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Phenotyping large populations for assessing the variability for wood traits is the basic and critical step for developing improved genotypes/clones in the conventional or molecular marker-based tree improvement programmes of timber-yielding species. Melia dubia is rapidly emerging as a potential timber species with large-scale plantations being raised in different parts of India. In this study, large number of M. dubia trees (n = 940) were phenotyped for girth at breast height, wood basic density and stiffness from six plantations at three different locations, i.e. Yeshwanthpura (Kolar district), Hunsur and adjoining areas (Mysore district) and Kollegal (Mandya district) of Karnataka. Non-destructive tools namely pilodyn penetrometer and stress wave timers were used for phenotyping of wood density and wood stiffness, respectively. Across the locations, pilodyn penetration ranged from 12 to 30 mm and stress wave velocity ranged from 3.45 to 4.54 km/s. Plantations in the Hunsur area were characterized with relatively high pilodyn penetration (means low basic density), whereas stress wave velocity was uniformly distributed in all three locations. 11.68% of total number of trees (3.11% with GBH ≥ 37.5 cm from Yeshwanthpura and 8.57% trees from Kollegal) exhibiting pilodyn penetration range from 12 to 17 mm can be considered for selection for high density and 19.3% of trees (3.9% of trees from Yeshwanthpura, 4.4% trees from Hunsur and 11.02% trees from Kollegal) having stress wave velocity ranging from 4.05 to 4.46 km/s can be considered for high stiffness in the future tree improvement programmes. More than twofolds variation in pilodyn penetration and sufficiently large variation in stress wave velocity provide the opportunity for the development of trait-specific markers.

Melia dubia Cav. (Meliaceae), a fast-growing tropical tree finds use in plywood, pulp and high-value solid wood products. To increase its productivity, we must essentially capture genetic diversity and identify genotypes with superior wood properties. This study aimed to develop novel microsatellite markers from genomic data and validate the markers in M. dubia. Direct Seq-to-SSR approach was adopted and using an in-house Perl script, 426,390 SSR markers identified. For validation, selected 151 markers, of which 50 were genomic markers chosen randomly, and 101 were genic markers identified through BLAST2GO. Amplification was observed in all loci, and 81.4% generated high-quality, reproducible amplicons of the expected size. Out of 50 genomic markers, we used ten highly polymorphic markers to assess genetic diversity among 75 genotypes from three populations. One hundred fourteen alleles were recorded, with a moderate level of diversity and a positive fixation index. Twenty-nine genic markers representing 13 enzymes showing polymorphism for wood stiffness were selected for diversity assessment of 24 genotypes (12 genotypes each with high and low-stress wave velocity). The product size ranged from 87 to 279, covering the majority of the genome. Cluster and structure analysis segregated ~ 80% of the genotypes based on the trait. This is the first report of the development of genic markers from a genomic survey and has proved efficient in differentiating genotypes based on the trait. The markers developed in this study will be useful for genetic mapping, diversity estimation, marker-assisted selection for desired traits and breeding for wood traits in M. dubia.

Canopy gaps play a significant role in maintaining structure and composition of tropical forests. This study was carried out in tropical evergreen forests of central Western Ghats in India to understand the influence of canopy gap size and the relationship of gap regime attributes to diversity measures and regeneration. The average gap size in the study area was found to be 396 m2 and around half of gaps were 4–8 years old. Gaps created by natural single tree fall were smaller in size but significantly higher in number. Diversity and regeneration of woody species were compared with canopy gaps and intact vegetation. Species richness and diversity was higher in gaps than in intact vegetation. Macaranga peltata, a shade intolerant species dominated gaps while intact vegetation was dominated by shade tolerant Kingiodendron pinnatum. Gap size significantly influenced species diversity and regeneration. Gap area and age were significantly and negatively correlated with diversity measures but positively correlated with regeneration. Among all the attributes of gaps, regeneration was significantly positively correlated with light intensity. Gaps maintained species diversity and favored regeneration of woody species. In addition to gap size and age, other gap ecological attributes also affected species diversity and regeneration.

An ecofriendly and green method for the synthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles has developed using aqueous leaves extract of Cassia occidentalis. The formation of AgNPs and CuNPs was monitored by measuring the UV-Vis spectra. The morphology and crystalline phase of the metal nanoparticles were determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with X-ray energy dispersive spectrophotometer (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The synthesized metal nanoparticles were generally found to be spherical and oval in shape. The AgNPs and CuNPs showed highly potent antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi bacteria, respectively. The CuNPs showed higher radical scavenging activity than AgNPs. The AgNPs showed lower haemolysis (1.7%) exhibiting lesser toxicity as compared to CuNPs. The CuNPs have better catalytic ability for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol and 2-nitrophenol as compared to AgNPs.

Madhuca insignis (Sapotaceae) is a tree endemic to the South Western Ghats of India. The species was first reported from one locality in 1858 and since then for a period of 120 years has been believed to be extinct until it was rediscovered in type locality. It is one of the 27 tree species identified for a recovery programme in the national priority list of endangered plants in India. Literature and herbarium specimen surveys have been carried out followed by field visits. 27 individuals and three populations in the wild were located. The survival rate of individuals propagated from seed after five years was 60% in ex situ conservation. We therefore propose that M. insignis be categorized as Critically Endangered (

We compared morphological and genetic attributes of progeny obtained from three seed production areas (SPAs) and three corresponding unimproved stands (UIS) of teak (Tectona grandis L.f) at three broad teak growing regions in the state of Karnataka, India. In general, seed morphological parameters such as seed weight, seed size and seed emptiness were significantly superior in SPAs compared to UISs. Seed germination percentage was also higher in seeds from SPAs. Seedling performance measured at two monthly intervals for six months was observed to be superior in SPAs at two of the three regions compared. Although the genetic diversity of progeny of SPAs was lower than UIS at all regions, the values were moderately high. Germination percent was positively correlated with fruit weight and kernel weight per seed, while diversity indices were negatively correlated with fruit weight, fruit diameter and kernel weight per seed. SPAs proved important as a source of moderately improved planting material with no severe threat to the genetic diversity of future plantations.

Teak (Tectona grandis L. f.; family Verbanaceae) is an important plantation tree species in the tropics and in India one of the first species to be prioritized for improvement. Improvement efforts for the last 50 years have essentially concentrated on augmenting quality seed production by establishing seed production areas (SPA) and clonal seed orchards (CSO). Presently, these two form the main sources of quality planting material for teak throughout the country. However, there is no information on the genetic quality of such sources nor information on the progeny used in plantation programmes. Reports of studies based on coniferous and tropical species provide conflicting results on the impact of domestication on the genetic diversity of populations (Chaisurisri and El Kassaby 1994; Rajora 1999; Moran et al. 2000; Godt et al. 2001; Icgen et al. 2006). Also the impact of domestication on the genetic diversity of progeny populations is poorly understood (Stoehr and El-Kassaby 1997; Schmitdtling and Hiplins 1998). Such studies become pertinent not only for gauging the impact of selection on reforestation stock, but also for effective genetic conservation of existing breeding populations. We therefore address two issues in the present study: (i) the change in genetic diversity with increasing levels of improvement, and (ii) the impact of the above change on genetic diversity of progeny populations.

In most of the tree improvement programs of highly valued wood tree species, generally, height and diameter are the two important factors considered while selecting superior genotypes. However, it is now being realized and accepted that it is essential to include various wood traits while selecting superior genotypes for breeding strategies. We are of the opinion that it is necessary to also include the heartwood content as another important trait because of its commercial value. As a prelude to consider heartwood content as one of the selection traits for tree improvement programs, it becomes imperative to document the variation in this trait in a given population. Information about heartwood formation, progression, and genetics is being studied globally, and preliminary indications are that it is genetically controlled, but the role of environmental factors is also equally important. In this paper, heartwood content variation in known aged plantation and its relationship with tree girth in three important indigenous highly valued tree species—Hardwickia binata (Anjan), Pterocarpus santalinus (Red Sanders) and Santalum album (Indian Sandalwood)—is discussed. Significant variation was observed in young-aged plantations in all the three species.

Influence of genetic dissimilarity among teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) clones on flowering synchrony was studied in a Clonal Seed Orchard (CSO) of teak in Karnataka, Southern India. Flowering phenology was monitored for all the 24 teak clones of the CSO and flowering synchrony between clones was assessed adopting a novel ‘overlap index’. Genetic dissimilarity among these clones was assessed adopting DNA based ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats) analysis. Large variation in the time of ‘flower initiation’ and of ‘peak flowering initiation’ was observed among the clones belonging to diverse sources, suggesting large asynchronous flowering. Cluster analysis based on ISSR marker indicated that the clones originating from a same source clustered together and there was a clear segregation based on their origin. Correlation analysis revealed a significant negative association between the average Jaccards’s dissimilarity index between pairs of clones and average peak flowering overlap index. Clones from geographically diverse regions had high genetic dissimilarity and also showed high flowering asynchrony within them.

Copper complexes of 1-formyl-2-pyrazolines were prepared by the reaction of 1-formyl-2-pyrazolines with copper chloride and nitrate with methanol. The structures of copper complexes 1a–3a have been established by elemental analysis, FT-IR, UV and thermogravimetric analysis. These compounds were tested against HM1:IMSS strain of Entamoeba histolytica by the microdilution method. Complexes 2a and 3a are more active than other complexes.

The present study was carried out to determine the accumulation and variation of trace elements in roots and leaves of Asparagus racemosus collected from four different altitudes in Uttarakhand, India, by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The metals investigated were Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca, and Li. The concentration level of Fe was found to be highest at an altitude of 2,250 m, whereas the level of Cu was lowest. The maximum concentrations of Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca, and Li were found to be 165.0 +/- 3.2, 34.0 +/- 0.5, 84.0 +/- 0.7, 2,040.0 +/- 0.3, 122.0 +/- 1.5, 745.0 +/- 0.3, 13,260.0 +/- 3.5, 6,153.0 +/- 1.6, and 58.0 +/- 3.8 mg/kg, respectively.

Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is one of the most important trees in Indian forestry. Time immemorial, Sandalwood has been an integral part of the culture and heritage of India. Description of Sandalwood appears in Subhashitas—collections of verses of wise sayings, code of conduct and ethics. The various uses of Sandalwood and oil have been mentioned extensively in the Indian literature and the aroma of wood and oil has been valued by all the major religions of the world. The fragrant heartwood and the essential oil obtained from it is a significant component in most of the auspicious occasion and a vital cog during cremation as the aroma that emanates from the burnt wood is considered to be the carrier of soul to its destination. The wood is used for carving and handicrafts while the oil has extensive uses in pharmaceutical industry and is an essential ingredient in all high valued perfumes world over. The Southern part of Karnataka and Northern part of Tamil Nadu is considered to be the natural distribution area of Sandalwood. Therefore, Karnataka State is also popularly known as Gandhada Nadu (Sandalwood state). For having been ordained with Royal tree status—a tag indicating the exclusive proprietorship of Government, not only hampered the Sandalwood tree cultivation, but also indirectly resulted in over exploitation and subsequently being categorised as vulnerable in IUCN Red List. The average production of Sandalwood in Karnataka between the years 1960–1961 and 1964–1965 was 2287.8 tons which drastically reduced to 366.74 tons by the end of the last five years of the twentieth century (1995–1996 to 1999–2000). The average production further fell to a mere 61.57 tons in the first decade of this century. The situation in Tamil Nadu is also very similar and the natural population has substantially reduced. It has been reported that commercially utilisable Sandalwood trees of girth more than 30 cm to a large extent is absent in its natural area of distribution in both the states. Considering this critical situation, in the early part of this century, the two Governments have relaxed their policies with reference to Sandalwood cultivation. This has encouraged farmers and entrepreneurs to cultivate Sandalwood. We discuss the future of Sandalwood and the role of people participation especially in conservation and utilisation of Indian Sandalwood.

Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) considered threatened in its habitat is a hemi-root parasite tree, highly valued for its heartwood and oil. It requires a primary host at the nursery stage and secondary host in field. Over exploitation and complex silvicultural systems have posed problems for its survival. The study on the stage of primary host requirement revealed that providing Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp, as a host immediately after transplanting sandalwood seedlings (2 leaf stage) in containers to be the optimal stage for boosting the growth of seedlings. Three different trials were performed to investigate the effect and select the best primary host out of six leguminous and five non-leguminous host species. Sandalwood seedlings in general exhibited better growth when grown in the same container with a leguminous host. Mimosa pudica L. proved the best host, significantly enhancing growth and nutrient status (NPK) of S. album seedlings. Among non-leguminous host species, the best growth of sandal...

Summary This study was undertaken in order to refine the potting medium and improve seedling growth of Santalum album L. in root trainers. The potting medium ingredients, including sand, soil, compost, cocopeat, burnt rice husk and charcoal, were tested in fourteen combinations in 270 mL block-type root trainers using Cajanus cajan as a pot host. A medium consisting of sand, soil, compost, burnt rice husk (BRH) and charcoal in the ratio of 25:15:50:5:5 favoured overall seedling growth in terms of height, collar diameter, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, total dry weight, root fibrosity and quality index at age 6 mo. The next best medium was a mixture of sand, soil and compost in the ratio 35:15:50. Where rice husk and charcoal are not available, this second medium may be used to produce good quality seedlings. The best potting medium for sandalwood had up to 60% organic matter mixed with sand and soil. This medium had low bulk density, good aeration and water-holding capacity, encouraged lateral root fo...

Summary Studies were carried out to determine the effects of container type and size on the growth and quality of seedlings of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.), an over-exploited hemi-root parasite. Three types of container, viz. root trainers (150,270,300, 450 and 600 mL), polythene bags (polybags) (600, 1000 and 1500 mL) and plastic containers (1000 mL) were used with a potting medium that consisted of sand, soil, compost, burnt rice husk and charcoal in the ratio of 5:3:10:1:1. Cajanus cajan was used as a primary host in all treatments. Survival and overall growth of sandalwood seedlings 6 mo old, in terms of height, collar diameter, seedling biomass and root-shoot ratio, were best in root trainers, and next best in plastic containers. Among the root trainers, the 600 mL size was optimum for most of the parameters of seedling quality, including height (20.4 cm), total dry weight (3.06 g), shoot dry weight (1.66 g), root dry weight (1.41 g) and quality index (0.37). This size was followed by the 27...

Three isomeric A-type proanthocyanidins have been isolated from the root of Prunus armeniaca . They were identified as ent -epiafzelechin-(4α→8; 2α→O→7)-epiafzelechin (mahuannin A), ent -epiafzelechin-(4α→8; 2α→O→7)-(+)-afzelechin and ent -epiafzelechin-(4α→8; 2α→O→7)-(−)-afzelechin, by means of spectral studies.

A field survey in Prunus armeniaca growing areas of Garhwal Himalaya was conducted with reference to the germination and growth of some companion crops at various sites of different soil fertility. Retardation in germination, growth and yield were noted in nearby Triticum aestivum plants, particularly on those sites where the percentage of soil organic matter was low. It was also observed that the magnitude of interference gradually decreased as the distance from the tree increased. Aqueous and organic solvent extracts of the aerial parts of Prunus armeniaca were made and their residues were tested, after proper dilution, for their phytotoxic effect on germination and growth of the test crop. Residues of light petroleum and ethyl acetate extracts showed maximum inhibition in growth and germination of the test species. The isolated compounds were identified with the help of spectroscopic techniques and bioassays. β -Sito-sterol, 2,6-dihydroxy-4-methoxyacetophenone and kaempferol were isolated from a petroleum extract whereas aromadendrin, quercetin, β -sitosterol- β - d -glucoside, pleoside and tannins (four proanthocyanidins – A-type) were characterized from an ethyl acetate extract. Of these, proanthocyanidins showed maximum inhibition, whereas quercetin, aromadendrin, kaempferol and genin of pleoside inhibited to a lesser extent.

A glycoside extracted from the rhizomes of Agave americana was identified as 3-O-[{{β-D-xylosyl(1 3)}{β-D-xylosyl(1 3) - β - D - glucopyranosyl(1 2)} - β - D - glucopyranosyl(1 4)} - β - D - galactopyranosyl] - (25R) - 5α - spirostan-3β-ol by concerted use of proton and carbon-13 2D NMR methods. Complete assignments for the sugar resonances were obtained with standard methods, but the presence of chemical shift degeneracies prevented an unequivocal determination of two of the glycosidic linkage points by the HMBC experiment. Further two-dimensional experiments failed to resolve the ambiguity, but a clear identification of the linkages was obtained using a selective reverse INEPT experiment with homonuclear double resonance.

Micro and macro elements such as Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca and Li were detected from Rheum moorcroftianum Royle, a plant used in folk medicines. Altitudinal and seasonal variation of these trace elements in cultivated and wild roots and leaves of R. moorcroftianum were quantified by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The highest concentrations of Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca and Li were found to be 376.0 ± 0.9, 83.0 ± 4.6, 322.0 ± 6.0, 920.0 ± 1.9, 72.0 ± 1.5, 402.0 ± 7.8, 10,235.0 ± 7.0, 12,336.0 ± 2.6 and 59.9 ± 0.3 mg kg(-1), respectively, in all the samples analysed.

Variations of micro- and macrominerals concentration in Swertia speciosa were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The mineral elements showed significant changes in roots and leaves collected from different altitudes. Among all the elements, highest concentration (more than 2,000 mg/kg) of Ca and K were recorded in S. speciosa and the concentration of other elements analyzed in the study decreased in the order Fe>Na>Zn>Co>Li>Cu>Mn.

Present investigation was carried out to estimate mineral elements in Rheum emodi Wallr. by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The samples of R. emodi Wallr., both wild and cultivate populations, were collected from different localities at different altitudes of Uttarakhand, India. The concentration of micro- and macroelements was different in roots and leaves. The concentration of mineral elements was found in both the leaves and roots in the order of K > Ca > Fe > Mn > Na > Zn > Co > Li > Cu.

Concentration level of nine elements viz. Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca, and Li were determined in leaves and roots of Asparagus curillus (Buch.-Ham.) ex Roxb. collected from four different altitudes in three seasons by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The overall concentration of K was found to be highest, whereas the level of Cu was lowest. The maximum concentrations of Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca, and Li were found to be 97.0 +/- 1.5, 28.0 +/- 7.0, 44.0 +/- 7.3, 1138.0 +/- 18.5, 91.0 +/- 6.2, 381.0 +/- 7.8, 9508.0 +/- 7.8, 3076.0 +/- 6.4, and 78.0 +/- 4.6 mg/kg, respectively.

A new aliphatic ester, pentacosanyl heptacosanoate was isolated from Polygonum polystachyum Wallich. alongwith five known compounds heptacosanoic acid, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside, quercetin, querectin-3-O-L-rhamnopyranoside. Structures of the isolated coin pounds were established by the application of spectroscopic techniques.

A new iridoid glycoside, premnosidic acid (compound 1) has been isolated from Premna barbata Wallich and characterized with the help of FAB-MS, 1 H NMR, 1 3 C NMR, HMQC, HMBC and NOE experiments.

A new secoiridoid glycoside, 6′- O -β-apiofuranosylsweroside ( 1 ), together with the known compounds sweroside, loganin, β-sitosterol, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid and methyl-4-hydroxy benzoate have been identified from the leaves of Lonicera angustifolia . The structure of the new compound has been elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic and chemical evidence.

High performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method was developed and validated for the determination of two xanthones, 1,2,6,8-tetrahydroxyxanthone (SR1) and 2,8-dihydroxy-1,6-dimethoxyxanthone (SR2) in leaves and rhizomes of Swertia speciosa. The extracts were analyzed on C18 column using an isocratic mobile phase which consists of MeOH and H2O at the flow rate of 1 ml/min. Identification of xanthone derivatives was done by using UV variable λ detector at 260 nm. The limit of detection obtained for the analytes were in the range of 0.86–2.24 ppm. We had planned to quantify the major bioactives in S. speciosa and to compare their variation with seasons and altitudes. Maximum concentration of SR1 and SR2 was found in S. speciosa rhizomes collected from Hemkund (4000 m high), Uttarakhand, India. Overall, results show that the concentration of bioactives increase with altitude and in samples collected in between Sep.-Oct. which seems to be the period of prime potency and should be the harvesting period.

A new flavanone glycoside, persicogenin 3′-glucoside (5,3′-dihydroxy-7,4′-dimethyoxyflavanone 3′-glucoside) has been characterized from the stem bark of Prunus amygdalus .

A new betulinic acid glycoside, lup-20(29)-en-28-oic-3-O-β- d -glucopyranosyl (2→1)-O-β- d -glucopyranoside has been characterized from the leaves of Schefflera venulosa.

A spirostanol glycoside was isolated, together with some known compounds, from the methanolic extract of the fruits of Asparagus officinalis and characterized by chemical and spectral methods including 13 C NMR-DEPT and 2D-hetcor NMR spectra. The spirostanol glycoside caused 100% immobilization of human spermatozoa at 1.5% level.

A new ruscogenin glycoside has been characterized from the rhizomes of Ophiopogon intermedius.