Search

Simple Summary Large numbers of wild animals are injured every year in road traffic accidents (RTA) and need first aid and assistance procedures, depending on the severity of the trauma and lesions. Head trauma may lead to traumatic brain injury (TBI), which causes neurologic and behavioral disorders. In this study, we retrospectively evaluated the clinical records of red foxes rescued and clinically evaluated to characterize computed tomography (CT) findings in a cohort of foxes with chronic head trauma and identify survival rates. On average, CT scans were performed 260 days after fox rescue. We speculate that persisting clinical signs could be attributed to TBI. CT scan helped diagnose chronic lesion and their effect on prognostic judgment for animals that should be released to wildlife environments. Abstract Large numbers of wild animals are injured every year in road traffic accidents. Scant data are available for rescued wild carnivores, in particular for red foxes. Cases of foxes with head trauma were retrospectively considered for inclusion in this study. Clinical examination, modified Glasgow coma scale (MGCS), computed tomography (CT) examination, therapy, outcome, and post mortem findings of the brain were investigated. In all foxes, cranial vaults lesion occurred in single (67%) or multiple sites (33%). Midline shift and hydrocephalus were observed in this population. The mean survival was 290 (±176) days. In our study, we performed CT scans on average 260 days after fox rescue, and we speculate that persisting clinical signs could be attributed to TBI. In our study, only two foxes were alive at the time of writing. Other foxes were euthanized due to the severity of the clinical signs. CT scans help diagnose chronic lesions and their effect on prognostic judgment for animals released to wildlife environments.

Purpose: This study aimed to determine the presence of C. plica in red foxes and to point out the possibilities of different diagnostic methods, that could be used for diagnosis of urinary capillariosis in domestic carnivores. Methods: Seventeen red foxes from hunting grounds in the Kolubara District, Republic of Serbia, were examined in February 2019. Animals to be shot were selected based on the criteria of gamekeepers and the permission of the competent Ministry. After hunting, the foxes were examined by ultrasound and autopsied. After the necropsy, biochemical and sediment analysis of urine morphological identification of isolated adult parasites, and macroscopic/microscopic examination of the urinary bladder and kidney tissue were performed. Results: Adults of C. plica were detected in 3/17 foxes (17.6%) by ultrasound imaging and in 6/17 foxes (35.3%) by necropsy examination. Parasite eggs were found in the urinary sediment of 9/17 foxes (52.9%). The predominant histopathologic changes were amyloid degeneration of the renal glomeruli and proximal tubules (8/17 foxes-47%) as well as acute cystitis (7/17 foxes-41.2%). The occurrence of C. plica was determined in 12/17 (70.6%) of the examined foxes. Discussion: This study is the first record of the C. plica in red foxes in the Republic of Serbia. Diagnostic methods used in this study could make possible the early revealing of capillariosis in domestic carnivores and could provide reliable clinical and parasitological screening of suspect animals. Conclusion: The study presents the first report of urinary capillariosis in a fox population in Serbia. The established high prevalence of C. plica in foxes could presume its higher prevalence in domestic and wild carnivores in the future.

The cardiopulmonary nematodes Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Capillaria aerophila and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, are a cause of concern in the scientific and veterinary community, potentially causing significant disease in domestic animals. To investigate the potential of wild carnivores as reservoir hosts to these parasites, a total of 1041 animals from seven regions of Denmark were sampled: 476 raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), 367 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 123 American mink (Neovison vison), 31 beech martens (Martes foina), 30 Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) and 14 polecats (Mustela putorius). Hearts and lungs were collected and examined for cardiopulmonary parasites. Capillaria aerophila was identified using morphology, whereas A. vasorum and C. vulpis were identified by a duplex real-time PCR, and A. abstrusus by conventional PCR. This is the first Danish report of A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections in raccoon dogs, mink and polecats, and of C. aerophila in raccoon dogs and beech martens. In addition, this is the first time A. vasorum and C. vulpis have been identified in wild animals from the island of Bornholm, just as it is the first report of C. vulpis in American mink, and C. vulpis and A. vasorum in polecats in Europe. The prevalence of A. vasorum appears to have increased in red foxes in Denmark compared to previous studies, while C. vulpis and C. aerophila prevalences are lower. Our data show that several wild carnivores can serve as reservoir hosts for A. vasorum, C. vulpis and C. aerophila in Denmark, and that A. vasorum appears more abundant than previously reported. It is speculated that the A. vasorum increase might relate to increased snail abundance, which may be due to a rise in mean yearly temperatures in Denmark., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • The first report of C. vulpis in American mink. • The first report of C. vulpis and A. vasorum in polecats. • The first report of A. vasorum in raccoon dogs, mink, and polecats from Denmark. • The first report of C. vulpis in raccoon dogs, mink, and polecats from Denmark. • The first report of C. aerophila in raccoon dogs and beech martens from Denmark.

Background Sarcoptic mange is a highly contagious skin disease caused by the ectoparasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei. Although it afflicts over 100 mammal species worldwide, sarcoptic mange remains a disease obscured by variability at the individual, population and species levels. Amid this variability, it is critical to identify consistent drivers of morbidity, particularly at the skin barrier. Methods Using culture-independent next generation sequencing, we characterized the skin microbiome of three species of North American canids: coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). We compared alpha and beta diversity between mange-infected and uninfected canids using the Kruskal–Wallis test and multivariate analysis of variance with permutation. We used analysis of composition of microbes and gneiss balances to perform differential abundance testing between infection groups. Results We found remarkably consistent signatures of microbial dysbiosis associated with mange infection. Across genera, mange-infected canids exhibited reduced microbial diversity, altered community composition and increased abundance of opportunistic pathogens. The primary bacteria comprising secondary infections were Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, previously associated with canid ear and skin infections, and Corynebacterium spp., previously found among the gut flora of S. scabiei mites and hematophagous arthropods. Conclusions This evidence suggests that sarcoptic mange infection consistently alters the canid skin microbiome and facilitates secondary bacterial infection, as seen in humans and other mammals infected with S. scabiei mites. These results provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of mange at the skin barrier of North American canids and can inspire novel treatment strategies. By adopting a “One Health” framework that considers mites, microbes and the potential for interspecies transmission, we can better elucidate the patterns and processes underlying this ubiquitous and enigmatic disease.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of intestinal helminths in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in the Augustów Primeval Forest (north-eastern Poland), with particular regard to zoonotic parasites. Material and Methods: Intestines from 53 raccoon dogs and 66 red foxes were examined with the use of sedimentation and counting technique (SCT). Samples of faeces from 51 red foxes and 50 raccoon dogs were examined with the use of flotation method. Results: Parasitic helminths were found by SCT in 98.5% of red foxes and 96.2% of raccoon dogs. Both species were infected with: Alaria alata (93.9% and 94.3%, respectively), hookworms (68.2% and 83.0%), Apophallus spp. (7.6% and 15.1%), Mesocestoides spp. (57.6% and 24.5%), Taenia spp. (40.9% and 1.9%), and Toxocara/Toxascaris nematodes (33.3% 15.1%). Echinococcus multilocularis was detected only in red foxes (6.1%), but trematodes Echinostomatidae and nematodes Molineus spp. only in raccoon dogs (18.9% and 41.5%, respectively). Additionally, Capillaria spp. eggs were detected by flotation method in 78.4% of foxes and 20.0% of raccoon dogs. Conclusion: The study showed a very high percentage of red foxes and raccoon dogs infected with intestinal helminths in the Augustów Primeval Forest. Moreover, dangerous zoonotic parasites also were found, which should be taken into consideration in the assessment of infection risk for humans in this region.

We tested the sera or meat juices of 215 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), collected during 2009-2014 at different localities of Eastern Slovakia for the presence of anti- Toxoplasma and anti-Neospora antibodies. We also examined the brains or muscle tissues and uncoagulated blood samples for the presence of both parasite’s DNA. The mean seropositivity to T. gondii was 72.6% (95% Confidence Interval CI 66.1-78.4) and to N. caninum 33.9% (95% CI 27.7-40.7). We observed higher Toxoplasmaseropositivity in adults (71.1%) than in juveniles (60.0%). Neospora-seropositivity was almost the same in both age groups about of 30%. In general, we observed less frequently the DNA of parasites, T. gondii (14.5%) and N. caninum (20.3%) in the tissue samples and uncoagulated blood samples. Coccidioses are considerably common in red foxes and circulate in locations of Eastern Slovakia. The high infection rate in foxes is probably due to their infected prey. On the other hand, the contamination of the environment with oocysts and their subsequent transfer to other farm and wild animals is also possible.

Piroplasmosis is caused by several species of protozoa such as the Babesia microti-like piroplasm (Bml), an emerging blood protozoan also known as Theileria annae or Babesia vulpes. Infection by Bml was first reported in dogs in Spain where it is endemic today. Recently, a high prevalence of Bml has been increasingly detected in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in European countries. The objective of this study was to determine infection levels of this parasite in foxes from Galicia, NW Spain, and ticks species infestation in these carnivores, where they are so far unknown. Samples of blood, spleen and ticks (if present) were taken from 237 hunted red foxes in the Galicia region. Blood smears were prepared for direct parasite observation, and spleen and tick samples were examined by nested PCR. Prevalences of Bml infection in Galician red foxes were estimated at 72% (171/237) by PCR and 38.23% (26/68) by direct observation. Among 837 ticks collected, the main tick identified was Ixodes hexagonus (present in 82.4% of the foxes) followed by Ixodes ricinus (12.3%), Dermacentor reticulatus (12.3%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (3.5%). From 34 foxes testing positive for Bml, 616 ticks were collected: positive Bml PCR results were obtained in 55.6% (227/408) of ticks collected from 9 foxes, while the 208 ticks from the remaining 25 infected foxes returned negative PCR results. Given that canine piroplasmosis is endemic in this area, our observations point to the red fox as the main reservoir for Bml infection and the high proportion of I. hexagonus among ticks collected from red foxes suggests its likely role as vectors of B. microti-like piroplasm in this region. Further studies are needed for a better understanding of the link between the wild and domestic life cycles of this piroplasm SI

The emergence of the zoonotic tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis, causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis (AE), poses a public health risk. A previously designed risk map model predicted a spread of E. multilocularis and increasing numbers of alveolar echinococcosis patients in the province of Limburg, The Netherlands. This study was designed to determine trends in the prevalence and worm burden of E. multilocularis in foxes in a popular recreational area in the southern part of Limburg to assess the risk of infection for humans and to study the prevalence of E. multilocularis in dogs in the adjacent city of Maastricht. Thirty-seven hunted red foxes were tested by the intestinal scraping technique and nested PCR on colon content. Additionally, 142 fecal samples of domestic dogs from Maastricht were analyzed by qPCR for the presence of E. multilocularis. In foxes, a significantly increased prevalence of 59% (95% confidence interval 43-74%) was found, compared to the prevalence of 11% (95% CI 7-18%) in 2005-2006. Average worm burden increased to 37 worms per fox, the highest since the first detection, but consistent with the prediction about the parasite population for this region. Updated prediction on the number of AE cases did not lead to an increase in previous estimates of human AE cases up to 2018. No dogs in the city of Maastricht tested positive, but results of questionnaires showed that deworming schemes were inadequate, especially in dogs that were considered at risk for infection.

International audience; In Europe, most cities are currently colonized by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), which are considered to be the main definitive host of the zoonotic cestode Echinococcus multilocularis. The risk of transmission to humans is of particular concern where high fox populations overlap with high human populations. The distribution of baits containing praziquantel has successfully reduced the infection pressure in rural areas and in small plots within large cities. The purpose of this study was to assess its efficiency in two medium size cities (less than 100,000 inhabitants) in areas of high human alveolar echinococcosis incidence. From August 2006 to March 2009, 14 baiting campaigns of praziquantel treatment were run in Annemasse and Pontarlier (Eastern France), each of which encompassed 33km(2), with a density of 40baits/km(2). The bait consumption appeared to be lower in strictly urban context compared to suburban areas (78.9% vs. 93.4%) and lower in Annemasse than in Pontarlier (82.2% vs. 89.5%). During our study, the prevalence of E. multilocularis, as assessed by EM-ELISA on fox faeces collected in the field in Annemasse, was lower within the treated area than in the rural control area. A "before/during" treatment comparison revealed a significant decrease of spring prevalence from 13.3% to 2.2%. No significant change in prevalence was detected in Pontarlier (stable prevalence: 9.1%) where the contamination of the treated area followed the temporal trend observed in the control area. There, a greater resilience of the parasite's life cycle, probably due to a strong pressure of recontamination from outside the treated area, may have counteracted the prophylaxis treatment. These contrasted outcomes suggest that the frequency of fox anthelmintic treatment should be adapted to the local situation.

The intestinal helminth fauna of Tibetan sand foxes (Vulpes ferrilata) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) inhabiting in Qinghai, China, was evaluated by conducting necropsy of hunted foxes and fecal egg examination of field-collected feces. In northeast and south Qinghai, 36 foxes were necropsied, and the species of foxes and the parasites detected were identified by the DNA barcoding. In 27 red foxes and 9 Tibetan sand foxes examined, Mesocestoides litteratus (total prevalence: 64%), Toxascaris leonina (50%), Taenia pisiformis (8%) and Taenia crassiceps (8%) were found in both species of foxes. Echinococcus shiquicus (8%) and Taenia multiceps (6%) were found only in Tibetan sand foxes. Echinococcus multilocularis (3%) and Alaria alata (8%) were found only in red foxes. In the fecal egg examination of the rectal feces, 100% of taeniid cestodes, 73% of Toxascaris and 27% of Mesocestoides worm-positive samples showed egg-positive, indicating that coprological survey for parasite eggs could only provide partial information of intestinal parasite fauna. For field-collected feces, molecular identification of feces origins and fecal egg examination were performed. In 15 Tibetan sand fox and 30 red fox feces, we found E. multilocularis eggs in one feces of Tibetan sand fox. The present study indicated that the upper intestinal helminth fauna of the two fox species in Qinghai does not differ significantly and both species would play an important role in the maintenance of taeniid cestodes.

A new method, based on a magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR, was developed for the detection of the zoonotic parasite Echinococcus multilocularis in definitive hosts. Latent class analysis was used to compare this new method with the currently used phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. In total, 60 red foxes and coyotes from three different locations were tested with both molecular methods and the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT) or intestinal scraping technique (IST). Though based on a limited number of samples, it could be established that the magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR showed similar sensitivity and specificity as the currently used phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. All methods have a high specificity as shown by Bayesian latent class analysis. Both molecular assays have higher sensitivities than the combined SCT and IST, though the uncertainties in sensitivity estimates were wide for all assays tested. The magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR has the advantage of not requiring hazardous chemicals like the phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. This supports the replacement of the phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR by the magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR for molecular detection of E. multilocularis in definitive hosts.

Background This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Babesia species DNA in lung exudate samples collected from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from across Great Britain. Babesia are small piroplasmid parasites which are mainly transmitted through the bite of infected ticks of the family Ixodidae. Babesia can cause potentially fatal disease in a wide-range of mammalian species including humans, dogs and cattle, making them of significant economic importance to both the medical and veterinary fields. Methods DNA was extracted from lung exudate samples of 316 foxes. A semi-nested PCR was used to initially screen samples, using universal Babesia-Theileria primers which target the 18S rRNA gene. A selection of positive PCR amplicons were purified and sequenced. Subsequently specific primers were designed to detect Babesia annae and used to screen all 316 DNA samples. Randomly selected positive samples were purified and sequenced (GenBank accession KT580786). Clones spanning a 1717 bp region of the 18S rRNA gene were generated from 2 positive samples, the resultant consensus sequence was submitted to GenBank (KT580785). Sequence KT580785 was used in the phylogenetic analysis Results Babesia annae DNA was detected in the fox samples, in total 46/316 (14.6 %) of samples tested positive for the presence of Babesia annae DNA. The central region of England had the highest prevalence at 36.7 %, while no positive samples were found from Wales, though only 12 samples were tested from this region. Male foxes were found to have a higher prevalence of Babesia annae DNA than females in all regions of Britain. Phylogenetic and sequence analysis of the GenBank submissions (Accession numbers KT580785 and KT580786) showed 100 % identity to Babesia sp.-‘Spanish Dog’ (AY534602, EU583387 and AF188001). Conclusions This is the first time that Babesia annae DNA has been reported in red foxes in Great Britain with positive samples being found across England and Scotland indicating that this parasite is well established within the red fox population of Britain. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that though B. annae is closely related to B. microti it is a distinct species.

A total of 49 road-killed red foxes were used for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) in Portugal. MTC infection was detected by PCR in 10 red foxes (20.4%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 8.8–31.2%) and confirmed in three (6.1%; 95% CI 0.0–7.9%) of them by microbiological culture. The complex was detected in 20 tissues out of 441 by PCR techniques (4.5%; 95% CI 16.3–23.7%) and in seven tissues out of 441 (1.6%; 95% CI 4.6–9.4%) by culture. MTC was most frequently detected in the brain (8.2%) and in the mediastinal lymph nodes (8.2%). The seven cultures obtained were positive for M. bovis by PCR-based genotyping of the MTC targeting genomic deletions. This study confirms the presence of disseminated M. bovis in red foxes in Portugal, and it is the first report in the world of the natural infection in the animals' brains.

45 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from various regions of Latvia were examined by necropsy between 2003 and 2008 for the presence and infection intensity of Echinococcus multilocularis. The overall prevalence was 35.6 %, with the intensity of infection ranging from 1 to 1438. Although a limited number of foxes were examined, the prevalence was high and infected animals were found throughout the country. Considering the increasing number of humans infected with echinococcosis in Latvia since 2002, the situation is highly suggestive of a recent emergence of E. multilocularis. DNA sequences of four fox isolates were examined by multilocus analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes (cox1, nad1, rrnS, atp6, actII). All isolates were allocated to the predominant genetic form in Europe, with partial affinity of one isolate to a genotype that had previously been reported from southern Germany.

Background Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are one of the most widespread wild carnivores in the world, being recognized to harbor and transmit a wide range of vector-borne diseases. Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato are zoonotic tick-borne pathogens causing emerging diseases. Wild animals play an essential role in the transmission of diseases and pathogens maintenance in nature. Epidemiological studies regarding the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in red foxes are of public health importance, as they may successfully act as a pathogen transmission interface between wildlife, domestic animals and humans. Findings This study included 14 counties from Romania. A total number of 353 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were examined. Heart tissue samples were collected during necropsy and stored at −20 °C. Genomic DNA extraction was performed and all samples were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Specific primers for A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, E. canis and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. were used. Sequence analysis was performed (Macrogen Europe, Amsterdam) and obtained sequences are available at GenBank™. Out of the 353 samples, 9 (2.55 %; 95 % CI: 1.25–4.96 %) were positive for A. phagocytophilum. Positive animals originated from 5 counties. In total, 5 out of 353 heart tissue samples (1.42 %; 95 % CI: 0.52–3.47 %) collected from red foxes were positive for B. burgdorferi s.l. Red foxes originated from 4 counties. None of the samples were positive for A. platys or E. canis. No co-infection with A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi s.l. was found. Conclusion This first report of A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi s.l. in red foxes from Romania suggests a limited role of foxes in the maintenance of the two related pathogens, but may represent a potential risk from a public health perspective.

Wild canides have a high epizootiological - epidemiological significance, considering that they are hosts for some parasites which spread vector born diseases. Increased frequency of certain interactions between domestic and wild canides increases the risk of occurrence, spreading and maintaining the infection of parasitic etiology in domestic canides. The research was conducted in 232 wild canides (172 red foxes and 60 golden jackals). The examined material was sampled from foxes and jackals, which were hunted down between 2010 and 2014, from 8 epizootiological areas of Serbia (North-Backa, West-Backa, Southern-Banat, Moravicki, Zlatiborski, Raski, Rasinski and Zajecarski district). On completing the parasitological dissection and the coprological diagnostics, in wild canides protozoa from the genus Isospora were identified, 3 species of trematoda (Alaria alata, Pseudamphistomum truncatum and Metagonimus yokogawai), cestods from the genus Taenia and 5 species of nematodes (Toxocara canis, Ancylostomatidae, Trichuris vulpis and Capillaria aerophila). The finding of M. yokogawai in golden jackals were, to the best of our knowledge, one of the first diagnosed cases of metagonimosis in golden jackals in Serbia. The continued monitoring of the parasitic fauna of wild canides is needed to establish the widespread of the zoonoses in different regions of Serbia, because they present the reservoirs and/or sources of these infections.

Background The bacteria Anaplasma platys and Ehrlichia canis and the protozoan Leishmania infantum are vector-borne agents that cause canine vector-borne diseases, some of which are zoonotic. The present survey investigated the prevalence of Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Leishmania in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Portugal by molecular analysis, in order to evaluate the epidemiological role of these canids as reservoirs of infection. Methods Blood and/or bone marrow samples were collected from 78 red foxes obtained in eight districts of northern, central and southern Portugal. Real-time polymerase chain reactions (PCR) amplified a 123 bp fragment of the 16S rRNA gene of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. and a 265 bp fragment of the L. infantum internal transcribed spacer one (ITS1) region of the rRNA operon evaluated by PCR-high resolution melt analysis (PCR-HRM), with sequencing of the DNA products. A phylogenetic analysis was carried out to compare these to other sequences from Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. deposited in GenBank®. Results A. platys was detected in 10 (14.5%) and E. canis in two (2.9%) out of 69 foxes; and L. infantum was detected in one (1.3%) of the 78 foxes. The prevalence of A. platys was significantly different from the prevalence of E. canis (p=0.016) and from that of L. infantum (p=0.002). No co-infections were found in any one of the 78 foxes. No statistically significant differences were found between the type of sample (blood and bone marrow), geographic regions (north/centre and south), age (

Canid social groups are typically thought to consist of extended families, that is, a dominant breeding pair and related nonbreeding subordinates, that principally obtain indirect fitness benefits from helping to raise the offspring of the dominant pair. Consequently, the monogamous pair has been viewed as the basic fundamental unit of canid social organization. However, there have been few genetic studies that have tested this assumption. We analyzed the parentage of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in a high-density (19.6--27.7 adult foxes/km-super-2) population in Bristol, UK, to determine (1) whether groups typically produced a single litter of cubs annually and (2) whether male and female foxes exhibited monogamous mating strategies. Social monogamy (the production of one litter in a social group) was observed or assumed in 54% of breeding attempts (N = 13 group-years). However, polyandrous and polygynous patterns of mating were common. Multiple paternity was confirmed in 38% of litters (N = 16) containing offspring with resolved maternity and paternity (N = 30 cubs); when including cubs with unresolved paternity (N = 20), multiple-paternity may have occurred in 69% of litters. Litters were sired by an average of 1.6 identified males (range = 1--4); when including cubs with unresolved paternity, litters may have been sired by up to seven males. Only 20% (6/30) of cubs with resolved maternity and paternity were sired by males within the social group. Within groups, dominant females did not breed with subordinate males; dominant males did breed with subordinate females. Dominant and subordinate females both produced cubs with dominant and subordinate males from other social groups. Mean adult relatedness in groups typically ranged from 0.15--0.35, indicative of second-order rather than first-order relatives. Copyright 2004.

To the Editor: Canine distemper virus (CDV) is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Morbillivirus (1). The host range for CDV is broad, and infection has been found in several mammalian species of the families Canidae, Mustelidae, Procyonidae, Ursidae, and Viverridae (2). Stelvio National Park (SNP) encompasses 1,333 km2 of protected land in Italy and covers 2 regions (Lombardia and Trentino Alto Adige); the Lombardia section of the park covers the northern part of Sondrio Province (Valtellina). SNP is surrounded by other parks (Schweitzer National Park, Adamello, and Adamello-Brenta) to form a large protected area (2,500 km2) in the heart of the Alps mountains. Within SNP, the terrestrial mammals that are susceptible to CDV include red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), stoats (Mustela erminea), weasels (Mustela nivalis), pine martens (Martes martes), beech martens (Martes foina), badgers (Meles meles), and bears (Ursus arctos). In August 2009, three young red foxes were captured in Valtellina (Sondrio), Lombardia, Italy, within the southwestern borders of SNP. The animals showed canine distemper–like signs (e.g., prostration, altered behavior, and conjunctivitis), and CDV infection was confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription–PCR of pooled organs (3). In September and October 2009, another 2 young foxes were captured and found to be positive for CDV. From September on, at least 30 foxes with altered behavior were seen near human habitations and facilities in SNP; 10 were captured. In the same period, infected foxes were also reported from Engadina, Switzerland, at the northern and western borders of SNP. In February 2010, two symptomatic foxes were euthanized in Grosotto, 50 km south of where the initial cases were identified. The epizootic appeared to have originated from the eastern regions of Italy (Trentino Alto Adige, and Veneto), where CDV infection had been reported in red foxes and badgers since August 2006 (4) (Figure). A large CDV epidemic in foxes in southern Bavaria in 2008 has also been described, thus suggesting spread of the virus throughout the Alps area (5). Figure Phylogenetic tree showing the genetic relationships among selected canine distemper virus strains of various lineages and generated by using the full-length nucleotide sequence of the hemagglutinin gene. The tree branches including viruses not from Europe ... Reverse transcription–PCR genotyping of the hemagglutinin (H) gene (6) identified 15 CDV strains, which were analyzed and characterized as European genotypes. The full-length H gene of the CDV strains was determined (GenBank accession no. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"HM120874","term_id":"298364439","term_text":"HM120874"}}HM120874). Sequence analysis of the H gene indicated that the fox CDV strains were highly related to each other (>99.9% nt and 100% aa identity), to the CDV strains identified in foxes in southern Bavaria 2008 (>99.7% nt and 99.3% aa identity; accession nos. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide-range","attrs":{"text":"FI416336-FI416338","start_term":"FI416336","end_term":"FI416338","start_term_id":"220831209","end_term_id":"220831835"}}FI416336-FI416338), and to a canine strain identified in Hungary during 2005–2006 (99.4% nt and 99.2% aa identity; accession no. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"DQ889177","term_id":"121486035","term_text":"DQ889177"}}DQ889177). During the CDV epizootic in SNP in 2009, cases of CDV in 3 domestic dogs living within the borders of the park were also reported. Because vaccination against CDV is a core recommendation for dogs, most dogs are expected to be vaccinated and protected; population immunity is high enough to keep CDV infection under control, and only sporadic cases occur (7). Accordingly, the reported CDV cases in dogs were more likely a spillover event caused by the high pressure of CDV infection in SNP wildlife. In addition to foxes, badgers in the same area were also reported to have canine distemper–like disease. These findings are consistent with spread of a multihost epizootic, in which foxes likely played a major role in CDV amplification and diffusion because of their social behavior during reproductive season and because of the wide geographic range over which juveniles migrate during the dispersion period. Serologic investigations for CDV in some fox populations in Europe have identified antibody prevalence rates of 4%–26.4% (8), suggesting that CDV circulates in foxes in Europe, but these investigations did not examine spatial and temporal variations in CDV activity. Clues for understanding the pattern of CDV disease in wildlife have been provided by structured surveillance of wild canids living in Yellowstone National Park, USA. Yearly fluctuations in CDV seroprevalence with evidence of multihost outbreaks in distinct years, contemporaneously affecting different animal species, have been noted. Cycles of CDV epizootics that swept through the animals in the park were associated with low pup survival rates (9). In SNP, most foxes captured during the epizootic were juveniles. We have no information on the prevalence rates of CDV-specific antibodies in SNP foxes before the epizootic. However, CDV disease had not been reported in the SNP for at least 10 years, and no animal with CDV infection had been identified in a 2004–2005 survey of red foxes in SNP (10). Similarly, no evidence for CDV infection had been found in carnivores in Trentino Alto Adige during 2001–2002 (10). Accordingly, one can assume that the population immunity in SNP foxes (and in other susceptible hosts) was low. Adequately controlling CDV infection in wildlife in Europe is difficult. It requires concerted transnational actions, including effective surveillance and prompt gathering and dissemination of information.

International audience; Urbanization of alveolar echinococcosis is a new phenomenon that has been highlighted during the last few decades. It has thus become necessary to understand the dynamics of transmission of Echinococcus multilocularis in urbanized areas. Spatial heterogeneity of infection by E. multilocularis has been explained as the result of a multifactorial dependence of the transmission in which the factors depend on the scale of the investigation. The aim of this study was to assess, in an urbanized area, the effect of such environmental factors as season, habitat type and the level of urbanization, on the availability of two major intermediate hosts (Microtus spp. and Arvicola terrestris), the distribution of red fox faeces and the distribution of E. multilocularis as determined by detection of coproantigens in faeces. Results of the study revealed higher densities of Microtus spp. in rural than in peri-urban areas. Moreover this species was highly aggregated in urban wasteland. Arvicola terrestris densities did not appear to be linked to the level of urbanization or to the type of habitat studied. Distribution of faeces was positively linked to distance walked and to Microtus spp. and A. terrestris distributions whatever the level of urbanization. Such a distribution pattern could enhance the transmission cycle in urban areas. The Copro-ELISA test results on faeces collected in the field revealed that O.D.s were significantly negatively correlated with the abundance of A. terrestris. The larger population densities of Microtus spp. found in urban wastelands and the well known predominance of Microtus spp. in the red fox diet in the region suggest that Microtus spp. may play a key-role in urban transmission of the parasite in the study area.

During the past decade, golden jackal populations have substantially increased, yet little is known of their potential for transmitting parasites within animal and human hosts. In the present study, between 2005 and 2010, 447 jackals from six localities in Serbia were examined for intestinal parasites. Two species of trematodes (Alaria alata, Pseudamphistomum truncatum), three nematodes (Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma caninum, Gongylonema sp.), and seven cestodes (Taenia pisiformis, Taenia hydatigena, Multiceps multiceps, Multiceps serialis, Mesocestoides lineatus, Mesocestoides litteratus, Dipylidium caninum) were identified. Pseudamphistomum truncatum and M. serialis species were recorded for the first time. The overall prevalence of parasitic infection was 10.3%. No significant differences were found in the prevalence of infection between males and females (P>0.817), between localities (P>0.502), or with regard to annual cycles (P>0.502). In the infected jackal population, 65% harboured multiple infections and one individual was a host to five different types of parasite species, the highest number of parasites we recorded in a single host. These findings indicate that although the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in the jackal population in Serbia is significantly lower than expected from earlier studies, further monitoring is required given the jackal's rapid population increase.

The prevalence of Sarcocystis sp. was assessed in fox from northern Croatia (the City of Varaždin). The intestine of 50 (29 male and 21 female) foxes aged 1-5 years, killed during the rabies control campaign, were examined. Sarcocystis sp. was identified in 62% of the fox intestinal samples examined. There was no sex difference in the rate of invasion. However, the rate of invasion differed significantly between the animals aged one year (47 %), and those aged two (71 %) and 3-5 years (71 %).

In the Baltic countries, the two zoonotic diseases, alveolar echinococcosis (AE) caused by Echinococcus multilocularis, and cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by Echinococcus granulosus, are of increasing public health concern. Observations from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania indicate that the distribution of both parasites is wider in the Baltics than previously expected. In this paper, we review and discuss the available data, regarding both parasitoses in animals and humans, from the Baltic countries and selected adjacent regions. The data are not easily comparable but reveal a worrisome situation as the number of human AE and CE cases is increasing. Despite improvements in diagnostics and treatment, AE has a high morbidity and mortality in the Baltic region. For the control of both zoonoses, monitoring transmission patterns and timely diagnosis in humans as well as the development of local control programs present major challenges. (C) 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.