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Aim: Body composition is highly modifiable through exercise and may be changed by the physical stress of soccer training and competition. Especially body water as a constituent of body composition is assumed to be subjected to changes. It is speculated that during the most important soccer championship the combination of heat and the strenuous competitive program could lead to the development of a chronic state of hypohydration. However, no one tested this hypothesis. Therefore, the purpose of present work was to investigate the impact of the European Soccer Championship 2008 on players' body composition., Methods: Participants were 14 players of one team, split into Starters (N.=7) and Non-Starters (N.=7). Starters participated in the games, while Non-Starters served as substitutes, with marginal playing times. Body composition was examined by bioelectrical impedance analysis before the championship and 36 hours after the first and second game., Results: After the first game, Starters and Non-Starters showed decreased extra-cellular mass (-3.3% and -5.5%) and body cell mass (-4.1% and -6.1%) compared to prechampionship measurements. The impedance vector graph showed a significant lengthening in both groups (Starters T²=30.5, P=0.000; Non Starters T²=39.0, P=0.000). After the second game, extra-cellular mass (-3.4%) and body weight (-1.1%) decreased in Starters only. ANOVA revealed a significant difference in extra-cellular mass between Starters and Non-Starters (P=0.027). The impedance vector graph was lengthened in the Starters only (T²=17.5, P=0.000). The distance covered during the games was correlated to the percent drop in extra-cellular mass between the end of games 1 and 2 (r=-0.602; P=0.023)., Conclusion: Players competing in the European championship games experienced a decrease in extra-cellular mass and body weight. The impedance vector graph showed a lengthening, indicating fluid loss. Therefore, proper hydration of players requires diligent attention.

Referees are an integral part of soccer, and their performance is fundamental for regular match flow, irrespective of the competition level or age classes. So far, scientific interest was mainly limited to aspects of exercise physiology and match performance of soccer referees, whereas recommendations for nutrition were adopted from active professional soccer. In contrast to elite soccer players, most referees are non‐professional and engaged in different occupations. Furthermore, elite referees and soccer players differ in regard to age, body composition, aerobic capacity, and training load. Thus, referees' caloric needs and recommended daily carbohydrate intake may generally be lower compared to active soccer players, with higher intakes limited to periods of increased training load and match days or for referees engaged in physical demanding occupations. With respect to fluid intake, pre‐match and in‐match hydration strategies generally valid in sports are recommended also for referees to avoid cognitive and physical performance loss, especially when officiating in extreme climates and altitude. In contrast to elite soccer, professional assistance concerning nutrition and training is rarely available for national elite referees of most countries. Therefore, special attention on education about adequate nutrition and fluid intake, about the dietary prevention of deficiencies (iron in female referees, vitamin D irrespective of sex and age), and basic precautions for travels abroad is warranted. In conclusion, the simple adoption of nutritional considerations from active soccer for referees may not be appropriate. Recommendations should respect gender differences, population‐specific physical characteristics, and demands just as well as individual characteristics and special needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the effects of two 5-wk periods of intermittent hypoxia on running economy (RE). 11 male and female middle-distance runners were randomly assigned to the intermittent hypoxia group (IHG) or to the control group (CG). All athletes trained for a 13-wk period starting at pre-season until the competition season. The IHG spent additionally 2 h at rest on 3 days/wk for the first and the last 5 weeks in normobaric hypoxia (15-11% FiO2). RE, haematological parameters and body composition were determined at low altitude (600m) at baseline, after the 5th, the 8th and the 13th week of training. RE, determined by the relative oxygen consumption during submaximal running, (-2.3±1.2 vs. -0.3±0.7 ml/min/kg, P<0.05) and total running time ( + 1.0±0.9 vs. +0.4±0.5min, P<0.05) changed significantly between the IHG and CG only during the first 5-wk period. Haematological and cardiorespiratory changes indicate that the improved RE was associated with decreased cardiorespiratory costs and greater reliance on carbohydrate. Intermittent hypoxia did not affect RE during the second 5-wk period. These findings suggest that the effects of intermittent hypoxia on RE strongly depend on the training phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]