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The purpose of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of photographic models' disinfection with ethylene oxide (EtO) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The models were made using POP (Printing Out Paper) methods: salted paper, albumin, collodion, gelatine on Whatman and Fabriano paper artificially infected with bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces sp.) and mould (Aspergillus versicolor, Trichoderma viride). Moreover, the study was supposed to determine the influence of disinfection, including the impact of artificial ageing, on the optical and mechanical properties and pH of the photos and volatile compounds residues after EtO disinfection. The studied microorganisms developed on all tested photographic models after seven days incubation. After disinfection, the microorganisms number reduction amounted to R = 28.27 – 99.01% for AgNPs and R = 100% for EtO. No significant changes were discovered in the pH or the breaking length after ageing and disinfection with AgNPs and EtO for most of the samples. The photographic models - albumin and gelatine after disinfection with EtO and artificial ageing - significantly changed their colour. EtO disinfection results in chemical degradation of the photograph matrix and 2-chloroethanol retention (GLC-MS). EtO was demonstrated to be a more effective photograph disinfection method than AgNPs. AgNPs, in turn, exerts a lower impact on the material properties of the photographic models than EtO.

Historic photographs are a precious cultural heritage. Despite this, there is a lack of studies on the microorganisms that are responsible for their biodeterioration and the underlying mechanisms. The aims of this study were twofold: (a) assess microorganism diversity on historic photographs using, for the first time, high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform; (b) assess the suitability of new methods for mass spectrometric analysis of metabolites on photographs, namely laser ablation-remote-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (LARESI MSI) in selected reaction monitoring mode (SRM), and surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MS) and mass spectrometry imaging (MSI), on silver nanoparticle enhanced target (109AgNPET MS and MSI). Samples of 19th century Polish silver-gelatin photographs on baryta paper (paper substrate with layer of barium sulphate), obtained by the gelatin developing-out process, were studied. These photographs (after incubation in temperature: 25 ± 2 °C, relative humidity: 80%, time: 60 days) were contaminated with culturable bacteria at concentrations between 3.33 × 101 and 1.60 × 102 CFU/cm2 and fungi at concentrations between 1.57 × 105 and 9.93 × 105 CFU/cm2. Twenty-two phyla of bacteria and one of Archaea were identified on the photographs. Bacteria belonging to Proteobacteria predominated (relative abundance 75.25–84.94%); followed by Firmicutes (1.04–12.61%) and Actinobacteria. Fungi identified belonged mainly to Ascomycota. The dominant bacteria identified included: Mesorhizobium, Burkholderia, Delftia, Enhydrobacter, Paenibacillus, Saccharopolyspora and Olsenella. The dominant fungi belonged to the genera Aspergillus, Alternaria, Penicillium, Chaetomium, Talaromyces, Fusarium. These predominant microorganisms may be responsible for the biodeterioration of the photographs. Direct laser/desorption ionization mass spectrometry could be useful for the reconstruction of heavily damaged photographs. The LARESI MSI method was used to detect metabolites of microbial origin (organic acids and mycotoxins) on the surface of historic photographs, which are compatible with the analysis of fungal biodiversity. The biggest advantage of presented methods is that the tested photographs were not modified in any way before the tests which can be carried out in situ.

This study, which was conducted on a farm in central Poland from February till April 2019, aimed to evaluate microbiological threats on cattle breeding premises by counting and identifying the microorganisms (via culturing and high-throughput sequencing), assessing the endotoxin concentrations (via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry [GC-MS]) and analysing the secondary metabolites (including mycotoxins) in the air and sedimented dust (via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry [LC-MS/MS]) in six barns. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the dust to the human epithelial lung cell line was determined by using the MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay. The concentrations of the total dust in the barns ranged from 0.175 to 0.351 mg m–3, with the dominant fraction (67.4–96.4%) displaying an aerodynamic diameter of < 1 µm. The bacterial and fungal concentrations fell between 7.14 × 103 and 3.88 × 104 CFU m–3, and 5.53 × 101 and 1.30 × 104 CFU m–3, respectively. The microbial population measured in the air and that in the settled dust exhibited a linear relationship, with an R2 of 0.8349–0.9471. We detected 172 and 210 bacterial/archaeal genera and 89 and 43 fungal genera in the dust and in the air, respectively. The dust samples were found to contain endotoxin concentrations of 98.98–178.31 nmol LPS mg–1 and a cytotoxicity of 5.66–13.99 mg mL–1. High-throughput sequencing revealed extensive biodiversity in the microorganisms, which hitherto has not been reported for cattle farms. Of the identified species, those belonging to the genera Bacteroides, Corynebacterium, Staphylococcus, Ruminococcus, Aspergillus and Cladosporium potentially affect human and cattle health. Furthermore, the dust contained 113 chemical compounds, including characteristically fungal metabolites, bacterial metabolites, phytoestrogens and antibiotics. Future research should focus on the epidemiology of farmer exposure to the harmful biological agents discovered in this study.

Despite the awareness that work in the sewage treatment plant is associated with biological hazards, they have not been fully recognised so far. The research aims to comprehensively evaluate microbiological and toxicological hazards in the air and settled dust in workstations in a sewage treatment plant. The number of microorganisms in the air and settled dust was determined using the culture method and the diversity was evaluated using high-throughput sequencing. Endotoxin concentration was assessed with GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) while secondary metabolites with LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry). Moreover, cytotoxicity of settled dust against a human lung epithelial lung cell line was determined with the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and UHPLC-Q-ToF-UHRMS (ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometry) analysis was performed to determine the source of cytotoxicity. The total dust concentration in the sewage treatment plant was low and ranged from 0.030 mg m−3 to 0.044 mg m−3. The highest microbiological contamination was observed in sludge thickening building and screenings storage. Three secondary metabolites were detected in the air and sixteen in the settled dust. They were dominated by compounds typical of lichen and plants and Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera mould. The settled dust from the sludge thickening building revealed high cytotoxicity to human lung epithelial cells A-549 (IC50 = 6.98 after 72 h). This effect can be attributed to a biocidal compound—didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC-C10) and seven toxic compounds: 4-hydroxynonenal, carbofuran, cerulenin, diethylphosphate, fenpropimorph, naphthalene and onchidal. The presence of DDAC-C10 and other biocidal substances in the sewage treatment plant environment may bring negative results for biological sewage treatment and the natural environment in the future and contribute to microorganisms’ increasing antibiotics resistance. Therefore, the concentration of antibiotics, pesticides and disinfectants in sewage treatment plant workstations should be monitored.

To date, no method has been developed to assess the distribution of mycotoxins on the surface of grains, or other plant material, and the depth of their penetration into the interior. The Infrared (IR) Laser Ablation-Remote-Electrospray Ionization (LARESI) platform coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer (MS/MS), measuring in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode, was employed for the targeted imaging of selected metabolites of Aspergillus fumigatus, including mycotoxins in biological objects for the first time. This methodology allowed for the localisation of grain metabolites and fungal metabolites of grain infected by this mould. The distribution of metabolites in spelt grain was differentiated: fumigaclavine C, fumitremorgin C, and fumiquinazoline D were located mainly in the embryo, brevianamide F in the seed coat, and fumagillin in the endosperm. The LARESI mass spectrometry imaging method can be used in the future for the metabolomic analysis of mould metabolites in various plants and agricultural products.

The aim of the study was to assess the photocatalytic (decompose staining particles, K/S values, the color differences, CIE L*a*b* color) and antimicrobial properties of textiles modified with TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) confirmed by X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering, SEM-EDX) in visible light conditions. The antimicrobial effectiveness of modified textiles under model conditions has been reported against 5 microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger (AATCC Test Method 100-2004). In real conditions in bathrooms, significant biostatic activity was shown on the surface of the modified towels. The number of microorganisms decreased by 1&ndash, 5 log to the level of 0&ndash, 5 CFU/cm2 in the case of bacteria: Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus, the coli group and E. coli, Pseudomonas. Statistically significant reduction of the total number of bacteria and fungi (by 1 log), and the concentration of gases (NO2, CO2, CO) in the air of bathrooms was determined. The removal or reduction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) concentration (SPME-GC-MS analysis) in the air above the modified towels has also been determined. It was found that the lighting type (natural, artificial), time (1.5 and 7 h/day), air humidity (RH = 36&ndash, 67%) and light intensity (81&ndash, 167 lux) are important for the efficiency of photocatalysis. Textile materials modified with TiO2 and ZnO NPs can be used as self-cleaning towels. They can also help purify air from microorganisms, VOCs and undesirable gases.

The aim of this study was to determine the cause of foxing on 19th century paper using omics methods, including metagenomics via high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform and metabolomics via high-resolution surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SALDI-ToF-MS) imaging using the gold nanoparticle-enhanced target (AuNPET) method. Metabolomic analysis as well as ninhydrin and amido black staining of paper samples showed the presence of proteinaceous substances in areas corresponding to foxing. Products of cellulose biodegradation and microbial metabolites, including yellow-coloured pigments (2-methyl-6-phytylquinol; delta-, gamma- and beta-tocopherols; 3-hydroxy-L-kynurenine) were detected. No difference in metal-ion content was seen between areas with and without foxing. Higher degrees of biodiversity were identified within foxing stains compared to foxing-free areas. Phoma sp. and Cladonia sp. moulds and Gluconobacter and Ralstonia bacteria were predominant in DNA samples obtained from foxing stains. The presence of these microbes has never previously been linked to the phenomenon of foxing. These studies indicate that foxing is a result of a combined effect of microbial action, paper-degradation by microbes, dye production, and chemical changes occurring in paper due to oxidation of cellulose metabolites.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of low temperature plasma (LTP) disinfection and its impact on cotton, linen, and silk. Research included: optimization of LTP parameters (time: 5, 10 min, gases: oxygen, nitrogen, argon and their mixtures); antimicrobial effectiveness of LTP for artificially aged and 19 th -20th century textiles; impact of LTP on the mechanical, optical and structural (SEM, FTIR) textiles properties, and their susceptibility to colonization by microorganisms after LTP. The effectiveness of LTP disinfection was evaluated for the following microorganisms: Streptomyces sp., Bacillus megaterium , Pseudomonans fluorescens (silk), Aspergillus niger , Penicillium funiculosum and Trichoderma viride (cotton and linen). LTP for 10 min with oxygen provided the highest antimicrobial effect, and the number of microorganisms was reduced by 1–4-fold on the logarithmic scale (R = 69.64–99.99%), depending on the strain and textile. LTP increased textiles’ breaking strength. LTP did not caused significant changes in molecular structure of the fiber-forming polymers (cellulose and fibroin). In addition, it also lightened the colour and microdamaged the disinfected textiles. Nevertheless, LTP prevented microorganisms from colonizing the textiles for up to 21 days. Thus, this method can be a suitable alternative to currently used disinfection methods for textile, but should be used carefully for historical textiles.

Surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry on gold nanoparticle enhanced target (AuNPET) technique was used for metabolomic analysis and secondary metabolites detection of two mould strains – Aspergillus versicolor and Penicillium chrysogenum in model conditions on microbiological malt extract agar medium. Results obtained with the use of AuNPET-based mass spectrometry technique were compared with traditional matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) method based on α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA) and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) matrices. Gold nanoparticle enhanced target method enabled effective ionization of microbial cellular extract ingredients without interference from the matrix and also improved calibration of spectra resulting in the detection of much higher amount of characteristic metabolites for studied organisms than MALDI.

The aim of this study was to compare the metabolite profile of the moulds Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Stachybotrys, and Trichoderma under model conditions on MEA (malt extract agar) medium and carton-gypsum board (CGB). This was followed by comparison of the metabolite profile of each particular strain and of a mixed culture of all moulds together. Metabolome analysis was performed using a high-resolution surface assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry based on a gold nanoparticle-enhanced target (AuNPET SALDI-ToF-MS) imaging method. All water extracts tested showed the presence of compounds with molecular weights in the range of 80–2000 m/z (mass-to-charge ratio). On CGB, the results obtained showed the existence of 299–453 peaks with higher intensity and 351–487 peaks with lower intensity compared to the peaks obtained from MEA, depending on the mould species. A distinct change in the metabolite profile under the influence of the growth medium was observed for the mixed culture on the MEA medium. The profile showed ∼200 peaks with higher intensities of metabolites within m/z ranges 80–300 and 450–600; for the culture growing on CGB, the peak intensity was within m/z 300–450, and the number of peaks was 600–750. A new metabolomic methodology allowed the identification of 89 metabolites belonging to 48 metabolomic pathways. Compounds belonging to the citrate cycle and penicillin and cephalosporin biosynthesis pathways were identified on MEA. On CGB moulds, the metabolism changed to steroid, ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis.

Plant biomass processed in a heat and power plant is a source of airborne dust present in the working environment. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of various levels of organic dust content in the filter material on the viability of microorganisms in model conditions, taking into consideration the workplace environment and the physico-chemical as well as the microbiological characteristics of the dust particles. The possibility of a biofilm developing on the reusable filtering facepiece respirators (FFR) in standard use by heat and power plant workers for respiratory tract protection was also investigated. Standard reusable filtering half masks FFP3R and high-performance melt-blown fabrics were used in the study. The biomass dust characteristics were determined using an elementary analyser and a condensation particle counter with an electrostatic classifier. For quantitative analysis of microbiological pollution we used the plate count method with the microorganisms identified either using the API biochemical tests (for bacteria and yeasts) and the taxonomic key (for moulds). Biofilm development on the filtering half masks was assessed using SEM scanning microscopy. The viability of microorganisms (namely Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404; Bacillus subtilis NCAIM 01644) on the filter materials with different dust content was measured using the quantitative method AATCC 100-2004 (2008). In the plant biomass processed at the heat and power plant, a high concentration of bacteria (2.30 × 10 7 CFU g −1 ) and a lower concentration of fungi (4.46 × 10 5 CFU g −1 ) were detected. It was determined to be a good environment for the growth of microorganisms (the carbon to nitrogen ratio was 48:1). The presence of dust and the development of microbiological biofilms on reusable FFR, which is used by the heat and power plant workers for processing the plant biomass in increased humidity conditions, were also confirmed. It was found that the viability of microorganisms on a filter material depends on the kind of microorganism and the dust content on the material. Model research showed that biomass dust in filter materials stimulates the growth of E. coli . Moreover, dust concentration above 21% inhibited the growth of S. aureus and C. albicans but had no significant influence on the growth of B. subtilis and A. niger .

The aim of the study was to determine microbial and metabolites diversity on the samples of damaged mediaeval beeswax seals from the Archdiocese Archive of Gniezno, Poland. We employed high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform and 109Ag SALDI metabolome analysis for the first time to assess biodeterioration of the beeswax seals. Bacteria belonged to the genera Mesorhizobium, Delftia, Ralstonia, Burkholderia, Stenotrophomonas, Olsenella and fungi: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Aureobasidium, Chaetomium, Malassezia, and others microorganisms identified with lower relative abundance may be responsible for the biodeterioration of the seals analysed. Between 112 and 456 chemical compounds were identified on the seal samples. In all samples, fatty acids, mono- di- and triglycerides, hydrocarbons and lipids including glycerophosphocholines, glycerophosphoethanolamines, glycerophosphoserines, glycerophosphoglycerols, glycerophosphates, glycerophosphoinositols, ceramides and sphingomyelins, were detected. Chemical compounds including fatty oxyacids and metabolites of microbiological origin belonged to 20 metabolic pathways can be considered as indicators of biodeterioration of beeswax seals. The usefulness of new available methods - high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform and 109Ag SALDI in historical seals biodeterioration analysis was demonstrated.

This work aims at understanding the effects of various dust-loading conditions and the type of nonwovens used in the construction of FFRs on the safe use of those protective devices in situations of exposure to biological agents. The survival of microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger) in dust-loaded polypropylene nonwovens (melt-blown, spun-bonded, and needle-punched) was experimentally determined using microbiological quantitative method (AATCC TM 100-2004). Scanning electron microscope was used to assess biofilm formation on dust-loaded filtering nonwovens. The impact of the growth of microorganisms on filtration efficiency of nonwovens was analysed based on the measurements of penetration of sodium chloride particles (size range 7&ndash, 270 nm). Results showed that tested microorganisms were able to survive on dust-loaded polypropylene filtering nonwovens. The survival rate of microorganisms and penetration of nanoparticles and submicron particles depended on the type of microorganism, as well as the type and the amount of dust, which indicates that both of those factors should be considered for FFR use recommendations.

Previous studies on nonwovens used for respiratory protective devices (RPDs) were related to equipment intended for short-term use. There is only limited research on the development of biocidal nonwoven fabrics for reusable RPDs that could be used safely in an industrial work environment where there is a risk of microbial growth. Moreover, a new group of biocides with high antimicrobial activity—gemini surfactants, has never been explored for textile’s application in previous studies. The aim of this study was to develop high-efficiency melt-blown nonwovens containing gemini surfactants with time-dependent biocidal activity, and to validate their antimicrobial properties under conditions simulating their use at a plant biomass-processing unit. A set of porous biocidal structures (SPBS) was prepared and applied to the melt-blown polypropylene (PP) nonwovens. The biocidal properties of the structures were triggered by humidity and had different activation rates. Scanning electron microscopy was used to undertake structural studies of the modified PP/SPBS nonwovens. In addition, simulation of plant biomass dust deposition on the nonwovens was performed. The biocidal activity of PP/SPBS nonwovens was evaluated following incubation with Escherichia coli and Aspergillus niger from the American Type Culture Collection, and with Pseudomonas fluorescens and Penicillium chrysogenum isolated from the biomass. PP/SPBS nonwovens exhibited antimicrobial activity to varying levels. Higher antimicrobial activity was noted for bacteria (R = 87.85–97.46%) and lower for moulds (R = 80.11–94.53%).

The aim of the study was to analyze the microbiological biodiversity of human foot skin with respect to factors such as age, gender, frequency of foot washing and physical activity, and to select indicator species to be considered when designing textile materials with antimicrobial properties used for sock and insole production. The experiment was carried out on a group of 40 people. The number of microorganisms was determined using culture-dependent methods. Biodiversity was determined using culture followed by genetic identification based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing (bacteria), ITS region (fungi), or using Illumina next-generation sequencing (in a group of eight selected individuals). The total bacterial number on women&rsquo, s feet was on average 1.0 &times, 106 CFU/cm2, and was not statistically significantly different than that of men&rsquo, s feet (mean 1.2 &times, 105 CFU/cm2). The number of bacteria, in most cases, decreased with age and with increased frequency of physical activity. The number of bacteria increased with diminishing feet-washing frequency, however, statistically significant differences were found between groups. The number of fungi was not significantly different amongst groups. Bacteria belonging to the phyla Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria constituted the main microorganisms of the foot skin. Ascomycota and Basidiomycota predominated amongst the fungi. The presence of specific species varied in groups depending on the factors mentioned above. Two of the species identified were classified as pathogens (Neisseria flavescens and Aspergillus fumigatus). These findings suggest that it is necessary to extend the list of microorganisms tested on textiles with respect to hygienic properties.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relation between the chemical (analysis of elements and pH) and microbiological composition (culture and metagenomics analysis) of the dust at various workplaces (cement plant, composting plant, poultry farm, and cultivated area) and the cytotoxicity effect on the human adenocarcinoma lung epithelial adherent cell line A-549 (MTT assay test). Analysis of the Particulate Matter (PM) fraction showed that the dust concentration in cultivated areas exceeded the OELs. For the remaining workplaces examined, the dust concentration was lower than OELs limits. The number of microorganisms in the dust samples was 3.8 × 102–1.6 × 108 CFU/g bacteria and 1.5 × 102–6.5 × 106 CFU/g fungi. The highest number of microorganisms was noted for dust from cultivated areas (total number of bacteria, actinomycetes, P. fluorescens) and composting plants (xerophilic fungi and staphylococci), while the least number of microorganisms was observed for dust from cement plants. Many types of potentially pathogenic microorganisms have been identified, including bacteria, such as Bacillus, Actinomyces, Corynebacterium, Prevotella, Clostridium, and Rickettsia, and fungi, such as Alternaria, Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus. The most cytotoxic to the human lung cell line A-549 was dust from cultivated areas (IC50 = 3.8 mg/mL after 72 h). The cytotoxicity of the tested dust samples depends on the PM concentration, the number of microorganisms, including potentially pathogenic genera, and the exposure time.