Search

Objective To determine the cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine and thiafentanil for immobilization of blesbok. Study design Blinded, randomized, two-way crossover study. Animals A group of eight adult female blesbok. Methods Animals were immobilized twice, once with etorphine (0.09 mg kg–1) and once with thiafentanil (0.09 mg kg–1) administered intramuscularly by dart. Immobilization quality was assessed and analysed by Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Time to final recumbency was compared between treatments by one-way analysis of variance. Cardiopulmonary effects including respiratory rate (ƒR), arterial blood pressures and arterial blood gases were measured. A linear mixed model was used to assess the effects of drug treatments over the 40 minute immobilization period. Significant differences between treatments, for treatment over time as well as effect of treatment by time on the variables, were analysed (p Results There was no statistical difference (p = 0.186) between treatments for time to recumbency. The mean ƒR was lower with etorphine (14 breaths minute–1) than with thiafentanil (19 breaths minute–1, p = 0.034). The overall mean PaCO2 was higher with etorphine [45 mmHg (6.0 kPa)] than with thiafentanil [41 mmHg (5.5 kPa), p = 0.025], whereas PaO2 was lower with etorphine [53 mmHg (7.1 kPa)] than with thiafentanil [64 mmHg (8.5 kPa), p Conclusions Both drugs caused clinically relevant hypoxaemia; however, it was less severe with thiafentanil. Ventilation was adequate. Hypertension was greater and immobilization scores were lower with thiafentanil.

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was used to distinguish between game meat from six different species, i.e. three medium-sized (impala, blesbok and springbok) and three large-sized (eland, black wildebeest and zebra) that were harvested (collected and slaughtered) from different farms across South Africa. Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle steaks were removed and scanned with a handheld NIR spectrophotometer in the spectral range of 908 to 1700 nm. Spectra were treated with two different pre-processing combinations: (1) smoothing, standard normal variate and de-trending (SNV-Detrend), and (2) SNV-Detrend and Savitzky-Golay 2nd derivative. Data were explored with principal component analysis (PCA) and classified with linear discriminant analysis (LDA), soft independent modelling by class analogy (SIMCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). For discrimination and classification, models were developed within each of the medium- and large-sized groups. LDA resulted in good classification accuracies ranging from 68 to 100%, irrespective of the pre-processing combination used. PLS-DA performed well (classification accuracies ranging from 70 to 96%) when spectra were treated with SNV-Detrend and Savitzky-Golay 2nd derivative. The prediction results obtained with SIMCA, pre-processed with smoothing and SNV-Detrend, ranged from 67% (springbok) to 100% (impala and eland). Although accurate models were obtained, they could still be improved by extending the sample set with meat samples from each species to cover variation in terms of season, geographical location, age and sex.

Objective This study aimed to determine whether the R-enantiomer of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (R-8-OH-DPAT) alleviates respiratory depression in antelope species immobilised with etorphine. The experiment also aimed to establish the most clinically effective dose of this serotonin 5- HT 1A receptor agonist. Animals Six female blesbok and six female impala. Study design Each animal was subjected to four immobilisation treatments in a prospective four-way crossover design. One control treatment consisting of only etorphine at 0.09 mg kg -1 and three treatments consisting of etorphine at 0.09 mg kg -1 combined with 0.005, 0.02 and 0.07 mg kg -1 of R-8-OH-DPAT, respectively. Induction, quality of immobilisation and recovery were monitored in each treatment. Physiological variables including heart rate, respiratory rate, arterial blood pressure and blood gases, were measured over a time period of 35 minutes during immobilisation. A linear mixed model was used to assess the effects of treatments over the period of recumbence. Results R-8-OH-DPAT did not influence induction, immobilisation or recovery scores. Respiratory rate in blesbok was increased in the medium and high dosage R-8-OH-DPAT treatment group. However, this increased respiratory rate did not translate into improvements of arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO 2 ) values in the blesbok. The medium and higher dosages of R-8-OH-DPAT in impala led to an improved PaO 2 as well as to decreased opioid-induced tachycardia during the first ten minutes of immobilisation. Conclusions and clinical relevance Previous reports indicated that the racemic mixture of 8-OH-DPAT injected intravenously had a positive effect on blood gas values in etorphine-treated hypoxaemic goats. In this experiment, similar effects could be seen in impala at the higher dosage rates of R-8-OH-DPAT. However, failure to achieve an improvement of blood gas values in blesbok was an unexpected result. It could be speculated that the dosage, species-specific differences of serotonin receptors or the use of the R-enantiomer of 8-OH-DPAT might play a role.

Drying kinetics and changes in proximate composition, pH, salt content, water activity (aw) and lipid oxidation through processing of salami made using five different game meat species were evaluated and compared to pork. Eight batches of salami from each species were made and sampled for analysis throughout processing. Processing time was a significant factor on all measured attributes whilst species affected (P ≤ .05) pH and moisture but not drying kinetics. Black wildebeest meat exhibited higher (P ≤ .05) pH than pork and other game meat (6.30 vs 5.63–5.80), which translated to higher (P ≤ .05) salami pH throughout and at the end of processing (5.77). Final pH of all other salami ranged from 5.01 to 5.28, aw ranged from 0.88 to 0.92. TBARS remained lower than 1 mg MDA equivalent/kg. The study suggests that salami from these game species, excluding black wildebeest, can be produced using the same processing parameters as conventional pork salami and obtaining similar physico-chemical attributes.

Chemical immobilisation is essential for veterinarians to perform medical procedures in wild African ungulates. Potent opioids combined with neuroleptic drugs are most often used for this purpose. The present study aimed at comparing the quality of immobilisation and effects on physiological variables between a high (high etorphine-azaperone [HE]: 0.09 mg kg-1) and low etorphine dose (low etorphine-azaperone [LE]: 0.05 mg kg-1), both combined with azaperone (0.35 mg kg-1), in 12 adult female boma-acclimatised blesbok. It was hypothesised that a reduction in etorphine's dose in combination with azaperone would result in less cardiorespiratory impairment but likely worsen the quality of immobilisation. Both treatments resulted in rapid induction and recovery times. Overall inter-treatment differences occurred in pulse rate (HE and LE: 52 ± 15 and 44 ± 11 beats minute-1, p < 0.0001), respiratory rate (HE and LE: 15 ± 4 and 17 ± 4 breaths minute-1, p < 0.006), partial pressure of exhaled carbon dioxide (HE and LE: 62.0 ± 5.0 and 60.0 ± 5.6 millimetre of mercury [mmHg], p < 0.028) and arterial carbon dioxide (HE and LE: 58.0 ± 4.5 and 55.0 ± 3.9 mmHg, p < 0.002). Both HE and LE led to bradycardia, hypertension and marked hypoxia to a similar extent. Furthermore, quality of induction, immobilisation and recovery were similar in both treatments. The role of azaperone in the development of cardiorespiratory compromise and gas exchange impairment that occurred when these combinations were used is still unclear. Further studies are recommended to elucidate drug- and dose-specific physiological effects in immobilised antelope.

Potent opioids are known to cause negative alterations to the physiology of immobilised antelope. How these effects differ between species has not been studied. This study aimed to compare time to recumbence and effects of opioid-based immobilisation on the physiology of impala (Aepyceros melampus) and blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). Eight animals of each species were immobilised, with 0.09 mg/kg etorphine and 0.09 mg/kg thiafentanil respectively, in a randomised two-way cross-over study. Variables measured and analysed by means of a linear mixed model included time to recumbence, heart rate, respiratory rate, arterial blood pressure, blood gases, lactate and glucose. In blesbok, mean time to recumbence was not significantly different with either drug (2.5 minutes and 2.2 min, respectively), but in impala thiafentanil achieved a shorter time to recumbence (2.0 min) than etorphine (3.9 min). Mean heart rates of immobilised impala were within reported physiological limits, but lower in immobilised blesbok when both opioids were used (35 beats/min to 44 beats/min vs. 104 ± 1.4 beats/min resting heart rate). Impala developed severe respiratory compromise and hypoxaemia from both opioids (overall mean PaO2 values ranged from 38 mmHg to 59 mmHg over 30 min). In contrast, blesbok developed only moderate compromise. Therefore, significantly different species-specific physiological responses to potent opioid drugs exist in blesbok and impala. Given that these different responses are clinically relevant, extrapolation of immobilising drug effects from one species of African ungulate to another is not recommended.

In this study, NIR hyperspectral imaging and multivariate data analysis were used to classify game meat species, namely Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and Blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). The animals (6 blesbok and 6 springbok) were harvested in Witsand and Elandsberg in the Western Cape, South Africa. Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscles were excised and left to bloom for ca. 30 minutes prior to imaging. Thereafter, the moisture was wiped off the surface to avoid specular reflectance. NIR hyperspectral images were collected with a linescan system (HySpex SWIR-384) in the spectral range 950 – 2500 nm. Data were pre-processed with Savitzky-Golay smoothing and derivatives (2nd order polynomial, 2nd derivative, 15 point smoothing) and noisy regions in the spectra, specifically between 1884.9nm -2500nm, were removed. In addition, two data analysis methods, the pixel and object wise approach, were evaluated. In the object wise approach the muscles were segmented into ca 2 cm ROI’s, of which the mean was computed. For both pixel and object wise approaches, there was no distinct separation of the species with PCA. When PLS-DA models were developed, the object wise approach proved to be superior with a classification accuracy of 96%, whereas that of the pixel wise approach was 62%. It is evident that NIR hyperspectral imaging can be used to distinguish between the two species, with the object wise being the optimal option of the two approaches, as it represents the mean spectra of each object.

Objective The fixed-dose combination of butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (BAM; 30, 12 and 12 mg mL−1, respectively) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone–atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). Study design Prospective, clinical trial. Animals Sixteen blesbok (four males and twelve females), weighing 52.5−71.0 kg, were immobilized in South Africa. Methods The total dose of BAM ranged from 0.5 to 0.7 mL for females and 0.7 to 0.9 mL for males. In seven animals chosen randomly, 8000 units of hyaluronidase was added to the dart. Physiologic variables were recorded every 5 minutes beginning at 10−20 minutes after darting. Arterial blood samples were collected three times at 20, 30 and 40 minutes after darting for analysis of blood acid-base status. Results The mean administered doses of BAM were as follows: butorphanol (0.34 ± 0.08 mg kg−1), azaperone (0.14 ± 0.03 mg kg−1) and medetomidine (0.14 ± 0.03 mg kg−1). The inductions were calm and smooth. The mean induction time was 9.6 ± 3.2 minutes with just BAM and 5.1 ± 0.8 minutes with BAM and hyaluronidase combination. Heart rate (45 ± 6 beats minute−1) and respiratory frequency (38 ± 4 breaths minute−1) were stable throughout immobilization. The mean arterial blood pressure for all animals was stable but elevated (137 ± 7 mmHg). Rectal temperature slightly increased over time but remained within an acceptable range. The recovery time after administering naltrexone and atipamezole was 4.8 ± 0.7 minutes. Conclusion and clinical relevance The BAM combination proved to be reliable and effective in blesbok.

Monitoring animal populations often relies on direct visual observations. This is problematic at night when spotlighting can cause misidentification and inaccurate counting. Using infrared thermography (IRT) could potentially solve these difficulties, but reliability is uncertain. Here, we test the accuracy of 24 observers, differing in experience and skill levels, in identifying antelope species from IRT photographs taken in the African bush. Overall, 38% of identifications were correct to species level and 50% were correct to genus/subfamily level. Identification accuracy depended on the confidence and skill of the observer (positive relationship), the number of animals present (positive relationship), and the distance at which it was taken (negative relationship). Species with characteristic features, horn morphology, or posture were identified with ~80% accuracy (e.g. wildebeest, kudu, impala) while others were considerably lower (e.g. blesbok, waterbuck). Experience significantly improved identification accuracy but the effect was not consistent between species and even experienced observers struggled to identify red hartebeest, reedbuck and eland. Counting inaccuracies were commonplace, particularly when group size was large. We conclude that thermal characteristics of species and experience of observers can pose challenges for African field ecologists but IRT can be used to identify and count some species accurately, especially

Objective To evaluate the immobilization quality and cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine alone compared with etorphine–azaperone in blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). Study design Blinded, randomized, crossover design. Animals A total of 12 boma-habituated female blesbok weighing [mean ± standard deviation (SD)] 57.5 ± 2.5 kg. Methods Each animal was administered etorphine (0.09 mg kg–1) or etorphine–azaperone (0.09 mg kg–1; 0.35 mg kg–1) intramuscularly with 1-week intertreatment washout period. Time to first sign of altered state of consciousness and immobilization time were recorded. Physiological variables were recorded, arterial blood samples were taken during a 40-minute immobilization period, and naltrexone (mean ± SD: 1.83 ± 0.06 mg kg–1) was intravenously administered. Recovery times were documented, and induction, immobilization and recovery were subjectively scored. Statistical analyses were performed; p Results No difference was observed in time to first sign, immobilization time and recovery times between treatments. Time to head up was longer with etorphine–azaperone (0.5 ± 0.2 versus 0.4 ± 0.2 minutes; p = 0.015). Etorphine caused higher arterial blood pressures (mean: 131 ± 17 versus 110 ± 11 mmHg, p Conclusions and clinical relevance Both treatments provided satisfactory immobilization of blesbok; however, in addition to a deeper level of immobilization, etorphine–azaperone caused greater ventilatory impairment. Oxygen supplementation is recommended with both treatments.

The increasing demand for meat from alternative species, such as blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi), gives rise to the need for characterizing the quality attributes of fresh meat from these species. While muscle-specific colour stability has been extensively studied in conventional livestock, limited information is available on this phenomenon in game meat. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the colour stability of three major blesbok muscles, infraspinatus (IS), longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and biceps femoris (BF). Instrumental colour, surface myoglobin redox forms, and biochemical attributes influencing colour stability were measured on 2.5-cm steaks from blesbok IS, LTL, and BF during refrigerated storage under aerobic conditions for eight days. IS steaks consistently demonstrated higher (P ≤ 0.05) redness, colour stability, and chroma than the LTL and BF steaks. These findings suggested that blesbok IS muscle is more colour-stable than its LTL and BF counterparts. The game industry may employ muscle-specific strategies to improve marketability of fresh blesbok meat.

A serosurvey was performed to assess exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in some zoo species over time. Sera from 393 zoo animals belonging to 91 species were collected in eight zoos in Spain between 2007 and 2019. Additionally, 39 of the 393 animals from five of the analyzed zoos were longitudinally sampled during the same study period. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 165 (42.0 %; CI95 %: 37.1-46.9) of 393 animals by the modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off = 25). Antibody titers of 25, 50, 100 and ≥500 were found in 25 (15.2 %), 65 (39.4 %), 26 (15.8 %), and 49 (29.7 %) of the seropositive animals, respectively. Feeding habits (carnivorous species) was a risk factor (OR = 5.6; P < 0.001; CI95 %: 3.8-9.0) potentially associated with T. gondii exposure. Eighteen (46.2 %) of the 39 animals longitudinally sampled were always seropositive and five animals (12.8 %) (two spotted hyaena [Crocuta crocuta], one blesbok [Damaliscus pygargus], one white rhinoceros [Ceratotherium simum] and one mouflon [Ovis aries musimon]) seroconverted during the study period. Our results evince a wide circulation of T. gondii in zoos in Spain, including wild felids. Zoo animals can be useful sentinel species to monitor T. gondii circulation in epidemiological scenarios with a close human-wildlife interface. Control measures should be implemented in zoo parks to minimize the risk of exposure of zoo species to T. gondii.

Sweetpotato is grown in diverse environments of South Africa by both commercial and subsistence farmers. The aim of the present study was to assess the stability, agronomic performance and palatability of new ARC cultivars bred for the informal market, and to make cultivar recommendations. Eight new cultivars with cream to yellow-orange flesh were evaluated in multi-environment trials using a randomised complete block design in six provinces. Data were recorded on root yield, percentage dry mass, palatability and vine vigour. An additive main effects and multiplicative interactions model was employed for data analysis. New cultivars with high potential were Ndou, Letlhabula and Monate, with root yields similar to or slightly lower than the commercial control cultivar Blesbok. Ndou and Monate had vigorous vine growth, high dry mass and good end-user acceptability and offered the best combination of important traits for the informal market. Letlhabula seemed more suitable for the commercial market owing to ...

The study objective was to investigate the addition of rooibos extract (RBE) in blesbok and springbok droewors, a dried meat sausage with added beef fat, to improve oxidative stability. After a storage period of two weeks, inhibition of lipid oxidation showed to be successful with RBE 1.0% addition. No differences ( P > 0.05) in heme-iron results within the raw, dried or stored samples were seen. However, a positive correlation between lipid oxidation and heme-iron was noted. The fatty acid profiles suggest that after drying the decrease in polyunsaturated fats could be linked to the increase in lipid oxidation. Flavor and aroma differences between the varying RBE concentrations in the droewors were detected by the sensory panel. A droewors formulation using a combination of game meat and beef fat with the addition of RBE at a 1.0% concentration could be a successful addition to the processed meat market.

This study quantified the impact of season on fatty acid profiles of male and female blesbok muscles (longissimus thoracis et lumborum, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, infraspinatus, and supraspinatus). Eight mature blesbok were harvested per season (winter and spring). Gender and muscle type influenced (p

The aim of this study was to investigate the microbial population and their prevalence on blesbok meat after slaughter and dressing of the carcasses. Animals were harvested from the University of Stellenbosch's experimental farm in the Western Cape, South Africa. Eight animals were shot and bled out in the field where after they were transported to the slaughter facility on the farm where dressing of the carcasses was done and two meat samples were taken. Surface swabs of the meat samples were used for analyses. All samples were tested for the presence of total coliforms, aerobic count, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Total aerobic count was in the range of 1.6-5.1 log cfu/cm(2) whereas all total coliform count was above 5 log cfu/cm(2). E. coli counts ranged from 0-2.19 log cfu/cm(2) and lastly S. aureus were all considerably low except for blesbok seven that was excessively contaminated. It was therefore evident to see that cross contamination took place during the slaughter process including during removal of the hide.

Skeletal muscle fibre type, cross-sectional area (CSA), maximum enzyme capacities and fibre oxidative capacities were investigated in three southern African antelope species. Muscle samples from blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi), mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) were collected post mortem from the Vastus lateralis and analysed for myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform content, citrate synthase (CS), 3-hydroxyacyl Co A dehydrogenase (3-HAD), phosphofructokinase (PFK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) activities. Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry were performed to determine relative fibre oxidative capacity, fibre type and cross-sectional area (CSA). Type IIX fibres were the most abundant fibre type in all three species, ranging from 43 to 57%. Kudu had less type IIX fibres than mountain reedbuck and blesbok (P

The study assesses the possibility to estimate the potential fertility of post-thawed antelope (Antidorcas marsupialis), impala (Aepyceros melampus) and blesbok (Damaliscus dorcus phillipsi) epididymal sperm using homologous and heterologous IVF and the functioning of cattle IVF system to produce antelope embryos. Cauda epididymal sperm were collected from the antelope and cryopreserved under field conditions. In vitro matured domestic cow, blesbok and springbok oocytes were co-incubated in modified-Tyrode Lactate (m-TL) IVF media with springbok, impala and blesbok sperm for heterologous IVF and springbok and blesbok sperm for homologous IVF. A group of presumptive zygotes from each treatment were examined for sperm penetration and male pronuclear formation after 18 h and the remainder were cultured and evaluated for embryo cleavage 22 h later. The study shows that Modified Tyrode Lactate in vitro fertilization media supports survivability, capacitation and hyperactivation of springbok, impala and blesbok sperm. Springbok, impala and blesbok post-thawed epididymal spermatozoa are capable of fertilizing domestic cow oocytes under conditions that support domestic cattle IVF. Penetration, male pronuclear formation and embryo cleavage did not differ (p > 0.05) between cow oocytes inseminated with sperm from springbok, impala or blesbok however these parameters were higher (p < 0.05) for oocytes inseminated with bull sperm. Modified Tyrode Lactate IVF media supported homologous fertilization and embryo development in springbok and blesbok however did not support blastocyst development. These findings suggest that cattle provide a useful model for evaluating springbok, impala and blesbok post-thawed cauda epididymal sperm functionality. Domestic cattle embryo culture conditions need to be modified to promote blastosyst development in these antelope species. Such research provides an important tool in assisted reproductive technology development when high biological value material is utilized for wild species recovery plans.

BACKGROUND: The harvesting and consumption of game meat in South Africa is not limited to season. The study was thus aimed at investigating the seasonal impact on the chemical composition (moisture, protein, fat and ash contents) of male and female blesbok muscles (N = 32; longissimus dorsi, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, infraspinatus and supraspinatus). RESULTS: A significant interaction (P ≤ 0.01) existed between season and muscle type. Selected muscles had higher (P ≤ 0.01) mean protein contents with a higher plane of nutrition (spring of 2009), while longissimus dorsi muscles had the highest (P ≤ 0.01) mean intramuscular fat content (33.52 g kg). A strong negative correlation (r = -0.82; P ≤ 0.01) existed between the muscles' moisture and protein content. The chemical composition of blesbok semimembranosus muscles was significantly different between seasons, while the other muscles were least affected by seasonal differences in blesbok plane of nutrition and activity levels. CONCLUSION: The seasonal and muscle differences were statistically significant, but numerically small. It is therefore debatable whether this is of biological relevance relating to human nutrition.

Human-mediated hybridization poses a serious threat to the genetic integrity of threatened inter-fertile species or subspecies, such as the bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus) and blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) in South Africa. The identification of pure and admixed populations is key to sound biodiversity conservation management and practices. Where identification based on morphometric measurements are complex, molecular analysis can provide a tool to identify hybrids or introgression in populations. This study provides the first molecular analyses on pure bontebok and blesbok as well as putative hybrid populations and samples of unknown purity. Analysis of a panel of 13 microsatellite markers by applying a Bayesian model-based clustering programme provided evidence of clear partitioning between the two subspecies. Hybridization was detected in 33 % (40 of 121) of the samples with unknown purity. Currently, bontebok is listed as protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and is listed as endangered under the United States of America’s Endangered Species Act. Our research found that the microsatellite markers used in this study could accurately identify pure and hybrid animals and can be used as a tool to conserve the genetic integrity of both subspecies.

Damaliscus pygargus is an endemic species in South Africa belonging to the contemporary antelope tribe Alcelaphine. The species has been subdivided into two subspecies based upon phenotypic differences and historical geographic isolation. We found D. p. pygargus (bontebok) and D. p. phillipsi (blesbok) to be significantly differentiated based on microsatellite and mtDNA control region markers. Bontebok genetic diversity was depauperate with just one mtDNA haplotype, not found in blesbok populations, and reduced heterozygosity and polymorphism at microsatellite DNA loci compared to the blesbok. Erosion of molecular genetic variation in bontebok may have been due to anthropogenic impact causing isolation and reduced population size. Our data based on 34 bontebok and 42 blesbok indicate that the classification of alpha taxonomy should be reconsidered in this genus (in support of earlier similar suggestions), and that careful management should seek to avoid hybridization and retain the remaining diversity in the bontebok.

Anthropogenic hybridization is an increasing conservation threat worldwide. In South Africa, recent hybridization is threatening numerous ungulate taxa. For example, the genetic integrity of the near‐threatened bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus) is threatened by hybridization with the more common blesbok (D. p. phillipsi). Identifying nonadmixed parental and admixed individuals is challenging based on the morphological traits alone; however, molecular analyses may allow for accurate detection. Once hybrids are identified, population simulation software may assist in determining the optimal conservation management strategy, although quantitative evaluation of hybrid management is rarely performed. In this study, our objectives were to describe species‐wide and localized rates of hybridization in nearly 3,000 individuals based on 12 microsatellite loci, quantify the accuracy of hybrid assignment software (STRUCTURE and NEWHYBRIDS), and determine an optimal threshold of bontebok ancestry for management purposes. According to multiple methods, we identified 2,051 bontebok, 657 hybrids, and 29 blesbok. More than two‐thirds of locations contained at least some hybrid individuals, with populations varying in the degree of introgression. HYBRIDLAB was used to simulate four generations of coexistence between bontebok and blesbok, and to optimize a threshold of ancestry, where most hybrids will be detected and removed, and the fewest nonadmixed bontebok individuals misclassified as hybrids. Overall, a threshold Q‐value (admixture coefficient) of 0.90 would remove 94% of hybrid animals, while a threshold of 0.95 would remove 98% of hybrid animals but also 8% of nonadmixed bontebok. To this end, a threshold of 0.90 was identified as optimal and has since been implemented in formal policy by a provincial nature conservation agency. Due to widespread hybridization, effective conservation plans should be established and enforced to conserve native populations that are genetically unique.

The need for information on the reproductive physiology of different wildlife species is important for ex situ conservation using such methods as in vitro fertilization (IVF). Information on species reproductive physiology and evaluation of sperm quality using accurate, objective, repeatable methods, such as computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) for ex situ conservation has become a priority. The aim of this study was to evaluate motility patterns of antelope epididymal spermatozoa incubated for 4 h under conditions that support bovine IVF using CASA. Cauda epididymal spermatozoa were collected postmortem from testicles of springbok (N=38), impala (N=26), and blesbok (N=42), and cryopreserved in biladyl containing 7% glycerol. Spermatozoa were thawed and incubated in Capacitation media and modified Tyrode lactate (m-TL) IVF media using a protocol developed for domestic cattle IVF. The study evaluates 14 motility characteristics of the antelope epididymal sperm at six time points using CASA. Species differences in CASA parameters evaluated under similar conditions were observed. Several differences in individual motility parameters at the time points were reported for each species. Epididymal sperm of the different antelope species responded differently to capacitation agents exhibiting variations in hyperactivity. Motility parameters that describe the vigor of sperm decreased over time. Spermatozoa from the different antelope species have different physiological and optimal capacitation and in vitro culture requirements. The interspecies comparison of kinematic parameters of spermatozoa between the antelopes over several end points contributes to comparative sperm physiology which forms an important step in the development of species specific assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs) for ex situ conservation of these species.

Cryopreservation of antelope epididymal spermatozoa could play a vital role in future breeding by developing a successful protocol for cryo-conserving them. The aim of this study was to characterize morphology, motility rates and longevity of epididymal spermatozoa from springbok, impala and blesbok. Cauda epididymal spermatozoa were collected post-mortem from both testicles of free-ranging springbok (n=18), impala (n=21) and blesbok (n=21), and divided into two groups (pre- and post-cryopreservation). Spermatozoa were cryopreserved in Biladyl supplemented with 20% egg yolk and 7% glycerol under field conditions. Pre-freeze and post-thaw sperm quality was evaluated. The longevity of thawed spermatozoa was evaluated under culture conditions that support domestic cattle in vitro fertilization. There was a significant difference between pre-freeze and post-thaw sperm motility index (SMI) (p0.05), plasma membrane integrity (p0.05) and acrosome integrity (p0.05) for all species. Post-thaw SMI and plasma membrane integrity were comparable between species (p0.05). The effects of cryopreservation on sperm cell morphology differed between species and between specific abnormal morphology. Blesbok had the least abnormalities in post-thaw spermatozoa. Cryopreservation substantially reduced the survivability and motility rates of antelope species. Blesbok spermatozoa tolerated cryopreservation and thawing process better than impala and springbok. The antelope cauda epididymal sperm maintained viability and acrosome integrity for at least 4h following incubation under conditions that support domestic cattle in vitro fertilization (IVF) with a decline in longevity over time across species however; species responded differently over time in terms of plasma membrane integrity and acrosome integrity. The antelope species may have different in vitro culture requirements, indicating differences in sperm physiology between the species. This research could contribute species-specific protocol development for IVF thus promoting ex-situ conservation strategies of African antelope species in South Africa.

We determined the effect of region and gender on the physical (pH45min, temperature45min, pH24h, temperature24h, L*-value, a*-value, b*-value, hue-angle, chroma, drip loss, cooking loss and Warner-Bratzler shear force value) and sensory properties (aroma, flavour, initial juiciness, sustained juiciness, first bite and residue) of M. longissimus dorsi from blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi). Meat from a total of 65 blesbok (males and females) from four regions (Maria Moroka, Gariep, Qua-Qua and Rustfontein in the Free State Province, South Africa) were evaluated. No gender effects were found in any of the physical characteristics. However, region influenced (P < 0.05) pH45min (mean: 6.17), pH24h (mean: 5.49), temperature24h (mean: 7.39°C), a*-values (mean: 12.90), chroma (mean: 15.73) and cooking loss (mean: 34.63%). Both region and gender had a significant effect on first bite and residue, whereas sustained juiciness was only influenced (P < 0.05) by region. Blesbok presented a meat that would be accep...

The mating behaviour of tsessebe was observed in the Kruger National Park. A description of the typical sequences in the mating behaviour is given which includes the "nose and neck stretch" posture of the courtship display of the bull when approaching a cow, the role of olfactory stimuli which are derived from either smelling at the base of a cow's tail or from the ground where a cow had been laying down or urinated, the spontaneous ejaculation of the bull in response to such stimuli and mounting. Distinction is drawn between the dominance display ("nose forward-upward posture") and the courtship display of the tsessebe bull. Comparative notes on the mating behaviour of congeneric species, i.e. the blesbok (D. dorcas phillipsi), bontebok (D. d. dorcas) and topi (D. lunatus korrigum) are given. Many similarities are evident despite a number of dissimilarities. Attention is also paid to confliction interpretations of the courtship displays in the different species.

Zusammenfassung Die Konzentration einiger Spurenelemente in der Leber vom Blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) und vom Bontebok (Damaliscus dorcas dorcas) bestimmt durch Neutronen-Aktivierungs-Analyse In der Arbeit werden die Gehalte an einigen essentiellen Spurenelementen im Lebergewebe von Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi und Damaliscus dorcas dorcas angegeben. Sie wurden mit Hilfe der Neutronen-Aktivierungs-Analyse oder der High-resolution Gammaspektrometrie bestimmt. Beide Methoden werden genau beschrieben und die geographischen Unterschiede zwischen den Tierpopulationen hervorgehoben.

The variation of daily rhythms were analysed in relation to environmental factors. Activity phases were determined for Przewalski horses (Equus ferus przewalskii), feral domestic horses (Equus caballus), and mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon) in Europe under semi-natural conditions by storage telemetry (ETHOSYS®) and compared to samples from plain zebra (Equus burchelli) and blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) in South African reserves. The activity phase of Przewalski horses was about 16 h in the afternoon but delayed during the summer months; feral horses showed similar phases with lower variation. Mouflons had phases of about 14 h, delayed until 20 h during summer. Zebra showed activity phases after midnight, in the morning, afternoon, and in the evening, but never around noon. The activity phases of blesbok were found at all times of the day. The high variation under African conditions is discussed as resulting from masking by temperature, drought and predation pressure.

In gregarious species, rates of foraging behaviour are often positively related to group size while there is simultaneously a negative relation between group size and vigilance. Although the mechanisms underlying these behavioural patterns are still incompletely understood, decreased predation risk or increased foraging competition in larger groups have been put forward as two possible explanations. Since most empirical tests of these two hypotheses have used manipulative experiments, they have mainly been limited to small-bodied species or to animals in captivity. Here we suggest a time-budget model to test for the causal effects of predation risk and foraging competition that does not necessitate manipulative approaches. We used this method on two species of gregarious antelope, blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) and impala (Aepyceros melampus). We suggest that increased foraging competition in large groups drives the negative relationship between vigilance and group size in these species....

The aim of this study was to describe the chemical composition of blesbok meat as influenced by region and sex. M. longissimus dorsi from both sexes of adult blesbok from different regions (Maria Moroka, Gariep, Qua-Qua and Rustfontein in the Free State Province, South Africa) were measured for chemical composition, cholesterol, fatty acid, amino acid and mineral contents. Sex had no influence on any of the chemical components evaluated. Region had an effect (P

A database of approximately 9000 trophy measurements of ungulates hunted in South Africa between 1993 and 2001 was analysed in order to detect monotonic trends in trophy quality over time. In a species-specific analysis, declines were found for impala (Aepyceros melampus), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula). In an area-specific analysis, a decline was found in the Northern Cape Province. Conversely, blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi ) (species-specific) and the Free State Province (area-specific) showed increases in trophy quality. As an economic indicator, the monitoring of trophy quality allows agencies to potentially evaluate the quality and sustainability of their ‘huntable’ ungulate resources.

An improved understanding of reproductive physiology in nondomestic bovids is necessary for the development of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) for use in the conservation of endangered bovids. In this study, epididymal spermatozoa were recovered from blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) following organized culls in South Africa. Our objectives were 1) to characterize the quality of epididymal spermatozoa, 2) evaluate the effectiveness of a cryopreservation protocol, and 3) compare postthaw sperm longevity (motility, viability, and acrosomal integrity) and functionality in two culture media with two capacitation reagents (caffeine and heparin). Following recovery, spermatozoa were diluted in EQ extender, slow-cooled, and frozen in the presence of 5% glycerol. Thawed spermatozoa were separated on a Percoll gradient and diluted in fertilization media (SOF for fertilization [SOF...

The aims of the study were to determine the body composition of springbok, blesbok and impala and to compare the chemical composition (moisture, protein, fat, ash) of the 9th–10th–11th rib cut samples with that of the carcass. The proportional distribution of protein in the carcass, external (heart, feet and skin) and internal offal (heart, heart fat, liver, lungs and trachea, kidneys, kidney fat, spleen, testis, gastro intestinal tract (GIT) fat, diaphragm, stomachs and intestines) was also determined. The physical composition of all three game species followed the same pattern when expressed as a percentage of empty body weight. Impala had a higher (P

The essential amino acid (EAA) profile of the duodenal digesta and whole empty body of springbok ( Antidorcas marsupialis ), blesbok ( Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi ) and impala ( Aepyceros melampus ) were investigated. Significant differences were found between the whole empty body EAA composition of the three game species, whether protein quantity was taken into account (g AA/100 g crude protein (CP)) or not (expressed as % of lysine). The chemical scores indicated that the four most limiting amino acids (three for impala) in the duodenal digesta for whole empty body growth were: arginine, histidine, threonine, methionine for springbok; methionine, arginine, histidine, lysine for blesbok and methionine, histidine, arginine for impala. Excess levels of amino acids tends to be present in the duodenal digesta of blesbok (isoleucine) and impala (lysine, valine, leucine, threonine, isoleucine, phenylalanine). A similar trend was found in the EAA:Lysine ratios of the whole empty body for the three game species.

Investigaltions to determine the effect of sample storage on the concentration of copper in liver tissue and on the activity of erythrocyte superoxide dismutase were undertaken in preparation for a study of blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) that were suspected to be suffering from copper deficiency. Two liver samples were collected from each of 20 culled blesbok in a manner that simulated the collection of biopsies from the live animal. These samples were stored either in 10% formalin or frozen at -20 degrees C until analysed 4 1/2 months later. The effect of different methods of sample storage on superoxide dismutase activity was determined. Erythrocytes collected from 3 Jersey cows and 5 culled blesbok were washed and divided into 0.5 ml portions, stored at room temperature (approximately 20 degrees C), in a refrigerator (4 degrees C), frozen at -20 degrees C in a freezer, and in liquid nitrogen (-200 degrees C). An analysis of superoxide dismutase activity was undertaken using a commercial assay kit at intervals of 2-4 days until the levels of activity had fallen significantly. The copper concentration in formalin-preserved liver samples was significantly lower than that measured in frozen liver tissue apparently as a result of leaching. The activity of superoxide dismutase in cattle blood was unchanged for 4 days at room temperature but fell appreciably after 2 days at 4 degrees C and -20 degrees C. Enzyme activity remained unchanged for 200 days in erythrocytes stored in liquid nitrogen. Superoxide dismutase activity levels in healthy blesbok were considerably lower than those measured in Jersey cows and remained unaffected for up to 6 days in samples stored at 4 degrees C and 20 degrees C. The level of activity fell significantly thereafter. Samples stored in liquid nitrogen were unchanged after 40 days.

Eight microsatellite markers were developed via pyrosequencing for the blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). These microsatellite loci and microsatellite loci from two cross species markers displayed two to four alleles with an expected heterozygosity range between 0.2899 and 0.6268 and an observed heterozygosity between 0.2083 and 0.6667. The high level of polymorphisms observed in the microsatellite markers indicates that they can be used to strongly improve our knowledge of the genetic structure and relatedness of these animals.

On April, 26th 2009 after 25 years, a female melanistic springbok was born at Hanover Zoo. Melanism is seldom seen at the Bovidae , including springboks. A frequent occurrence was observed around Seekoei-River, Murraysburg, South Africa for this species. In the 70 th of last century 10 black springboks had been raised at Hanover Zoo after an import of melanistic animals from Dvur Kralove, Czech Republik. In February 2011 a second melanistic female springbok was born. She is growing up at Hanover Zoo. Both animals have been integrated to the mixed group (springbok, giraffe, zebra and blesbok) without problems.

This study was done to determine whether blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) from the Krugersdorp Game Reserve (KGR) in Gauteng Province, South Africa have higher concentrations of (238)U and higher (206)Pb/(204)Pb and (207)Pb/(204)Pb ratios in their bone ash than blesbok from a nearby control reserve that is not exposed to mine water and has no outcrops of uraniferous rocks. Eight blesbok females from the KGR and seven from the control site, all killed with a brain shot, were used. A Thermo X-series 2 quadrupole ICPMS was used to measure the concentrations of (238)U and lead and a Nu Instruments NuPlasma HR MC-ICP-MS to measure the lead isotope ratios in the tibial ash from each animal. KGR blesbok had higher mean concentrations of (238)U (P = 0.02) and ratios of (206)Pb/(204)Pb and (207)Pb/(204)Pb (P0.00001) than the control blesbok. The probability of rejecting the false null hypothesis of no difference in the (206)Pb/(204)Pb or (207)Pb/(204)Pb ratios between KGR and control reserve animals (the power of the test) was 0.999. The blesbok from the KGR accumulated contaminants from an uraniferous environment. The (206)Pb/(204)Pb and (207)Pb/(204)Pb ratios in tibial ash proved effective in confirming accumulation of contaminants from uraniferous rocks.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II locus DRB was investigated by singlestrand conformation polymorphism analysis (SSCP) and sequence analysis in the endemic South African antelope, Damaliscus pygargus , of which there are two subspecies. Greater polymorphism was found in the blesbok ( D. p. phillipsi ) subspecies ( n = 44; 22 alleles) than in the bontebok ( D. p. pygargus ) subspecies ( n = 45; 6 alleles). Erosion of allelic diversity in bontebok was most likely the result of two severe bottleneck events caused by hunting pressure and parasitic infection. A majority of the polymorphism observed was found within the peptide binding region (PBR) where d N /d S ratios were higher than for the non-PBR region. This, and the apparent trans-species relationship among alleles in a bovid phylogeny, suggest the evolution of diversity by heterosis or frequency-dependent selection.

In addition to the nine compounds identified in the interdigital secretion of the bontebok, Damaliscus dorcas dorcas, in a previous study, 76 compounds belonging to different compound types, were identified in the interdigital secretions of the bontebok and the blesbok, D. d. phillipsi. These compounds include alkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, fatty acids, terpenoids, γ-lactones, an isopropyl ester, long-chain hydroxyesters, 2-substituted pyridines, phenols, steroids, and dimethylsulfone. No qualitative differences were found between secretions from the two sexes or from animals from different habitats. Although no attempt was made to correlate territorial behavior or other behavioral phenomena with the qualitative composition of interdigital secretions from individual animals, available information seems to indicate that quantitative differences probably do not have a major semiochemical function. Only two species of bacteria, Bacillus brevis and Planococcus citreus, were found in the interdigital pouches of male and female members of the two subspecies, regardless of the habitat of the animals. B. brevis synthesized, among other unidentified constituents, (Z)-3-penten-2-ol, 2-hexanone, 2-octanone, 2-nonanone, tetradecanoic acid, pentadecanoic acid, heptadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, (Z)-9-hexadecenoic acid, and isopropyl hexadecanoate in vitro, while P. citreus produced, among others, the γ-lactones dodecan-4-olide and (Z)-6-dodecen-4-olide, which is one of the major constituents of the interdigital secretions of both subspecies. Some components of the interdigital secretions are not present in the interdigital glandular tissue, and the possibility is discused that these compounds could be produced by microbiological activity in the interdigital pouch.

The potential toxicities and cryoprotective properties of glycerol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol and dimethyl sulfoxide were examined for the cryopreservation of epididymal sperm from three species of African antelope: blesbok, impala, and springbok. Glycerol was found to be the least toxic treatment overall when epididymal sperm were incubated at 30–32°C to promote uptake and metabolism of the cryoprotective agents. Nevertheless, post-thaw functional survival, as measured by overall sperm motility, was equally effective using glycerol and ethylene glycol for blesbok and impala sperm. Springbok sperm, on the other hand, survived cryopreservation with the greatest percentage motility post-thawing using dimethyl sulfoxide. The results provide important preliminary data for the development of genetic resource banks for African antelope.

proportion of polymorphic loci (P) was 3.5% (SD = 1.2%), and mean expected average heterozygosity (He) was 0.9% (SD = 0.25%). The populations separated out by genetic distance in two distinct groups, those from the Cape Province and those from the Orange Free State. There were considerable differences in mean body weight between some sites. No correlation could be detected with level of heterozygosity. Body weight appeared rather to be related to liver mineral levels. In particular the ratio between copper and molybdenium appears important with those animals high in copper and low in molybdenium having a higher body weight.

The purpose of the study was to identify plant compositional constituents that influence forage intake. Emphasis was put on the ratio in vitro digestibility of organic matter (IVDOM) :NDF because preliminary work with cattle and a limited number of forages showed the ratio to account for more variation in intake than either IVDOM or NDF alone. The compositional constituents were tested in intake prediction models using local and published data (n = 302) on grass pastures, silages, hays, straws, legumes, grass-legume mixtures, and shrubs ingested by both browsing and grass-eating ruminants (goats, red deer, impala, blesbok, sheep, cattle, and blue wildebeest). In the local experiments, esophageally fistulated and fecal bag-harnessed animals were used to collect representative grazed forage samples from pastures and to determine OM excreted, respectively. Forage intake was calculated as OM excreted divided by (1 - IVDOM). Intake of silages, hays, and straws was measured indoors in digestibility trials. Intakes among species were compared after scaling for size by BW raised to the power of.9. Major contributors to the variation in forage intake were ash, hemicellulose, IVDOM :NDF, ADL, and the interaction between DM content and, respectively, ash, N, and ADL. High tannin/phenol concentrations proved limiting to intake. The ratio of IVDOM :NDF accounted for 67% of the variation in forage intake if data for which the other constituents had an effect were omitted, and the equation, OMI, g.kg BW -.9 .d -1 = 70 - 97 e -.975(IVDOM :NDF) , predicted intake across all forages and ruminant species with a S y.x of 5.3 g.kg BW -.9 .d -1 (CV = 15%). The ratio of IVDOM :NDF should be valuable as a relatively inexpensive and rapid method to screen forages and cultivars.

Rumen contents were collected from ten adult female blesbok, five from a mine area with only acid drinking water available and five from a control group consuming normal, non-polluted drinking water. The mean concentration of total protozoa in the normal water group was almost double that in the acid drinking water group, 24.9 x 103 versus 14.7 x 103 . Percent of Entodinium was higher and Diplodinium lower in those animals drinking the acid water. The number of different protozoa species present in animals from both locations was fairly similar. Diplodinium bubalidis, Ostracodinium gracile and Diplodinium consors were present in the highest percentage in the normal water group, 18.8, 18.4 and 17.7 %, respectively. The same three species, plus Entodinium dubardi, were also highest in the acid water group, O. gracile, 21.3 %; D. consors, 12.6 %; E. dubardi, 11.4 % and D. bubalidis, 10.3 %. Seventeen species of protozoa found in this study were a new host record for the blesbok, bringing the total number of species reported from the blesbok to 29.

A small excavation in the arid eastern portion of the Richtersveld National Park has produced evidence of hunter-gatherer occupation during the period ca. 3800 to 3100 years ago. These are the earliest Holocene deposits to have been excavated in Namaqualand. The occupation layers are very ephemeral but include microlithic stone tools and evidence for the hunting of small game. The possible presence of blesbok indicates more grassveld in the vicinity of the site than at present.

Ondersoek is ingestel na die liggaamsorientasie van die blesbok Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi ten opsigte van sonshoek en windrigting in ’n skadulose omgewing in die sentrale Oranje-Vrystaat. Gedurende die vroeë oggend en laat middag wanneer die sonshoogte en omgewingstemperatuur relatief laag is, oriënteer die bokke klaarblyklik lateraal ten opsigte van die son. Namate die temperatuur gedurende die middel van die dag toeneem, toon die bokke ’n neiging om in lyn met die inkomende sonstrale, maar lateraal ten opsigte van die windrigting, te oriënteer

The proximate composition of milk from free ranging blesbok, black wildebeest and blue wildebeest is reported, with detailed analysis of fatty acid composition and protein identification by electrophoresis. The milk of the blesbok, black- and blue wildebeest contain respectively 5.6 +/- 0.3, 4.3 +/- 0.7 and 4.1 +/- 0.9 g/100 g protein, 8.6 +/- 1.1, 5.5 +/- 1.5 and 7.5 +/- 2.1 g/100 g fat, and 4.9 +/- 0.4, 4.1 +/- 0.6 and 5.3 +/- 1.6 g/100 g lactose, and are comparable with ovine milk. The milk contains high levels of saturated fatty acids, respectively, 82.5 +/- 1.7 g/100 g, 75.2 +/- 1.5 g/100 g and 88.2 +/- 1.8 g/100 g milk fat. The medium carbon chain length saturated fatty acids 8:0, 10:0 and 12:0 occur in the highest amounts recorded so far in ruminant milk, and the 14:0 content is the highest recorded in any milk. This suggests a genetic characteristic of the Alcelaphinae that reflects on the specificity and activity of the thioesterase involved in the fatty acid synthesis. By electrophoresis the kappa- and gamma-caseins are separated into multiple bands and the alpha-caseins of the wildebeest into two bands.