhizal (EcM) systems of these trees with Lactarius rimosellus (L. subg. Russularia) and with L. acatlanensis (L. subg. Lactarius). We confirmed their EcM association through comparison of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences from the mycobiont in the ectomycorrhizal systems and basidiomes sampled in the forest stands. The phytobiont in the ectomycorrhizae was also identified through the comparison of ITS sequences from EcM root tips and leaves of F. grandifolia var. mexicana. Detailed descriptions on the morphology and anatomy of EcM systems and microscopical features of mantle layers and Hartig net are presented and illustrated.

The authors describe ten new taxa for science using mostly both morphological and molecular data. In Basidiomycota, descriptions are provided for Botryobasidium fusisporum sp. Nov., B.Triangulosporum sp. Nov., Cantharellus hydnoides sp. Nov. and Hydnum aerostatisporum sp. Nov. in Cantharellales; Lactarius rahjamalensis sp. Nov. and Russula pseudoaurantiophylla sp. Nov. in Russulales and for Mycena paraguayensis comb. nov. in Agaricales. In Ascomycota and hyphomycetes, descriptions are provided for Colletotrichum eryngiicola sp. Nov. (Glomerellales), Corynesporella indica sp. Nov. (incertae sedis) and Repetophragma zygopetali sp. Nov. (Microthyriales). Fil: Buyck, Bart. Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Francia Fil: Duhem, Bernard. Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Francia Fil: Das, Kanad. Botanical Survey; India Fil: Jayawardena, Ruvishika S.. Beijing Academy Of Agriculture And Forestry Sciences; China. Mae Fah Luang University; Tailandia Fil: Niveiro, Nicolás. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste; Argentina Fil: Pereira, Olinto L.. Universidade Federal de Viçosa; Brasil Fil: Prasher, Indu B.. Panjab University Chandigarh; India Fil: Adhikari, Sinchan. University of Kalyani; India Fil: Alberto, Edgardo Omar. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas. Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas ; Argentina Fil: Bulgakov, Timur S.. Southern Federal University; Rusia Fil: Castañeda-Ruiz, Rafael F.. Instituto de Investigaciones Fundamentales en Agricultura Tropical “Alejandro de Humboldt”; Cuba Fil: Hembrom, Manoj E.. University of Kalyani; India Fil: Hyde, Kevin D.. Mae Fah Luang University; Tailandia. Chinese Academy of Sciences; República de China Fil: Lewis, David P.. Bleakwood; Estados Unidos Fil: Michlig, Silvia Andrea. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste; Argentina Fil: Nuytinck, Jorinde. Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Países Bajos Fil: Parihar, Arvind. Botanical Survey; India Fil: Popoff, Orlando Fabian. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste; Argentina Fil: Ramírez, Natalia Andrea. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste; Argentina Fil: Silva, Meiriele da. Universidade Federal de Viçosa; Brasil Fil: Verma, Rajnish K.. Panjab University Chandigarh; India Fil: Hofstetter, Valérie. Agroscope Changins-Wädenswil Research Station ACW; Suiza

The ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with American chestnut (Castanea dentata) were characterized using DNA extracted from the root-tips of naturally occurring saplings from a forest in northeastern Tennessee. A total of 18 taxa were recorded, although one of these (Oidiodendron maius) was surprising because it has been reported previously to form what appear to be mycorrhizal associations only with members of the Ericaceae. One-third of the recorded taxa were representatives of the genera Russula or Lactarius (both members of the family Russulaceae), and three other genera (Cortinarius, Tomentella, and Tricholoma, each represented by two species). The data presented herein at least suggest that members of the Russulaceae are among the most common and widespread ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with naturally occurring individuals of American chestnut in the forests of eastern North America in which it was once dominant. However, it should be pointed out that our data are limited and thus are be...

Accumulation, distribution and potential dietary intake of mercury accumulated by mushrooms of Lactarius species L. delicious, L. volemus and L. deterrimus were studied in the Pomerania region of Poland. In total, 212 fruiting bodies and 106 underlying topsoil samples were analyzed. Analysis indicated that the concentrations of Hg were at low levels both in mushrooms and forest topsoils for a majority of the locations investigated. L. volemus that grew in soils with only a slightly elevated contamination (0.11 ± 0.07 mg kg−1 of dried soil), very efficiently accumulated Hg in fruiting bodies and concentration levels were at 3.7 ± 1.3 mg kg−1 of dry biomass in caps and at 1.9 ± 0.9 mg kg−1 of dry biomass in stipes. Consumption of mushrooms foraged from the Sobowidz forest, which is close to a foundry using ferrous and non-ferrous metals could result in a Hg intake that exceeds the current statutory limits.

Three new species of Lactarius sect. Deliciosi are described from montane central and southwestern China. Lactarius abieticola is associated with Abies trees. The pure orange basidiomata with only faint greenish discoloration resemble L. laeticolor, L. salmonicolor and L. thyinos, but the smaller size and whitish tomentum at the pileus margin make it different. Lactarius hengduanensis is similar to and closely related with L. deterrimus due to the orange latex and association with Picea trees. The contrast between the vivid orange stipe and paler lamellae and the spores with more reticulate ornamentation can be used to separate it from L. deterrimus. Lactarius pseudohatsudake has vinaceous red latex, similar to Asian L. hatsudake. The symbiotic relationship with Picea trees and crowded lamellae are differences from L. hatsudake. Comparison and phylogenetic analysis on the ITS sequences supported the three species to be distinct. The three new species are representative ectomycorrhizal fungi in the subalpine-alpine coniferous forests and putative choice edible mushrooms for the local people.

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi importantly influence seedling growth, nutrition, and survival and create an extensive mycelial network interconnecting tree species and enabling resource redistribution. Due to their symbiotic relationship with trees, they are impacted by forest disturbances, which are of increasing relevance due to climate change. The effect of disturbance on seedling colonization and their morphology is still largely unknown. Seedling growth parameters and the ECM fungal assemblage on the roots of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seedlings were assessed in mature spruce forests attacked and destroyed by bark beetle and in a mature non-attacked forest as a reference. We did not detect significant differences in number of ECM species on seedling roots among forest types, but ECM species composition changed, Tylospora fibrillosa (Burt) Donk, Meliniomyces variabilis Hambl. &amp, Sigler, and Phialocephala fortinii C.J.K. Wang &amp, H.E. Wilcox were characteristic species in the forest destroyed by bark beetle, whereas Lactarius, Cortinarius, and Russula were in the mature forest. Forest type further significantly influenced the height, root length, and root collar thickness of seedlings and the proportion of exploration types of mycorrhizae.

Lactarius pleuromacrocystidiatus is proposed here as a new species in Lactarius subgen. Plinthogalus. It was collected from western Himalaya and is characterised by a radially rugose, yellowish-brown to light brown pileus and the presence of white latex which turns pale orange on the gills and yellow on the context, and the presence of pleuromacrocystidia (an uncommon feature in Lactarius subgen. Plinthogalus). A detailed morphological description and ITS-based phylogenetic trees are accompanied by illustrations and comparisons with allied species.

A comprehensive morphological and genetic study of type material and new collections of sequestrate Russulales species formerly belonging to the genera Arcangeliella, Elasmomyces, Gymnomyces, Hydnangium, Hymenogaster, Macowanites, Martellia, Secotium and Zelleromyces is here undertaken, for the purpose of providing a complete taxonomical revision of sequestrate Russulaceae species in the Mediterranean and temperate regions of Europe. As a result, seven distinct taxa in the genus Lactarius and 18 in the genus Russula are identified. Six of them are new species: L. populicola, L. subgiennensis, R. bavarica, R. candidissima, R. hobartiae and R. mediterraneensis, and seven represent new combinations: L. josserandii (≡ Zelleromyces josserandii), L. soehneri (≡ Hydnangium soehneri), R. candida (≡ Hydnangium candidum), R. cerea (≡ Hydnangium cereum), R. messapica var. messapicoides (≡ Macowanites messapicoides), R. meridionalis (≡ Zelleromyces meridionalis) and R. neuhoffii (≡ Hydnangium neuhoffii). Twenty-two of the 25 taxa are illustrated, while descriptions, microscopy images, as well as extensive information on the ecology, chorology and phylogeny for all taxa are provided. A key is further included to facilitate their identification.