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Genetic studies of introduced non-native species are a valuable tool to investigate invasion history and pathways, source populations and multiple introductions of alien species, as well as evolutionary genetic changes following establishment in a new environment. We used a set of nine polymorphic microsatellites to analyse the population genetic structure of the introduced Asian shore crabHemigrapsus takanoialong European coasts. Our dataset covered the complete known European range of the species, including the most recent records from Great Britain and the southwestern Baltic Sea. The results showed a similarly high genetic diversity ofH. takanoithroughout Europe, and no indication of genetic bottlenecks during secondary spread, even in the most recently established populations. Analyses for population structure along geographic regions gave support for a separation between the Bay of Seine populations (northern France) and all other populations. Genetic differentiation within the North and Baltic Seas was more subtle and patchy, hinting to potential unrecognised introduction events, dispersal barriers and anthropogenic vector activity. The populations from the Baltic Sea and Great Britain clustered with the Wadden Sea populations, suggesting secondary introductions from the southeastern North Sea as likely invasion pathways. In summary, we suggest that a combination of anthropogenic secondary spread and the species’ reproductive biology have prevented a loss of genetic diversity during its ongoing expansion. We argue that genetic data depicting population status shortly after an introduction event—like the British and Baltic Sea populations ofH. takanoi—may provide important baseline data for investigations of genetic changes during establishment and adaptation processes.

We carried out a population genetic analysis of five southern African gemsbok (Oryx gazella) populations based on 530 bp of the mitochondrial control region and ten microsatellites in 75 individuals. Both markers show the high variability often observed in African bovids. Three of the populations which can be traced back to very small founding or current sizes do not show any signs of reduced variability compared to the remaining populations. The mitochondrial haplotypes form three distinct lineages which most likely originated in the Pleistocene when climate fluctuations led to periodical reduction and spreading of gemsbok habitat and which, today, are found throughout the distribution range. Bayesian microsatellite analyses yielded two groups, suggesting a more recent geographical differentiation following the admixture of the mtDNA lineages. Combining our sequences with available published data of the remaining oryx species allowed for a direct molecular comparison of O. gazella and O. beisa which have sometimes been considered a single species. The average genetic divergence between haplotypes from the two taxa was very high (39.9%), supporting their classification into two different species.

As a consequence of persecution and habitat fragmentation, wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) in Western Europe have experienced a severe reduction in population numbers and sizes. The remaining wildcat populations are considered to be endangered by losses of genetic variability and by hybridisation with free-ranging domestic cats. To investigate genetic diversity within and among wild and domestic cat populations in Germany and to estimate the extent of gene flow between both forms, we analysed a total of 266 individuals. PCR-amplification and sequencing of 322 base pairs of a highly variable part of the mitochondrial control region (HV1) of 244 specimens resulted in 41 haplotypes with 31 polymorphic sites. Additionally, eight microsatellite loci were examined for those 244 cats. Moreover, a total of 46 wildcats and 22 domestic cats could be genotyped for 13 polymorphic out of 31 enzyme loci. Genetic variability in both groups was generally high. Variability in domestic cat populations was higher than in wildcat populations. Almost no differentiation between domestic cat populations could be found (FST for microsatellites=3%). In contrast, wildcat populations differed significantly from one another (FST for microsatellites=9.55%) Within the smaller wildcat populations, a reduction of genetic diversity was detectable with regard to the nuclear DNA. Wildcat and domestic cat mitochondrial haplotypes were separated, suggesting a very low level of maternal gene flow between both forms. In microsatellites and to a somewhat lesser extent in allozymes, wildcats and domestic cats showed distinct differentiation, suggesting an only low extent of past hybridisation in certain populations. The microsatellite data set indicated a significantly reduced effective population size (bottleneck) in the recent past for one German wildcat population.

We analysed 33 brown bears from the Romanian Carpathians and the Italian Apennines at sequences of the mitochondrial control region and nine polymorphic microsatellite loci with regard to genetic variability and haplotype distribution. The Italian brown bears were monomorphic for mtDNA sequences. The Romanian bears yielded the highest variability found so far in this species. Haplotypes of both previously identified mtDNA lineages (western and eastern) were found in Romania. In the eastern part of the Carpathians western and eastern haplotypes occurred sympatrically, the bears from the western part of the mountain range only exhibited western-type sequences. This pattern provides evidence of a mitochondrial phylogeographic break in the distribution of the eastern lineage within the Romanian Carpathians. Conservation implications of this finding are discussed.

Barbary red deer Cervus elaphus barbarus from three areas in Tunisia (n=30) were analysed for genetic variability at 13 microsatellite loci and 680 bp of the mitochondrial control region. Barbary red deer, the only African deer taxon, are presently confined to a small area along the Tunisian–Algerian border and underwent a severe bottleneck in the middle of the 20th century with, on the Tunisian side, possibly only seven animals left. The genetic data showed signs of inbreeding and reflected the bottleneck event. Variability was on the lower end of the range previously reported for red deer (number of haplotypes=two, observed and expected heterozygosity 0.46 and 0.78, respectively) but not as low as might have been feared in view of the population's demographic history. The three sampling sites – among them the reserve at El Feidja from which, apart from Algerian immigrants, all extant Tunisian red deer originate – did not show any sign of genetic differentiation. The Tunisian red deer can thus probably be considered a single, genetically homogeneous population. Implications for management and conservation of the genetic findings are discussed.

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), used as an indicator of developmental stability, has long been hypothesized to be negatively correlated with genetic variability as a consequence of more variable organisms being better suited to buffer developmental pathways against environmental stress. However, it is still a matter of debate if this is due to metabolic properties of enzymes encoded by certain key loci or rather to overall genomic heterozygosity. Previous analyses suggest that there might be a general difference between homeo- and poikilotherms in that only the latter tend to exhibit the negative correlation predicted by theory. In the present study, we addressed these questions by analysing roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from five German populations with regard to FA in metric and non-metric skull and mandible traits as well as variability at eight microsatellite loci. Genetic variability was quantified by heterozygosity and mean d2 parameters, and although the latter did not show any relationship with FA, we found for the first time a statistically significant negative correlation of microsatellite heterozygosity and non-metric FA among populations. Because microsatellites are non-coding markers, this may be interpreted as evidence for the role of overall genomic heterozygosity in determining developmental stability. To test if the threshold character of non-metric traits is responsible for the metric vs non-metric difference we also carried out calculations where we treated our metric traits as threshold values. This, however, did not yield significant correlations between FA and genetic variability either.

A population genetic analysis based on sequences of the mitochondrial control region in 110 red foxes from five sampling localities in northern Serbia was carried out. The analysis yielded nine different haplotypes. Neither haplotype phylogeny nor their distribution was in accordance with the geographic location of the populations. In particular, the data failed to detect an unequivocal influence of the two big rivers, the Danube and the Tisza, separating the populations studied. Population differentiation was altogether low, without any relationship to the rivers as possible migration barriers. Although the possibility of foxes crossing the rivers over bridges or by swimming, thus keeping up gene flow, cannot be ruled out, it is most probable that the control region sequences are not sensitive enough to resolve small-scale population relationships but rather show patterns determined by stochastic processes such as genetic drift or lineage sorting.

Three mainland and two island roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations with a total sample size of 105 individuals from Schleswig–Holstein, northern Germany, were analysed with regard to genetic variability within and differentiation among populations as revealed by eight allozyme loci known to be polymorphic in roe deer, eight microsatellite loci and 404 bp of the mitochondrial control region. Surprisingly, the allozymes were completely monomorphic, but microsatellite and control region variability were high. Hypotheses as to demographic reasons for the variability patterns found, including bottlenecks, founder effects and translocations, are put forward. There were no statistically significant differences between the island and the mainland populations in terms of genetic variability as measured by expected heterozygosity, inbreeding coefficient and allelic richness. The correlations of the various variability indices were not statistically significant after Bonferroni correction. Nevertheless, there was a clear tendency for differentiation indices to yield concordant results for microsatellite and mitochondrial markers.

Summary The present study aimed at assessing genetic purity of black wildebeest ( Connochaetes gnou ) at Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, Gauteng Province, South Africa, using a multilocus microsatellite approach. Five loci were studied in black and blue ( C. taurinus ) wildebeest, the latter being a closely related species and known to produce hybrids with the morphologically very similar black wildebeest. In fact, the entire national black wildebeest population of South Africa potentially contains a significant proportion of introgressed blue wildebeest genes. In our case, eight out of 39 alleles were unique to black and 22 to blue wildebeest, with nine alleles shared between pure populations of the two species in line with their taxonomic proximity. A possible limited past introgression of blue wildebeest genes into the Abe Bailey population, corresponding to documents on population history, was only supported by the presence of a single allele otherwise exclusively found in samples of four pure blue but not in samples of two pure black wildebeest control populations. However, an assignment test and coefficients of population divergence did not support an extended introgression of C. taurinus alleles into the C .gnou population under study. Average heterozygosity at Abe Bailey proved to be intermediate between black and blue wildebeest, the latter species generally harbouring more genetic variation than the former owing to larger population sizes and the absence of population bottlenecks in historical times. The implications of our data are discussed with reference to the persistence of introgressed genes and the conservation of pure black wildebeest gene pools.

Despite an increasing acceptance in the biological community for sympatric speciation as a mode of species formation, well documented examples of sympatrically evolved ‘incipient species’ remain rare. The sympatric host races of apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), represent one of the most prominent case studies for sympatric speciation via a host shift. The European cherry fruit fly, R. cerasi (L.), shows strong ecological similarities to R . pomonella : (1) infestation of two different host plants, Lonicera xylosteum L. and Prunus avium L., and (2) divergent phenological and behavioral adaptations of flies on different hosts. The population genetic study presented here addresses whether the host associated populations of R. cerasi also represent genetically differentiated true host races. Out of a total of 29 allozyme loci examined, six were polymorphic and used to analyze six sympatric pairs of R. cerasi populations on Lonicera and Prunus from Switzerland and Germany. A direct comparison of allele frequencies between sympatric sites showed no pattern indicative of host races in R. cerasi . However, the hierarchical F-statistic for one locus, mannose 6-phosphate isomerase ( Mpi ), showed significant population differentiation that was in accordance with host race differentiation. Mpi is one of several loci that are also diagnostic for host race differentiation in R. pomonella . Results from Mpi suggest the formation of sympatric host races in R. cerasi , but additional polymorphic markers are necessary.

For hares (Lepus spp., Leporidae, Lagomorpha, Mammalia) from Ethiopia no conclusive molecular phylogenetic data are available. To provide a first molecular phylogenetic model for the Abyssinian Hare (Lepus habessinicus), the Ethiopian Hare (L. fagani), and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki) and their evolutionary relationships to hares from Africa, Eurasia, and North America, we phylogenetically analysed mitochondrial ATPase subunit 6 (ATP6; n = 153 / 416bp) and nuclear transferrin (TF; n = 155 / 434bp) sequences of phenotypically determined individuals. For the hares from Ethiopia, genotype composition at twelve microsatellite loci (n = 107) was used to explore both interspecific gene pool separation and levels of current hybridization, as has been observed in some other Lepus species. For phylogenetic analyses ATP6 and TF sequences of Lepus species from South and North Africa (L. capensis, L. saxatilis), the Anatolian peninsula and Europe (L. europaeus, L. timidus) were also produced and additional TF sequences of 18 Lepus species retrieved from GenBank were included as well. Median joining networks, neighbour joining, maximum likelihood analyses, as well as Bayesian inference resulted in similar models of evolution of the three species from Ethiopia for the ATP6 and TF sequences, respectively. The Ethiopian species are, however, not monophyletic, with signatures of contemporary uni- and bidirectional mitochondrial introgression and/ or shared ancestral polymorphism. Lepus habessinicus carries mtDNA distinct from South African L. capensis and North African L. capensis sensu lato; that finding is not in line with earlier suggestions of its conspecificity with L. capensis. Lepus starcki has mtDNA distinct from L. capensis and L. europaeus, which is not in line with earlier suggestions to include it either in L. capensis or L. europaeus. Lepus fagani shares mitochondrial haplotypes with the other two species from Ethiopia, despite its distinct phenotypic and microsatellite differences; moreover, it is not represented by a species-specific mitochondrial haplogroup, suggesting considerable mitochondrial capture by the other species from Ethiopia or species from other parts of Africa. Both mitochondrial and nuclear sequences indicate close phylogenetic relationships among all three Lepus species from Ethiopia, with L. fagani being surprisingly tightly connected to L. habessinicus. TF sequences suggest close evolutionary relationships between the three Ethiopian species and Cape hares from South and North Africa; they further suggest that hares from Ethiopia hold a position ancestral to many Eurasian and North American species.

Tiedemann R., Kurt F., Haberhauer A. and Hartl G. B. 1998. Differences in spatial genetic population structure between African and Asian elephant (Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus) as revealed by sequence analysis of the mitochondrial Cyt b gene. [In: Ecological genetics in mammals III. G. B. Hartl and J. Markowski, eds). Acta Theriologica, Suppl. 5: 123-134. To assess spatial genetic population structure of both extant elephant species, we investigated sequence variation in 369bp of the mitochondrial Cyt b gene in 23 specimens of African elephant Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach, 1797) from three regions in the Southern part of Africa. In an integrated analysis, these results were compared to data of a previous study, where the same gene region had been analysed in 53 Asian elephants Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) from 5 different regions on Sri Lanka and Asian mainland. In Loxodonta, 14 polymorphic sites defined 6 different mitochondrial haplotypes with a mean sequence divergence of 2.085%. In Elephas, 6 polymorphic sites defined 8 different haplotypes with a mean sequence divergence of 0.942%. Compared to other mammals, genetic variation is high in Loxodonta and moderate in Elephas. The difference in genetic variation among the species could be explained either by a Pliocene bottleneck in Elephas or by different long term effective population sizes. In Elephas, a star like phylogeny of haplotypes was found, indicative of a population expansion after a bottleneck. In Loxodonta, very divergent mtDNA lineages coexisted, suggesting the absence of any bottleneck in population history. Within regional subpopulations, both species showed similar mean haplotype diversities, while mean nucleotide diversity within regions was higher in Loxodonta than in Elephas. This suggest larger long-term effective population sizes in Loxodonta, while short-term effective population sizes are presumably similar in both species. Spatial genetic population structure in Loxodonta is mainly determined by isolation-by-distance, while in Elephas it is impacted by human translocation. Human translocation might have prevented isolated small Elephas populations from severe genetic depletion. Institut fur Haustierkunde, Christian-Albrechts-Universitat zu Kiel, Olshausenstrase 40, D-24118 Kiel, Germany

The relationship between the straight line distances (SLD), obtained from telemetry locations, and actual distances travelled by wolves Canis lupus (ADT), measured by snowtracking, was investigated in BIalowieza Primeval Forest, E Poland, in winter 1995/96.

Huddling is effective in decreasing metabolic rate permitting energy saving. However, this decrease varies among different species depending on physical, physiological and behavioral characteristics of the huddled individuals. Following a general model authors analyzed the effects of ambient temperature, thermal conductance and ontogeny on the huddling effectiveness (energy saving level from huddling bahaviour) in white mice Mus musculus. Also, authors studied the effects of thermal conductance by using the Sigmodontine Abrothrix andinus as a model organism.

The Quaternary dispersal of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in the Mediterranean area was evaluated through the study of allelic variation at 45 enzyme loci in 120 individuals from 10 sampling sites. A 375 bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was also sequenced in a total of 41 specimens from the same sampling locations. Nine allozyme loci were polymorphic. The proportion of polymorphic loci per population (P) ranged from 0 to 15.6%, and expected average heterozygosity (H) from 0 to 4.4%. A total of 18 different Cyt b haplotypes were detected. Most of them were confined to only one population. Both allozyme and mtDNA data implied that our fox populations were genetically fairly isolated from one another, suggesting low gene flow between them. This isolation should be of comparatively recent origin according to the slight differentiation among Cyt b haplotypes. Fox populations appeared to belong to two genetically distinct groups. With a mean value of Nei’s D = 0.024, genetic distance between these groups was similar to that detected at subspecies level in taxa of large mammals. This pattern may have originated from different colonization waves during Quaternary glaciations and deglaciations. Red foxes from Sardinia were more closely related to the Bulgarian foxes than to the Iberian ones. However, repeated introductions to Sardinia probably also occurred from Central Italy and Spain, as suggested by the presence of haplotype A and a typical Central Italian allele, Ck-290

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a highly adaptable omnivorous mammal distributed across all continents on the northern hemisphere. Although the red fox is present throughout Europe, where it plays an important ecological and socio-economic role not only as a game species but also as a rabies reservoir, few studies have examined its population-level mitochondrial DNA variability. In this study, 27 mitochondrial DNA control region haplotypes were identified in 229 red fox samples taken from four regions in Croatia. Haplotype diversity of Croatian red foxes (0.901) was found to be among the highest of all European red fox populations studied to date. Genetic differentiation among regions was quite low, and statistically significant estimates of differentiation were obtained only when comparing the population from the peninsular region of Istria with the three continental populations. It seems that landscape barriers like rivers and small mountains do not restrict gene flow among foxes in the continental part of Croatia, while the combination of a narrow land bridge and altitudes exceeding 1, 000 m limit fox migration between Istria and the rest of the continent. Better understanding of small-scale population structure will require analysis of highly variable nuclear markers like microsatellites.

To investigate phylogenetic relationships among 9 genera of the Caprinae (Capra, Ammotragus, Hemitragus, Pseudois, Ouis, Rupicapra, Oreamnos, Nemorhaedus, Capricornis) behaviours involved in courtship and mating, aggression, threat, dominance, submission, and marking of adult males were subjected to phylogenetic analysis. Based on all 32 characters and 96 character states investigated, phylogenetic patterns generally were in good agreement with biochemical-genetic data avaliable. Discordance between phylogenetic trees constructed from behavioural and from biochemical-genetic traits as to the position of Ammotragus turned out to be associated with ethological functional categories. Behaviours involved in courtship and mating were identified as the most reliable ones for phylogenetic studies. Courtship displays function as isolation mechanisms among closely related taxa. This is of paramount importance in those forms where secondary sexual characters such as horns are poorly differentiated while in highly evolved taxa size and shape of horns may also trigger readiness for mating in estrous females.

proportion of polymorphic loci (P) was 3.5% (SD = 1.2%), and mean expected average heterozygosity (He) was 0.9% (SD = 0.25%). The populations separated out by genetic distance in two distinct groups, those from the Cape Province and those from the Orange Free State. There were considerable differences in mean body weight between some sites. No correlation could be detected with level of heterozygosity. Body weight appeared rather to be related to liver mineral levels. In particular the ratio between copper and molybdenium appears important with those animals high in copper and low in molybdenium having a higher body weight.

In Asian elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 tuskless bulls or maknas are generally rare. Only in Sri Lanka 93% of subadult and adult bulls have been reported to be maknas. Using historical records and computer simulations we demonstrate that simulation in man-made. The following mechanisms were identified to be associated with a loss of tuskers: (1) When using elephants, man has always preffered tuskers. (2) Selective hunting and capturing frequently led to a decrease of tuskers in wild-living populations. (3) The impact of selective unting and capturing was highest in isolated populations, such as Sri Lanka. (4) Selective removal of tuskers for protecting a maximum wild-living male population resulted in an increase of maknas.

In order to examine a previously hypothesized influence of selective hunting on allele frequency changes at some regularly polymorphic allozyme loci in red deer (Cervus eluphus), antler characters, serving as criteria for culling, were examined in relation to electrophoretic variation in two free-ranging populations of the Vosges, Eastern France, and an enclosure in Central France. When homozygous for the allele Idh-2125, stags ≥ 2 years old had a significantly higher number of antler points (NAP). When homozygous for the allele Acp-2100, stags older than 5 years had antlers that were significantly larger for a number of traits (NAP, main beam length and circumference, coronet circumference, brow tine length). Among younger stags, all antler traits in Acp-2100 homozygotes were significantly smaller than in carriers of the alternative allele, Acp-285. Our data suggest the presence of at least two independent genetic components (one associated with early development of a high NAP, the other with generally large antler size in adults), affecting antler expression in red deer. Those genetic components, possibly major genes which are chromosomally linked with the allozyme loci studied, compensate or reinforce each other in their phenotypic effects. By playing a role in balancing benefits and costs of male reproductive success, they may be part of a genetic mechanism enabling the rapid adaptation of a population to various environmental and demographic conditions. The three populations studied originate from one another, and, based on an assessment of effective population sizes, it could be demonstrated that selective hunting for antler shape has changed allelic frequencies at the associated marker loci within a few generations.

To investigate genetic diversity in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), a total of 26 individuals from zoos in the German cities of Berlin, Hamburg, and Leipzig, and from Zurich, Switzerland, were investigated for electrophoretic variation at 44 presumptive blood protein and enzyme coding loci. The proportion of polymorphic loci (P = 4.6%) and average heterozygosity (H = 1.4%) in the specimens studied were very low. The distribution of alleles and genotypes suggested some genetic differentiation among the source populations of our elephants, most of which were wild born. Since our results are in accordance with those of a previous survey on wild populations, low genetic variation in the Asian elephant is not only associated with captive propagation. Together with differences in the incidence of alleles among populations, it is probably largely due to low effective sizes of wild Asian elephant stocks and to species-specific breeding tactics. Standard karyotype analysis was carried out for 11 individuals, and in some cases, heterochromatin staining by Giemsa C-banding and reverse fluorochrome staining were performed. Heterochromatin polymorphism was found in four chromosome pairs, including two satellited pairs, and is considered an important marker for population genetic investigations. One of the 11 individuals studied was found to be heterozygous for a centric fusion of two small acrocentrics. The implications of our results for breeding programs of Asian elephants are discussed. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Genetic variation in an isolated brown bear population of the Western Carpathians was studied by electrophoretic analysis of 51 presumptive allozyme loci. In spite of a severe population bottleneck at the beginning of the 1930s (40 survivors), average heterozygosity (H=5.3%) was within the range commonly found in mammals and the mean number of alleles per polymorphic locus (Ap=3, over five polymorphic loci) was very high. Possible reasons for the maintenance of high allelic variation are discussed.

Kurt P., Hartl G. B. and Volk F. 1993. Breeding strategies and genetic variation in European roe deer Capreolus capreolus populations. [In: Ecological genetics in mam­ mals. G. B. Hartl and J. Markowski, eds], Acta theriol. 38, Suppl. 2: 187 - 194. Based on previously published electrophoretic data on genetic variability in 31 roe deer Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758 populations, the proportion of loci poly­ morphic (P), average heterozygosity (H), and the inbreeding coefficient (Fis) were examined for relationships with the social structure displayed in the various-popu­ lations. Our hypothesis was that genetic variability is lower and F/s-values are more positive in populations where males maintain a stable pattern of territories during the rutting season (forest dwelling roe deer) than in those characterized by pronounced fluctuations in population structure, both within and among seasons (field or mountain dwelling roe deer). P and H did not show differences among those two groups. Fis was significantly more positive in the ‘forest’ roe deer than in the more migratory ‘type’, but only when populations subjected to high culling rates were excluded from the analysis. Highly negative Fis-values in forest populations with high culling rates suggested that considerable perturbations of population structure may be caused by hunting. In conclusion, the ‘forest’ roe deer and the ‘field’ roe deer do not represent two distinct ecotypes with a particular genetic integrity, but rather reflect the consid­ erable behavioural plasticity of the species. Forschungsinstitut fur Wildtierkunde und Okologie der Veterinarmedizinischen Uni­ versitat Wien, Savoyenstrase 1, A-1160 Vienna, Austria (FK, GBH, FV)

A total of 469 brown hares Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 from 20 sampling sites in Austria were examined for genetic diversity within and among populations by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Fourteen out of 54 presumptive structural loci were polymorphic, one of which was excluded from further population genetic analyses due to the occurrence of a null-allele.

A total of 193 brown hares, collected from 7 sampling sites in Poland during 1986-1990 were examined for genetic variability and differentiation at 39 presumptive isozyme loci by means of horizontal starch gel electropheresis.

In order to provide a scale of genetic distances in the Lagomorpha, biochemicalsystematic relationships among Lepus europaeus, Lepus iimidus, Oryctolagus cuniculus (Leporidae) and Ochotona rufescens (Ochotonidae) were examined by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis of 38 isozyme systems. Nei's (1978) genetic distances were calculated over 58 presumptive structural loci and used for the construction of numerical dendrograms. The stability of clusters was examined by the jackknife method and by comparison to a Hennigian cladogram. All these procedures revealed a constant picture of lagomorph relationships, which is in accordance with the conclusions drawn from other evidence. Divergence times were estimated using two fundamentally different approaches. They were in good agreement with paleontological data (0.49myr between the Lepus species, 3.65myr between Lepus and Oryctolagus, 37.5myr between Leporidae and Ochotonidae), but only when calculated in different ways at low and at high taxonomic levels. The results suggest a temporal acceleration of the rate of allozyme evolution in the Leporidae due to rapid adaptive radiation of biochemically highly polymorphic taxa.

A total of 598 Austrian and 1117 Polish skulls of brown hare Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 was examined for dental anomalies, occurrence of Wormian bones and formation of a fenestra in the fossa mandibularis ossis temporalis. In addition, the degree of ossification of skull sutures and frequencies of traceable interparietal sutures were analysed in Austrian hares.

Within the rodent family Muridae, eight species of the genera Apodemus, Mus and Rattus were examined for allozyme differentiation in 29 proteins encoded by 36 presumptive genetic loci. Representatives of the families Arvicolidae ( Microtus arvalis, Clethrionomys glareolus ) and Cricetidae ( Cricetus cricetus ) were used as outgroups. Thirty-three loci were found to be polymorphic within species and differentially diagnostic between species, respectively. Rooted and unrooted dendrograms, based on various genetic distances, revealed relationships between A. sylvaticus, A. flavicollis and A. microps as well as between M. musculus, M. spretus and M. caroli , which are consistent with the results of previous investigations. In contrast, A. agrarius showed a greater genetic distance to the other Apodemus species than either Rattus or Mus . Based on a Hennigian cladogram and on results of DNA investigations performed by other authors, this result was interpreted to be due to an increased rate of allozyme evolution in this species rather than to a very isolated position within the Muridae. Concerning intergeneric relationships, a UPGMA-tree unequivocally suggested Mus to be the sister group of Apodemus , whereas the cladogram revealed the ambiguous position of this genus in relation to Mus and Rattus . As demonstrated by comparison of two fundamentally different methods for estimating divergence times, this result can be explained by a rapid separation of the genera in question during extensive adaptive radiation. As a consequence of unequal rates of allozyme evolution among taxa, use of both numerical and cladistic approaches for the evaluation of phylogenies is emphasized.

We analyzed 121 golden jackals (Canis aureus) from six sample sites in Serbia with regard to genetic variability and differentiation as revealed by mitochondrial control region sequences and eight nuclear microsatellite loci. There was no variation at all in the mtDNA sequences, and nuclear variability was very low (average observed and expected heterozygosity of 0.29 and 0.34, respectively). This is in line with the considerable recent range expansion of this species in the Balkans and indicates a strong founder effect in the recently established Serbian population. We did not find evidence of differentiation between the northeastern jackals and those from the plain of Srem or those in between. F-statistics and Bayesian Structure analyses, however, were indicative of a low degree of overall differentiation in the Serbian population. A vagrant Austrian jackal that was also analyzed was genetically indistinguishable from its Serbian conspecifics.

In seven species of the Caprini, and two species of the Rupicaprini, 23 proteins encoded by 27 presumptive genetic loci were studied by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. An antelope, the nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ) was used as outgroup. Nineteen loci were found to be polymorphic and differential diagnostic, respectively. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using various quantitative and qualitative approaches. The largest genetic distance was detected between Ovis and Capra . The Rupicaprini ( Rupicapra rupicapra, Oreamnos americanus ) turned out to be an intermediate group between Ovis and Capra and are connected to the latter by Hemitragus jemlahicus and Ammotragus lervia . Genetic distances among Capra falconeri, Capra aegagrus and C. a. f. hircus suggest a monophyletic origin of domestic goats from the latter. The high D -value between Capra ibex ibex and C. i. nubiana gives species rank for the Nubian goat. According to biochemical-genetic data the splitting of the Caprinae into the tribes Rupicaprini and Caprini is not justified. Calculated divergence times of the main taxa (late Pliocene-early Pleistocene) correspond to palaeontological findings.

European beavers, Castor fiber, were recently reintroduced to Austria and Bavaria and the population has been increasing rapidly. In 1996 we began livetrapping animals for reintroduction programs in neighboring countries. There are currently North American beavers, C. canadensis, in Bavaria, and a small number were inadvertently released in Austria 20 years ago. It is critical to be able to discriminate between North American beavers and European beavers that are trapped as part of any reintroduction program in Europe. For our reintroduction work we need to definitatively determine the species of each trapped beaver so no new North American beavers are released. It is also critical to be able to discrimiate between the two species so the distribution of North American beavers in our region may be determined. Discrimination between the two species by morphometric methods is difficult and not definitive using live animals. Preparing chromosomes for karyotypic studies takes time and only works properly with fresh blood. Therefore, we developed a method that uses tissues from either live or dead compare two North American beavers and two European beavers, we only observed variation at the Esterase-D (E.C.3.1.1.1) locus out of the 14 loci examined. To further test our new method of discriminating between the two species we used either animals whose species was already known, or confirmed our results by preparing additional karyotypes. We screened blood and kidney samples from 37 individuals of C. fiber and from 9 individuals of C. canadensis for variation of the Es-D locus by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. All C. fiber exhibited a fast migrating allele and all C. canadensis a slow migrating allele at this locus. Hence, the Es-D locus can be interpreted as a differential-diagnostic for the two species.

The publisher regrets that in the above article an error occurred in affiliations for one of the authors. After the name of J. Paul Grobler the small a is missing.

A genetic polymorphism of sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.14) for two allozymes is demonstrated in the brown hare (Lepus europaeus) by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Segregation analysis was performed in a sample of four matings with 12 offspring and confirmed the genetic hypothesis: two alleles at an autosomal locus. The calculated gene frequencies in the brown hare breed studied are Sdha = 0.712 and Sdhb = 0.288. The distribution of the polymorphism in free-ranging brown hare populations from Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland is described.

ln 10 species of the Bovini, 15 proteins encoded by 15 genetic loci were studied by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Five of these loci (Ldh-2, Pgd, Es, Acy-l, Gpi) were found to be polymorphic in at least one of the species examined. The results on the biochemical systematics of the Bovini suggest, that the yak ( Bos mutus ) is most closely related to the cattle ( Bos primigenius ), followed by the gaur ( Bos gaurus ) and the banteng ( Bos javanicus ), which form a separate cluster. The bisons (Bison bison and Bison bonasus) are much more distantly related to the cattle than the yak, the gaur or the banteng. The African buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ) and the anoa ( Subalus depressicornis ), having their branching point somewhat earlier than Bos and Bison , show a remarkable genetic distance from the latter. The extent of genetic variability found within species is discussed with respect to conservation and breeding in captivity.

haplotypes ranged from 0.05% to 0.25%. One chamois from the High Tatra (subspecies R. r. tatrica) was examined and showed the standard haplotype found in R. r. rupicapra. MtDNA in chamois from Catalunya, belonging to R. pyrenaica pyrenaica, was polymorphic for two haplotypes not found in any population of R. rupicapra. Mean nucleotide divergence among haplotypes found in R. rupicapra and R. pyrenaica was 0.56% (SD = 0.16%). Based on this value, an estimated divergence time of about 280 000 years suggests that the mtDNA lineages of R. rupicapra and R. pyrenaica separated prior to the Riss glacial in the later Pleistocene.

Red lechwe Kobus leche leche Gray, 1850 (n=3), black lechwe K. l. smithermani Lydekker, 1900 (n=10) and Kafue lechwe K.l. kafuensis Haltenorth, 1963 (n=19) from Zambia were examined for genetic variability and differentation at 30 presumptive structural loci using horizontal starch gel electrophoresis.