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The global proliferation of toxin producing cyanobacterial blooms has been attributed to a wide variety of environmental factors with nutrient pollution, increased temperatures, and drought being three of the most significant. The current study is the first formal assessment of cyanotoxins in two impaired lakes, Canyon Lake and Lake Elsinore, in southern California that have a history of cyanobacterial blooms producing high biomass as measured by chl-a. Cyanotoxins in Lake Elsinore were detected at concentrations that persistently exceeded California recreational health thresholds, whereas Canyon Lake experienced persistent concentrations that only occasionally exceeded health thresholds. The study results are the highest recorded concentrations of microcystins, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin detected in southern California lakes. Concentrations exceeded health thresholds that caused both lakes to be closed for recreational activities. Cyanobacterial identifications indicated a high risk for the presence of potentially toxic genera and agreed with the cyanotoxin results that indicated frequent detection of multiple cyanotoxins simultaneously. A statistically significant correlation was observed between chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and microcystin concentrations for Lake Elsinore but not Canyon Lake, and chl-a was not a good indicator of cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a, or nodularin. Therefore, chl-a was not a viable screening indicator of cyanotoxin risk in these lakes. The study results indicate potential acute and chronic risk of exposure to cyanotoxins in these lakes and supports the need for future monitoring efforts to help minimize human and domestic pet exposure and to better understand potential effects to wildlife. The frequent co-occurrence of complex cyanotoxin mixtures further complicates the risk assessment process for these lakes given uncertainty in the toxicology of mixtures.

Blooms of the marine diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia that produce the neurotoxin domoic acid have been documented with regularity along the coast of southern California since 2003, with the occurrence of the toxin in shellfish tissue predating information on domoic acid in the particulate fraction in this region. Domoic acid concentrations in the phytoplankton inhabiting waters off southern California during 2003, 2006, 2007, 2011 and 2017 were comparable to some of the highest values that have been recorded in the literature. Blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia have exhibited strong seasonality, with toxin appearing predominantly in the spring. Year-to-year variability of particulate toxin has been considerable, and observations during 2003, 2006, 2007, 2011 and again in 2017 linked domoic acid in the diets of marine mammals and seabirds to mass mortality events among these animals. This work reviews information collected during the past 15 years documenting the phenology and magnitude of Pseudo-nitzschia abundances and domoic acid within the Southern California Bight. The general oceanographic factors leading to blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia and outbreaks of domoic acid in this region are clear, but subtle factors controlling spatial and interannual variability in bloom magnitude and toxin production remain elusive.

The formation of marine snow (MS) by the toxic diatom Pseudo-nitschia australis was simulated using a roller table experiment. Concentrations of particulate and dissolved domoic acid (pDA and dDA) differed significantly among exponential phase and MS formation under simulated near surface conditions (16 °C/12:12-dark:light cycle) and also differed compared to subsequent particle decomposition at 4 °C in the dark, mimicking conditions in deeper waters. Particulate DA was first detected at the onset of exponential growth, reached maximum levels associated with MS aggregates (1.21 ± 0.24 ng mL−1) and declined at an average loss rate of ∼1.2% pDA day−1 during particle decomposition. Dissolved DA concentrations increased throughout the experiment and reached a maximum of ∼20 ng mL−1 at final sampling on day 88. The succession by P. australis from active growth to aggregation resulted in increasing MS toxicity and based on DA loading of particles and known in situ sinking speeds, a significant amount of toxin could have easily reached the deeper ocean or seafloor. MS formation was further associated with significant dDA accumulation at a ratio of pDA: dDA: cumulative dDA of approximately 1:10:100. Overall, this study confirms that MS functions as a major vector for toxin flux to depth, that Pseudo-nitzschia-derived aggregates should be considered ‘toxic snow’ for MS-associated organisms, and that effects of MS toxicity on interactions with aggregate-associated microbes and zooplankton consumers warrant further consideration.

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) and Burkholderia mallei (Bm) cause the often-lethal infectious diseases melioidosis and glanders, respectively. Curiously, closely related species within the Bp complex share a nearly identical arsenal of virulence traits, yet are harmless to humans. Clues to the origin of virulence in this group can be found in their genetics and ecology. As a resident of the rhizosphere, Bp faces competition for nutrients and predation by other organisms. Adaptation over millennia has enabled Bp to accumulate mechanisms that overlap in their ability to promote fitness in the environment and virulence in mammals. Here, we review the ecology of Bp and its range of virulence attributes, and offer hypotheses on the evolution of virulence in the Bp complex which are relevant to other environmental pathogens.

Ochromonas spp. strains CCMP1393 and BG-1 are phagotrophic phytoflagellates with different nutritional strategies. Strain CCMP1393 is an obligate phototroph while strain BG-1 readily grows in continuous darkness in the presence of bacterial prey. Growth and gene expression of strain CCMP1393 were investigated under conditions allowing phagotrophic, mixotrophic, or phototrophic nutrition. The availability of light and bacterial prey led to the differential expression of 42% or 45–59% of all genes, respectively. Data from strain CCMP1393 were compared to those from a study conducted previously on strain BG-1, and revealed notable differences in carbon and nitrogen metabolism between the 2 congeners under similar environmental conditions. Strain BG-1 utilized bacterial carbon and amino acids through glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, while downregulating light harvesting and carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle when both light and bacteria were available. In contrast, the upregulation of genes related to photosynthesis, light harvesting, chlorophyll synthesis, and carbon fixation in the presence of light and prey for strain CCMP1393 implied that this species is more phototrophic than strain BG-1, and that phagotrophy may have enhanced phototrophy. Cellular chlorophyll a content was also significantly higher in strain CCMP1393 supplied with bacteria compared to those without prey. Our results thus point to very different physiological strategies for mixotrophic nutrition in these closely related chrysophyte species.

Background Ochromonas is a genus of mixotrophic chrysophytes that is found ubiquitously in many aquatic environments. Species in this genus can be important consumers of bacteria but vary in their ability to perform photosynthesis. We studied the effect of light and bacteria on growth and gene expression of a predominantly phagotrophic Ochromonas species. Axenic cultures of Ochromonas sp. were fed with heat-killed bacteria (HKB) and grown in constant light or darkness. RNA was extracted from cultures in the light or in the dark with HKB present (Light + HKB; Dark + HKB), and in the light after HKB were depleted (Light + depleted HKB). Results There were no significant differences in the growth or bacterial ingestion rates between algae grown in light or dark conditions. The availability of light led to a differential expression of only 8% of genes in the transcriptome. A number of genes associated with photosynthesis, phagotrophy, and tetrapyrrole synthesis was upregulated in the Light + HKB treatment compared to Dark + HKB. Conversely, the comparison between the Light + HKB and Light + depleted HKB treatments revealed that the presence of HKB led to differential expression of 59% of genes, including the majority of genes involved in major carbon and nitrogen metabolic pathways. Genes coding for unidirectional enzymes for the utilization of glucose were upregulated in the presence of HKB, implying increased glycolytic activities during phagotrophy. Algae without HKB upregulated their expression of genes coding for ammonium transporters, implying uptake of inorganic nitrogen from the culture medium when prey were unavailable. Conclusions Transcriptomic results agreed with previous observations that light had minimal effect on the population growth of Ochromonas sp. However, light led to the upregulation of a number of phototrophy- and phagotrophy-related genes, while the availability of bacterial prey led to prominent changes in major carbon and nitrogen metabolic pathways. Our study demonstrated the potential of transcriptomic approaches to improve our understanding of the trophic physiologies of complex mixotrophs, and revealed responses in Ochromonas sp. not apparent from traditional culture studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3549-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The toxic diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia produces environmentally damaging harmful algal blooms (HABs) along the U.S. west coast and elsewhere, and a recent ocean warming event coincided with toxic blooms of record extent. This study examined the effects of temperature on growth, domoic acid toxin production, and competitive dominance of two Pseudo-nitzschia species from Southern California. Growth rates of cultured P. australis were maximal at 23 °C (∼0.8 d−1), similar to the maximum temperature recorded during the 2014–2015 warming anomaly, and decreased to ∼0.1 d−1 by 30 °C. In contrast, cellular domoic acid concentrations only became detectable at 23 °C, and increased to maximum levels at 30 °C. In two incubation experiments using natural Southern California phytoplankton communities, warming also increased the relative abundance of another potentially toxic local species, P. delicatissima. These results suggest that both the toxicity and the competitive success of particular Pseudo-nitzschia spp. can be positively correlated with temperature, and therefore there is a need to determine whether harmful blooms of this diatom genus may be increasingly prevalent in a warmer future coastal ocean.

In many dinoflagellates, cellular toxin levels have been demonstrated to increase when growth is limited by essential nutrients such as phosphorus. Despite the recognized importance of nutrient limitation to dinoflagellate toxicity, interactions with current and future global environmental change variables have been relatively unexplored. This is a critical question, as dissolution of anthropogenic CO2 emissions into seawater is leading to progressively lower pH values, or ocean acidification. Sea surface temperatures are concurrently increasing, a trend that is also projected to continue in the future. We conditioned a clonal culture of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin producing Alexandrium catenella (A-11c) isolated from coastal Southern California to factorial combinations of two temperatures, two pCO2 levels, and two phosphate concentrations for a period of eight months. Interactions between these variables influenced growth and carbon fixation rates and although these treatments only elicited minor differences in toxin profile, total cellular toxicity was dramatically affected. Cells conditioned to high pCO2 (levels projected for year 2075) and low phosphate at low temperature (15 °C) were the most toxic, while lower pCO2, higher phosphate levels, and warmer temperature (19 °C) alleviated this toxicity to varying degrees. Overall increased pCO2 generally led to enhanced potency. Our results suggest that future increased ocean acidification may exacerbate the toxic threat posed by this toxic dinoflagellate, especially when combined with nutrient limitation, but that future warmer temperatures could also offset some of this enhanced toxicity.

The frequency and intensity of harmful algal blooms (HABs) and phytoplankton community shifts toward toxic species have increased worldwide. Although most research has focused on eutrophication as the cause of this trend, many other global- and regional-scale anthropogenic influences may also play a role. Ocean acidification (high pCO2/low pH), green- house warming, shifts in nutrient availability, ratios, and speciation, changing exposure to solar irradiance, and altered salinity all have the potential to profoundly affect the growth and toxicity of these phytoplankton. Except for ocean acidification, the effects of these individual factors on harmful algae have been studied extensively. In this review, we summarize our understanding of the influence of each of these single factors on the physiological properties of important marine HAB groups. We then examine the much more limited literature on how rising CO2 together with these other concurrent environmental changes may affect these organisms, including what is pos- sibly the most critical property of many species: toxin production. New work with several diatom and dinoflagellate species suggests that ocean acidification combined with nutrient limitation or temperature changes may dramatically increase the toxicity of some harmful groups. This obser- vation underscores the need for more in-depth consideration of poorly understood interactions between multiple global change variables on HAB physiology and ecology. A key limitation of global change experiments is that they typically span only a few algal generations, making it difficult to predict whether they reflect likely future decadal- or century-scale trends. We con- clude by calling for thoughtfully designed experiments and observations that include adequate consideration of complex multivariate interactive effects on the long-term responses of HABs to a rapidly changing future marine environment.

Defined experimental regimes were used to determine the effects of nutrient limitation on the toxicity of Alexandrium peruvianum in batch culture. Subsamples for cell counts and spiroimine analysis at six day intervals were used to investigate the concentrations and composition of these compounds throughout growth. An erythrocyte lysis assay for hemolytic activity was performed on cell pellets and supernatants also collected every six days over the entire growth period from all treatments. From the data, growth rates, cellular spiroimine quotas and effective concentration-fifty (EC50s) for cellular and supernatant associated hemolytic activity were calculated. Phosphate limitation was identified as a key regulator of toxicity in this species, yielding maximum values of 54.1 pg cell−1 for 13-desmethyl spirolide C, 96.4 pg cell−1 for 12-methylgymnodimine and a potent hemolytic EC50 value of 7.1 × 103 cells. The concentrations of spiroimines detected in A. peruvianum among various treatments, in addition to a unique profile of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins, is unique in the body of microalgal literature. Because of the multiple toxin arsenal produced by this organism, the evaluation of a single toxin clearly would have underestimated the potential virulence and significance of this clone. This study provides the first evidence that growth and toxin production of A. peruvianum are influenced by altered nutrient ratios.

Routine sampling of the water quality stations in the New River Estuary (Jacksonville, North Carolina, USA) during November 2004 revealed the presence of a previously unidentified dinoflagellate. Preliminary observations of its morphology suggested it to be consistent with that of Alexandrium peruvianum (Balech et Mendiola) Balech et Tangen. Observations using brightfield, epifluorescence and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the diagnostic thecal plates to be those of A. peruvanium . Clonal cultures established from cells isolated from the New River Estuary samples were also used for further studies of morphology and for the presence of toxins. Thecal morphology was consistent with that described by Balech clearly separating it from the sister species Alexandrium ostenfeldii . Three classes of toxins were detected from these cultures. An erythrocyte lysis assay (ELA) was used to confirm the presence of hemolytic toxins in A. peruvianum cultures. A cellular EC 50 for lysis was 1.418 × 10 4 cells, well within the range the maximal cells densities found in the New River and more potent when compared on a cellular basis with Prymnesium parvum . Another toxin class detected in A. peruvianum cultures was the fast acting 13-desmethy C and D spirolides also produced by the sister species A. ostenfeldii . The last toxin type detected in the A. peruvianum cultures was the paralytic shellfish toxins, GTX 2, 3, B1, STX and C1,2. These findings expand the geographic range of occurrence for A. peruvianum in the U.S. to be much greater than previously considered. The morphological characters agreed with previously reported molecular data in separating A. peruvianum from A. ostenfeldii . It is also the first confirmed report that this species produces PSP toxins, spirolides and naturally occurring hemolytic substances. In light of these findings additional attention is needed for the detection of Alexandrium species in all coastal waters of the U.S. This added effort will enhance the evaluation of the relative impacts of the species to shellfish safety and bloom surveillance.

Blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, occur annually along the Gulf coast of Florida. Other species, like Karenia selliformis, are at times found in association. Hemolytic activity, the ability to lyse red blood cells, of two K. brevis clones (SP3 non-toxic (N-tox) and SP3 super toxic (S-tox)) from the Gulf of Mexico and a single clone of K. selliformis from New Zealand was investigated throughout a growth cycle. Activity is reported as effective concentration (EC50) values, the quantitative measure of hemolysis of human erythrocytes expressed as cell numbers. Both cells and media of K. selliformis cultures consistently produced potent levels of hemolysis (maximum EC50 = 4.88 × 103 cells) from inoculation until the population declined 35 days later. For SP3 N-tox and S-tox, no hemolytic activity was detectable until day 26 of sampling. The media of both SP3 N-tox and SP3 S-tox cultures consistently contained non-detectable or low levels of hemolysis compared to K. selliformis. Maximum EC50s for the SP3 clones were 1.80 × 106 and 1.97 × 106 cells, respectively. The experimental EC50 values observed represent ecologically relevant cell densities for K. selliformis, but not for the K. brevis clones. In addition, the hemolytic activity of gymnodimine A and various PbTx derivatives was examined in this study. Our findings indicate that the hemolytic capability of these dinoflagellates, especially K. selliformis, represents an additional component of toxicity aside from their already recognized toxins and that this activity may play a larger role than was previously considered. The purpose of this study was to extend the knowledge of the biology and toxicology of species within the genus Karenia.

Ocean acidification and greenhouse warming will interactively influence competitive success of key phytoplankton groups such as diatoms, but how long-term responses to global change will affect community structure is unknown. We incubated a mixed natural diatom community from coastal New Zealand waters in a short-term (two-week) incubation experiment using a factorial matrix of warming and/or elevated p CO 2 and measured effects on community structure. We then isolated the dominant diatoms in clonal cultures and conditioned them for 1 year under the same temperature and p CO 2 conditions from which they were isolated, in order to allow for extended selection or acclimation by these abiotic environmental change factors in the absence of interspecific interactions. These conditioned isolates were then recombined into ‘artificial’ communities modelled after the original natural assemblage and allowed to compete under conditions identical to those in the short-term natural community experiment. In general, the resulting structure of both the unconditioned natural community and conditioned ‘artificial’ community experiments was similar, despite differences such as the loss of two species in the latter. p CO 2 and temperature had both individual and interactive effects on community structure, but temperature was more influential, as warming significantly reduced species richness. In this case, our short-term manipulative experiment with a mixed natural assemblage spanning weeks served as a reasonable proxy to predict the effects of global change forcing on diatom community structure after the component species were conditioned in isolation over an extended timescale. Future studies will be required to assess whether or not this is also the case for other types of algal communities from other marine regimes.

Increasing pCO2 (partial pressure of CO2 ) in an "acidified" ocean will affect phytoplankton community structure, but manipulation experiments with assemblages briefly acclimated to simulated future conditions may not accurately predict the long-term evolutionary shifts that could affect inter-specific competitive success. We assessed community structure changes in a natural mixed dinoflagellate bloom incubated at three pCO2 levels (230, 433, and 765 ppm) in a short-term experiment (2 weeks). The four dominant species were then isolated from each treatment into clonal cultures, and maintained at all three pCO2 levels for approximately 1 year. Periodically (4, 8, and 12 months), these pCO2 -conditioned clones were recombined into artificial communities, and allowed to compete at their conditioning pCO2 level or at higher and lower levels. The dominant species in these artificial communities of CO2 -conditioned clones differed from those in the original short-term experiment, but individual species relative abundance trends across pCO2 treatments were often similar. Specific growth rates showed no strong evidence for fitness increases attributable to conditioning pCO2 level. Although pCO2 significantly structured our experimental communities, conditioning time and biotic interactions like mixotrophy also had major roles in determining competitive outcomes. New methods of carrying out extended mixed species experiments are needed to accurately predict future long-term phytoplankton community responses to changing pCO2 .

The unabated rise in anthropogenic CO₂ emissions is predicted to strongly influence the ocean’s environment, increasing the mean sea-surface temperature by 4°C and causing a pH decline of 0.3 units by the year 2100. These changes are likely to affect the nutritional value of marine food sources since temperature and CO₂ can influence the fatty (FA) and amino acid (AA) composition of marine primary producers. Here, essential amino (EA) and polyunsaturated fatty (PUFA) acids are of particular importance due to their nutritional value to higher trophic levels. In order to determine the interactive effects of CO₂ and temperature on the nutritional quality of a primary producer, we analyzed the relative PUFA and EA composition of the diatom Cylindrotheca fusiformis cultured under a factorial matrix of 2 temperatures (14 and 19°C) and 3 partial pressures of CO₂ (180, 380, 750 μatm) for >250 generations. Our results show a decay of ~3% and ~6% in PUFA and EA content in algae kept at a pCO₂ of 750 μatm (high) compared to the 380 μatm (intermediate) CO₂ treatments at 14°C. Cultures kept at 19°C displayed a ~3% lower PUFA content under high compared to intermediate pCO₂, while EA did not show differences between treatments. Algae grown at a pCO₂ of 180 μatm (low) had a lower PUFA and AA content in relation to those at intermediate and high CO₂ levels at 14°C, but there were no differences in EA at 19°C for any CO₂ treatment. This study is the first to report adverse effects of warming and acidification on the EA of a primary producer, and corroborates previous observations of negative effects of these stressors on PUFA. Considering that only ~20% of essential biomolecules such as PUFA (and possibly EA) are incorporated into new biomass at the next trophic level, the potential impacts of adverse effects of ocean warming and acidification at the base of the food web may be amplified towards higher trophic levels, which rely on them as source of essential biomolecules.

Anthropogenic CO(2) is progressively acidifying the ocean, but the responses of harmful algal bloom species that produce toxins that can bioaccumulate remain virtually unknown. The neurotoxin domoic acid is produced by the globally-distributed diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia. This toxin is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning, which can result in illness or death in humans and regularly causes mass mortalities of marine mammals and birds. Domoic acid production by Pseudo-nitzschia cells is known to be regulated by nutrient availability, but potential interactions with increasing seawater CO(2) concentrations are poorly understood. Here we present experiments measuring domoic acid production by acclimatized cultures of Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta that demonstrate a strong synergism between projected future CO(2) levels (765 ppm) and silicate-limited growth, which greatly increases cellular toxicity relative to growth under modern atmospheric (360 ppm) or pre-industrial (200 ppm) CO(2) conditions. Cellular Si:C ratios decrease with increasing CO(2), in a trend opposite to that seen for domoic acid production. The coastal California upwelling system where this species was isolated currently exhibits rapidly increasing levels of anthropogenic acidification, as well as widespread episodic silicate limitation of diatom growth. Our results suggest that the current ecosystem and human health impacts of toxic Pseudo-nitzschia blooms could be greatly exacerbated by future ocean acidification and 'carbon fertilization' of the coastal ocean.