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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease with a very poor prognosis. Its treatment is hindered by a lack of new therapeutic alternatives and the existence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the access of drugs commonly used in ALS, such as riluzole, to the brain. To overcome these limitations and increase brain targeting, riluzole-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were prepared and functionalized with lactoferrin (Lf), facilitating transport across the BBB by interacting with Lf receptors expressed in the brain endothelium. NLC were characterized with respect to their physicochemical properties (size, zeta potential, polydispersity index) as well as their stability, encapsulation efficiency, morphology, in vitro release profile, and biocompatibility. Moreover, crystallinity and melting behavior were assessed by DSC and PXRD. Nanoparticles exhibited initial mean diameters between 180 and 220 nm and a polydispersity index below 0.3, indicating a narrow size distribution. NLC remained stable over at least 3 months. Riluzole encapsulation efficiency was very high, around 94–98%. FTIR and protein quantification studies confirmed the conjugation of Lf on the surface of the nanocarriers, with TEM images showing that the functionalized NLC presented a smooth surface and uniform spherical shape. An MTT assay revealed that the nanocarriers developed in this study did not cause a substantial reduction in the viability of NSC-34 and hCMEC/D3 cells at a riluzole concentration up to 10 μM, being therefore biocompatible. The results suggest that Lf-functionalized NLC are a suitable and promising delivery system to target riluzole to the brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) bear a lot of weight in public health. By studying the properties of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its fundamental interactions with the central nervous system (CNS), it is possible to improve the understanding of the pathological mechanisms behind these disorders and create new and better strategies to improve bioavailability and therapeutic efficiency, such as nanocarriers. Microfluidics is an intersectional field with many applications. Microfluidic systems can be an invaluable tool to accurately simulate the BBB microenvironment, as well as develop, in a reproducible manner, drug delivery systems with well-defined physicochemical characteristics. This review provides an overview of the most recent advances on microfluidic devices for CNS-targeted studies. Firstly, the importance of the BBB will be addressed, and different experimental BBB models will be briefly discussed. Subsequently, microfluidic-integrated BBB models (BBB/brain-on-a-chip) are introduced and the state of the art reviewed, with special emphasis on their use to study NDs. Additionally, the microfluidic preparation of nanocarriers and other compounds for CNS delivery has been covered. The last section focuses on current challenges and future perspectives of microfluidic experimentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Amytrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease. • Riluzole was loaded into lipid nanoparticles (SLN and NLC) for ALS therapy. • Optimized SLN and NLC exhibited desirable characteristics for brain delivery. • Lipid nanoparticles were stable, promoting a slow and sustained release of riluzole. • Nanoparticles showed good biocompatibility with brain microvascular endothelial cells. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease, with a median survival of only 2 to 4 years. Riluzole, a drug commonly used in the management of ALS, has a low aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. ALS treatment is also hindered by the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) that preserves the delicate homeostasis of the cerebral milieu, isolating it and making brain drug delivery exceptionally hard. To overcome these issues, the use of lipid nanocarriers, such as solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), is a promising strategy. In this study, SLN and NLC were prepared and optimized to facilitate riluzole uptake into the brain for ALS therapy. The lipid nanoparticles were characterized through different techniques, with respect to their physicochemical properties (size, zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI)), as well as encapsulation efficiency, morphology, stability, in vitro release, crystallinity, and biocompatibility. Riluzole-loaded nanocarriers exhibited characteristics suitable for brain delivery, including mean diameters between 147.2 and 203.1 nm, low PDI (<0.3), and negative ZP between −22.5 and −27.5 mV. Additionally, they were physically stable over 3 months under storage conditions (5 ℃ and 25 ℃), promoting a slow and sustained release of the drug, which was shown to be inside the core of the lipid matrix. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that both SLN and NLC did not significantly affect the viability of an hCMEC/D3 cell monolayer at a riluzole concentration up to 10 μM. The results suggest that the developed nanocarriers could be a viable platform to target riluzole to the central nervous system (CNS). Nevertheless, further in vitro and in vivo studies are needed to validate their therapeutic efficacy and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) restricts the access of therapeutic agents to the brain, complicating the treatment of neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), glioma, etc. To overcome this limitation and improve drug delivery to the central nervous system (CNS), the potential of nanocarriers, including lipid-based nanosystems, has been explored. Through active targeting, the surface of the nanocarriers can be modified with ligands that interact with the BBB, enhancing their uptake and penetration across the brain endothelium by different physiological mechanisms, such as receptor- or transporter-mediated transcytosis. This review seeks to provide an overview of active targeting in brain delivery, while highlighting the potential of functionalized lipid nanocarriers to treat brain diseases. Therefore, in the first sections, we discuss the importance of active targeting in CNS drug delivery, present the different ligands commonly used for functionalization, as well as summarize the state of the art of the most recent and relevant studies of surface-modified lipid nanosystems developed for neurological disorders. Lastly, challenges hindering clinical translation are discussed, and critical insights and future perspectives outlined. Although some limitations have been identified, it is expected that in the upcoming years these nanosystems will be an established approach. [Display omitted] • The blood-brain barrier (BBB) hinders the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. • Lipid nanocarriers are a promising approach to improve brain drug targeting. • Functionalization of nanocarriers with ligands increases BBB selectivity uptake. • The main ligands are glycoproteins, antibodies, apolipoproteins, and peptides. • Robust regulatory and manufacturing practices are needed for clinical translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]