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The Next Generation Science Standards regard biological structures at both the micro and macro levels as a core idea of life sciences and expect students to understand animals have external structures that perform diverse functions. Using the common creature of bees as a case, this study aimed to ascertain teenage students' ideas of bees through their visual representations. A total of 73 seventh-grade students aged approximately 13 years from two classes took part in a draw-bee(s) test (DBT), which requests them to create a drawing of a bee or bees. Then their completed drawings were scored against a tentative rubric of bees' basic external structures. The results highlight that many students hold alternative ideas about bees. Notably, a high number of students fail to depict bees' external structures scientifically, with some morphological features being most often missing, inaccurately numbered, inappropriately shaped, or disproportionately sized in their drawings. Based on these results, some implications are elucidated for improving students' understanding of bees in biological teaching.

Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) rapidly have become more common in biology laboratory courses. The effort to implement CUREs has stimulated attempts to differentiate CUREs from other types of laboratory teaching. The Laboratory Course Assessment Survey (LCAS) was developed to measure students' perceptions of how frequently they participate in activities related to iteration, discovery, broader relevance, and collaboration in their laboratory courses. The LCAS has been proposed as an instrument that can be used to define whether a laboratory course fits the criteria for a CURE or not. However, the threshold LCAS scores needed to define a course as a CURE are unclear. As a result, we examined variation in published LCAS scores among different laboratory course types. In addition, we examined the distribution of LCAS scores for students enrolled in our research-for-credit course. Overall, we found substantial variation in scores among CUREs and broad overlap among course types in scores related to all three scales measured by the LCAS. Furthermore, the mean LCAS scores for all course types fell within the main part of the distribution of scores for our mentored research students. These results suggest that the LCAS cannot be used to easily quantify whether a course is a CURE or not. We propose that the biology education community needs to move beyond trying to quantitatively identify whether a course is a CURE. Instead, we should use tools like the LCAS to investigate what students are actually doing in their laboratory courses and how those activities impact student outcomes.

The iNaturalist application has been gaining traction in both biodiversity research and education. Increasingly more research is being carried out, looking into using the iNaturalist application in biology education, to promote biodiversity and educate students about this topic. We used the PRISMA systematic literature review method to examine research carried out using the iNaturalist application in biology education by searching Web of Science and Scopus, and including citizen science in the process. We searched through the iNaturalist forum, where users contribute research performed using iNaturalist. We found that an increasing number of articles have been published on this topic over the years. Researchers are using iNaturalist to improve BioBlitz activities, to enhance outdoor education activities, and to help make herbaria. Summarizing the work performed in this area, we suggest guidelines for including and preparing the iNaturalist application in a school context to be used by teachers and researchers alike.

An identification key is one of the tools used to determine the identity of a plant specimen. This research aims to design an identification key for "M. crenata" and analyze its potential as an identification tool. The research uses an observational descriptive method. The identification keys were designed for populations growing in aquatic floating, emergent, and terrestrial habitats. The key types designed are (1) short parallel, (2) long parallel, (3) numerical, (4) circular diagram, and (5) columnar diagram. The key characters are qualitative and quantitative, consisting of seven morphological and two anatomical characters. The potential of the identification keys was evaluated based on expert judgment regarding the quality and relevance of the keys as identification tools, accuracy, time, and assessment of student satisfaction. The data were analyzed quantitatively and descriptively. The reliability of expert judgment data was determined based on the percentage of agreement and Cronbach [alpha], while the Kruskal Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests were used to analyze student assessment data and to determine the mean as well as SD of identification time. Student responses were processed in the form of percentages. The results of the expert assessment show that five key types have potential as a tool of identifying ferns diversity. Based on the effectiveness of key use and student assessment, numerical keys are the type that has the least potential, while short parallel keys have the best potential as a tool of identification. However, the five key types that have been developed can be used in learning to train students' identification skills.

For plant identification in school biology, many digital and analogue identification methods have been developed to make this demanding and little motivating process more student-orientated. In this experimental field study, we examine two empirically developed tools: the digital identification app "ID-Logics' and the paper-based key, generated by the online platform 'Eikes Baumschule'. In line with Self-Determination Theory (SDT), an evaluation study with 251 students was conducted to investigate the effect of both tools on students' intrinsic motivation. The results of the study were unexpected, as the different media regarding the SDT did not present themselves as projected: While both tools influence students' intrinsic motivation positively, each displays specific effects regarding enjoyment, perceived competence, and perceived autonomy. Taking these effects into account, each tool under investigation offers different advantages and disadvantages for plant identification in the field. The resulting opportunities and challenges, for plant identification, of both tools are discussed critically against the background of SDT, and future directions for research on intrinsic motivation in the context of species identification are mapped. Furthermore, this study shed light on the process of species identification and thus indicates recommendations for practical use in biology lessons.

Scientific observation is a disciplinary-informed way of looking at the world that requires the coordination of domain knowledge and perceptual skills with specialized tools and techniques to systematically identify objects, organisms, specimens, or phenomena of interest. Identification is a particular form of skilled observational practice where the observer recognizes key features for classification. Learning to see like a scientist is crucial for many citizen science activities, yet participants often have limited access to training and resources needed to practice. We posit that observational fluency development in taxonomic identification activities for citizen science has two components: (1) increased accuracy in noticing relevant features, and (2) use of more disciplinary-based explanatory language; and self-efficacy is crucial while developing these competencies. This study explores the extent to which an interactive visual identification platform supports learners' observational fluency development in the context of aquatic macroinvertebrate identification in environmental education. We examined changes in water quality monitoring volunteers' accuracy, self-efficacy, and explanatory language use after participation in a training that integrated the online identification (ID) tool. Methods included surveys, focus groups, and an ID accuracy task before and after training. Our findings indicate that learners, especially novices, demonstrated increased self-efficacy and accuracy in specimen identifications after participating in a training utilizing the online tool. They also shifted their ID justifications, incorporating more scientific terminology and salient diagnostic characters, and fewer generic descriptive adjectives. Results suggest that trainings using dynamic visual tools can positively impact observational fluency development and the quality of data contributed by volunteers.

This study uses a case study methodology to showcase the use of the DTSICM (Design thinking Strategy to Identify and Clear Misconceptions) model, which provides a design thinking approach to identify and clear a common misconception on photosynthesis, held by a sample of 27 A-level students. As a first stage, data collected through the administration of a two-tier MCQ diagnostic questionnaire was used to (i) identify the most prevalent misconceptions held by the sampled students on photosynthesis and (ii) describe the types and origins of the identified misconceptions. In the next stage, the teacher selected the most appropriate context-driven methods to clear students' misconceptions, based on the findings of stage 1, the capabilities and needs of the sampled students and a thorough literature review. Consequently, 'direct instruction', 'gamification' and 'modelling' were selected and implemented at classroom level and their efficacy was compared in view of conceptual shift. The findings revealed that the DTSICM model provided teachers with a structured and formalised pathway that allows them to select the most appropriate methods for the identification and clearing of students' misconceptions based on the types and origins of the misconceptions; the specificity of the context; and students' abilities, competencies and needs.

Theatrical performance constitutes a complicated way for students to express and to communicate with each other, since it targets both various artistic and educational goals. Even though it constitutes a top moment of students' expression, several students do not feel comfortable when participating in such cultural activities, as performance anxiety, a negative emotional experience stemming from the public audience exposure, affects them. The aim of this research is to apply and evaluate a student segmentation technique with the help of bio-inspired computational intelligence, for identifying high levels of performance anxiety at schoolchildren. A Mayfly-based clustering optimization algorithm is applied on a dataset with 774 instances of students to classify them according to their levels of emotions and performance anxiety that are developed during the event. A comparison with a genetic algorithm as well as particle swarm optimization shows that the proposed method is distinguished by superior categorization capabilities. The findings demonstrate the effective dissimilar student groups formation, with the members of each being distinguished by similar characteristics in terms of emotions and performance anxiety, highlighting the ones with unmanageable emotional experiences. Therefore, the drama educator is able to effortlessly detect, manage students and develop coping practices in those at risk, by acknowledging each group's characteristics.

It is hard to imagine biology education without the identification of the species of interest, mostly with the implementation of a dichotomous key. Digital identification keys (DIKs) have been developed and made available to teachers in Montenegro. We investigate the factors, which influence teachers', who had applied the DIK, in their continuing intention to use them in primary schools. The modified unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), continuance theory, and expectation-confirmation Theories were used for the identification of the factors which influence the teachers' decision about whether to continue to use the DIK. 232 teachers from Montenegro participated in this research. The results indicate that the perceived pedagogical impact and user interface quality has the greatest influence on teachers' continuance intentions (CIs). Performance expectations, effort expectations and technical compatibility have a moderate influence and management support, personal innovativeness and students' expectations have a low influence on teachers' CI of using DIK.

Science is a systematic study of natural phenomenon. The natural phenomenon is perceived and understood by an individual based on his/her experience and cultural context. The term misconception is complex in nature and has been conceptualize as alternative conceptions, preconceptions, alternative ideas, conceptual stumbling blocks, erroneous concepts, alternative framework in various contexts by researchers at different level of schooling and geographical locations. Identification of misconception is a challenging task due to various factors such as cultural context, individual differences, teaching-learning processes, students personal experience etc. In the present context of multi and trans-disciplinary subjects, the identification of misconceptions has become essential and gain importance as they are contributing new knowledge and applications in Science and Technology. Hence, in the present paper researchers had made an attempt to analyze the intricacies in identification of misconceptions in biology. The paper heavily relies on secondary source of data. In the present paper researcher has thoroughly reviewed and studied the identifications of misconceptions in the subject biology mixed approaches along with tools, techniques and strategies.

Quantitative skills are a critical competency for undergraduates pursuing life science careers. To help students develop these skills, it is important to build their self-efficacy for quantitative tasks, as this ultimately affects their achievement. Collaborative learning can benefit self-efficacy, but it is unclear what experiences during collaborative learning build self-efficacy. We surveyed introductory biology students about self-efficacy-building experiences they had during collaborative group work on two quantitative biology assignments and examined how students' initial self-efficacy and gender/sex related to the experiences they reported. Using inductive coding, we analyzed 478 responses from 311 students and identified five group work experiences that increased students' self-efficacy: accomplishing the problems, getting help from peers, confirming answers, teaching others, and consulting with a teacher. Higher initial self-efficacy significantly increased the odds (odds ratio: 1.5) of reporting that accomplishing the problems benefited self-efficacy, whereas lower initial self-efficacy significantly increased the odds (odds ratio: 1.6) of reporting peer help benefited self-efficacy. Gender/sex differences in reporting peer help appeared to be related to initial self-efficacy. Our results suggest that structuring group work to facilitate collaborative discussions and help-seeking behaviors among peers may be particularly beneficial for building self-efficacy in low self-efficacy students.

We used a novel approach that combined direct PCR of plant tissue and SRAP DNA fingerprinting to seek to identify the crosses made in "Brassica rapa" used in the Wisconsin Fast Plants. Our goal was to develop a rapid method for students to use in a biology, botany, or genetics class to identify the parental types (purple stem, non-purple stem) and the F1 generation for "Brassica rapa." Our data indicates that there is detectable polymorphism in the "Brassica Rapa" plants with which to identify the three types of plants.

Learning goals and objectives are a key part of instruction, informing curricular design, assessment, and learning. These goals and objectives are also applied at the programmatic level, with program learning outcomes (PLOs) providing insight into the skills that undergraduate biology programs intend for their students to master. PLOs are mandated by all major higher education accreditation agencies and play integral roles in programmatic assessment. Despite their importance, however, there have not been any prior attempts to characterize PLOs across undergraduate biology programs in the United States. Our study reveals that many programs may not be using PLOs to communicate learning goals with students. We also identify key themes across these PLOs and differences in skills listed between institution types. For example, some "Vision & Change" core competencies (e.g., interdisciplinary nature of science; connecting science to society; quantitative reasoning) are highlighted by a low percentage of programs, while others are shared more frequently between programs. Similarly, we find that biology programs at 4-year institutions likely emphasize PLOs relating to computational skills and research more than at 2-year institutions. We conclude by discussing implications for how to best use PLOs to support student learning, assessment, and curricular improvements.

In this article, I focus on two competing technical communication discourses used to represent the biometric technology Ghana adopted in 2012 and subsequent elections to demonstrate how communication about technology could potentially marginalize local, nondominant knowledge systems whereas it privileges global, dominant knowledge systems. Representation of the biometric technology, therefore, reflects ways that technical communication can become complicit in silencing, excluding, and marginalizing local voices. I call attention to how communication that focuses on dominant narratives obscures and delegitimizes the knowledge of disenfranchised and less privileged groups.

This article provides computational and rule-based approaches for detecting confusion that is expressed in students' comments in couse forums. To obtain reliable, ground truth data about which posts exhibit student confusion, we designed a decision tree that facilitates the manual labeling of forum posts by experts. However, manual labeling is costly in time and resources, which limits the amount of data that can be generated using this process. Our strategy for overcoming these limitations was to generate rules for detecting confusion based on student input via hashtags, which reflect the student's affective states. We show that the resulting rules closely align with the ground truth judgement of experts. We next applied these rules to datasets of students' forum posts in a large-scale biology course, thereby automatically generating thousands of labeled instances of "confused posts." Finally, the resulting dataset was used to train a machine learning model for detecting whether students' posts exhibit confusion in the absence of hashtags. In this task, the pretrained language model based on bidirectional encoder representation from transformers (BERT) was able to outperform traditional machine learning models for classifying confusion in posts. This model was also able to generalize and detect student confusion across different offerings of the same course. Ultimately, the use of pretrained language models of this type will provide teachers with better technologies for detecting and alleviating confusion in online discussion forums by leveraging the combined input of teachers and students.

This article investigates the impact of educational contexts on automatic classification of online discussion messages according to cognitive presence, an essential construct of the community of inquiry model. In particular, the work reported in the article analyzed online discussion messages written in Brazilian Portuguese from two different courses that were from different subject areas (biology and technology) and had different teaching presence in the online discussions. The study explored a set of 127 features of online discussion messages and a random forest classifier to automatically recognize the phases of the cognitive presence in online discussion messages. The results showed that the classifier achieved better performance when applied to the entire dataset. It reveals that when a classifier is created for a specific course it is not generic enough to be applied to a course from a different field of knowledge. The results also showed the importance of the features that were predictive of the phases of the cognitive presence in the educational context. Based on the findings of this study, future work should adopt the same feature set as used in the current study, but it should train the classifier of the cognitive presence on datasets in subject areas related to the topic of the discussions.

We evaluated an emerging smartphone application, iNaturalist, to increase taxonomic identification and engage first-year undergraduate biology majors in outdoor laboratories of aquatic ecosystems (stream and lake ecology) and terrestrial ecosystems (tree and leaf litter ecology). Labs involved identifying organisms using both standard field guides and keys, and comparing taxonomic identifications using the iNaturalist smartphone application derived from student images of organisms. Students were given post-laboratory surveys which assessed their preference for this increasingly popular smartphone application, whether they were more likely to use the application in the future and rate its ability and ease of use to properly identify organisms compared to traditional keys/field guides. This iNaturalist application worked most consistently for students with terrestrial organisms, when images were of sufficient quality. However, when only medium-high to high-quality photos were used, iNaturalist identifications ranged from 92.3% to 97.3% proper biological taxonomic classifications to standard organismal levels for an introductory biology course. Overall, iNaturalist provided greater taxonomic resolution with proper scientific and common names and additional natural history information for many organisms, piquing student interest. Incorporating this smartphone technology may increase identification of local biodiversity and student engagement in the biological sciences.

Knowledge about local species and a positive attitude towards all living organisms are important to motivate the next generations to protect biodiversity. We compared local species identification skills and declared attitude towards invertebrates across genders in Italian and Norwegian students in teacher education. We focused on Norway and Italy for this comparative study, because of their different teaching traditions and relationships with outdoor education. We found a significant difference in local species identification skills between Italian and Norwegian students, who could identify 21% and 57% of the species, respectively. Overall, females had a more negative attitude towards invertebrates than males. However, Norwegian women had a more positive attitude towards invertebrates than Italian women did. Our result could reflect both differences in time spent in nature and teaching programs between countries. We also found a positive correlation between species identification skills and declared interest towards invertebrates. We discuss several approaches that could help to address this issue, in order for future teachers to become more aware of the risk that their biophobic attitude is transferred to the next generation with negative effects on biodiversity conservation.

The current research is a descriptive study in which a survey model was used. The research involved chemistry (n = 26), physics (n = 27), and biology (n = 29) teachers working in Science High Schools and Anatolian High Schools in Turkey. An inventory that consisted of seven questions was designed to ascertain what teachers' think about the importance of science process skills in teaching science, to identify the frequency of these skills and the problems teachers encounter during their practice in class, and to specify their identification levels on these skills. The results of the study showed that these skills in general have a positive effect on teaching science and that the in-class activities promote conceptual learning. Most of the teachers participated in the study argued that these skills can only be gained effectively through laboratory activities in which both teachers and students engage; and almost all of them thought that central-examination-based teaching poses a great obstacle. Teachers are more successful in identifying skills of observing, predicting, experimenting, and inferencing than other skills.

Scientific drawing and writing are critical to the development of observational and recording skills in biology. However, it is unclear how the process of drawing and writing contribute to the learning of plant taxonomy. In the present study, 41 adult botanical novices studied a suite of UK native plant species using two methods: labelled drawing and descriptive writing. Tests of species identification and recognition of morphological characteristics indicated that both methods were equally effective at improving species identification. However, drawing captured significantly more morphological information about all study species than writing and was preferred by participants. The quality of drawn and written work was also evaluated and educational implications arising from these are discussed.

Citizen science is a rapidly growing emerging field in science and it is gaining importance in education. Therefore, this study was conducted to document the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of biology teachers who participated in a citizen science project involving observation of wild bees and identification of butterflies. In this paper, knowledge about how these biological methods can be taught to students is presented. After two years in the project, four teachers were interviewed and their PCK was captured in the form of content representations (CoRes) and Pedagogical and Professional-Experience Repertoires (PaP-eRs). These results can help future citizen science projects to link their activities to the school curriculum. But not only success can be reported: although one of the project team's aims was to make the Nature of Science accessible to the teachers and students in the course of the project, the teachers did not take this aspect into account. This paper discusses the possible reasons and proposes various strategies for improving citizen science in the context of school biology learning. [This paper was presented at the ERIDOB conference 2016.]

Forensic entomologists utilize insects (particularly flies) to establish the time interval between death and body discovery. This important piece of information may answer questions as to the circumstances of the individual's death and insects are now routinely utilized and recognized as being important forensic indicators. Of extreme importance is the correct identification of the fly species associated with the body, as misidentifications will cause inaccurate time of death estimates. Traditional fly identification methods rely on recognizing distinct physical traits each fly species may possess; however, this has given way to molecular techniques (i.e. DNA sequences) that are quicker and more reliable. Unfortunately no DNA sequence information exists on the forensically important fly species in the western U.S. although a molecular database has been advocated by a number of forensic entomologists. This laboratory experience allows students to develop general molecular based skills they will need later in their careers while simultaneously contributing data that will be used to create a molecular database containing DNA sequences for forensically important California flies. (Contains 2 figures.)

ASD research is at an important crossroads. The ASD diagnosis is important for assigning a child to early behavioral intervention and explaining a child's condition. But ASD research has not provided a diagnosis-specific medical treatment, or a consistent early predictor, or a unified life course. If the ASD diagnosis also lacks biological and construct validity, a shift away from studying ASD-defined samples would be warranted. Consequently, this paper reviews recent findings for the neurobiological validity of ASD, the construct validity of ASD diagnostic criteria, and the construct validity of ASD spectrum features. The findings reviewed indicate that the ASD diagnosis lacks biological and construct validity. The paper concludes with proposals for research going forward.

Reviews of the state of biology fieldwork in UK schools and universities at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Barker, Slingsby, and Tilling 2002; Smith 2004) were not entirely pessimistic; rather they suggested ways forward that might lead to an increase in fieldwork. Whether their hopes have been realised has, perhaps, been revealed by later studies. In 2006, the National Foundation for Educational Research comprehensively surveyed the extent of learning outside the classroom in English schools (O'Donnell, Morris and Wilson 2006). This survey included all kinds of fieldwork as well as that in biology and it concluded that, although many commentators had argued that there was a decline in fieldwork, there was little evidence in support of decline. Schools and local authorities considered that provision had increased or remained largely the same over the previous five years. Field work by primary schools on school sites was commonly reported as increasing. Less encouraging, however, are the findings of a metastudy by Lock (2010) of publications between 1963 and 2009, although only three out of 13 of these reported surveys were done after 2000, which addressed biology fieldwork provision for 16-19 year olds in UK schools and colleges. This study suggested that according to several criteria (time in the field, the number of teachers taking fieldwork, teacher perception of change and the amount of residential fieldwork) the extent of fieldwork had declined. Other criteria (the number and type of habitats visited) showed no clear evidence of change. The current status of fieldwork in UK universities, not withstanding the negative comment that has been reported in this article, appears to be buoyant. Maw, Mauchline, and Park (2011) surveyed academics from 27 institutions by questionnaire in 2010 and found no evidence of a decrease in biological fieldwork over the previous five years. Furthermore, when staff from 27 universities were interviewed by Skype or telephone in 2012 (Mauchline, Peacock, and Park 2013) there was no evidence of decline in fieldwork over the previous five years; fieldwork was greatly valued and a future increase was predicted in some institutions. The funding of fieldwork in UK universities has been anomalous in that students have sometimes been charged for fieldwork costs whereas expensive consumables used in laboratory classes have been provided without extra charge. Mauchline, Peacock, and Park (2013) suggested that the introduction of full-cost fees from 2012 has led to the deletion of extra charges for fieldwork; they suggest that this may boost fieldwork. Other suggested positive factors are that the promise of fieldwork enhances student recruitment, that fieldwork skills enhance employability and that students enjoy doing fieldwork. This is supported by the authors'experience with students at Hull University; they found that students valued fieldwork because of its leading to outdoor career opportunities and students largely enjoyed the fieldwork experience (Goulder, Scott, and Scott 2013; Scott et al. 2012). Here the authors posit that all in all, although there is clearly much difference of opinion, they are unconvinced that biological fieldwork and identification skills are currently at significant risk in UK universities; they also believe that fieldwork in schools has the potential for a positive future.

Evolutionary trees are key tools for modern biology and are commonly portrayed in textbooks to promote learning about biological evolution. However, many people have difficulty in understanding what evolutionary trees are meant to portray. In fact, some ideas that current professional biologists depict with evolutionary trees are neither clearly defined nor conveyed to students. To help biology teachers and students learn how to more deeply interpret, understand and gain knowledge from diagrams that represent ancestor-descendant relationships and evolutionary lineages, we describe the different rooted and unrooted evolutionary tree visualisations and explain how they are best read. Examples from a study of tree-shaped diagrams in the journal "Science" are used to illustrate how to distinguish evolutionary trees from other tree-shaped representations that are easily misunderstood as visualising evolutionary relationships. We end by making recommendations for how our findings may be implemented in teaching practice in this important area of biology education.

High failure rates in introductory college science courses, including anatomy and physiology, are common at institutions across the country, and determining the specific factors that contribute to this problem is challenging. To identify students at risk for failure in introductory physiology courses at our open-enrollment institution, an online pilot survey was administered to 200 biology students. The survey results revealed several predictive factors related to academic preparation and prompted a comprehensive analysis of college records of >2,000 biology students over a 5-yr period. Using these historical data, a model that was 91% successful in predicting student success in these courses was developed. The results of the present study support the use of surveys and similar models to identify at-risk students and to provide guidance in the development of evidence-based advising programs and pedagogies. This comprehensive approach may be a tangible step in improving student success for students from a wide variety of backgrounds in anatomy and physiology courses.

Taxonomic education and botany are increasingly neglected in schools and universities, leading to a "missed generation" of adults that cannot identify organisms, especially plants. This study pilots three methods for teaching identification of native plant species to forty-three adults engaged in the participatory science project "Open Air Laboratories" (OPAL). The three teaching methods (dichotomous key, word association exercise based on a mnemonic approach and pictorial card game) proved equally effective in teaching plant identification to participants for the groups of plants used. The dichotomous key is an established method for teaching transferrable identification skills, whilst the other two methods could be useful tools for stimulating initial interest and awareness in novices. The reasons for the decline in botanical knowledge are discussed, alongside the importance of using appealing identification resources and making botany relevant to people's lives. (Contains 2 tables and 6 figures.)

Implementation of a guided-inquiry lab in introductory biology classes, along with scaffolded instruction, improved students' understanding of the scientific method, their ability to design an experiment, and their identification of experimental variables. Pre- and postassessments from experimental versus control sections over three semesters showed that most students improved in their understanding of the scientific method and experimental design skills. Students exhibited improvement in their ability to create hypotheses and correctly identify controls and dependent variables. However, students in both groups struggled with the identification of independent variable and controlled variables.

We designed a microbiology project that fully engaged undergraduate biology students, high school students, and their teachers in a summer research program as part of the Research Education Vitalizing Science University Program conducted at California State University Bakersfield. Modern molecular biological methods and microscopy were used to detect and identify microcrustacean species in ponds around Bakersfield, California, that harbor the amphibian pathogen "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" ("Bd"). The students learned about the amphibian decline in California and worldwide due to chytridiomycosis and how microcrustaceans as natural predators of "Bd"-zoospores can be used in mitigation strategies for amphibian conservation.

Regrettably, the sciences are not untouched by the plagiarism affliction that threatens the integrity of budding professionals in classrooms around the world. My research, however, suggests that plagiarism training can improve students' recognition of plagiarism. I found that 148 undergraduate ecology students successfully identified plagiarized or unplagiarized paragraphs three-quarters of the time. The students' ability to identify plagiarism was not significantly different when the quoted or paraphrased text included complex sentence structure and scientific jargon and when it included only simple sentences that mostly lacked jargon. The students who received plagiarism training performed significantly better at plagiarism detection than did those who did not receive the training. Most of the students, independent of training, identified properly paraphrased, quoted, and attributed material but had much greater difficulty identifying paraphrases that included long strings of copied text--up to 15 words--or proper paraphrases that lacked citations. The misunderstanding of paraphrasing and citation conventions found here could manifest as unintentional plagiarism in these students' later work.

Undergraduates commonly harbor alternate conceptions about evolutionary biology; these alternate conceptions often persist, even after intensive instruction, and may influence acceptance of evolution. We interviewed undergraduates to explore their alternate conceptions about macroevolutionary patterns and designed a 2-h lesson plan to present evidence that life has evolved. We identified three alternate conceptions during our interviews: that newly derived traits would be more widespread in extant species than would be ancestral traits, that evolution proceeds solely by anagenesis, and that lineages must become more complex over time. We also attempted to measure changes in the alternate conceptions and levels of acceptance of evolutionary theory in biology majors and nonmajors after exposure to the lesson plan. The instrument used to assess understanding had flaws, but our results are suggestive of mixed effects: we found a reduction in the first alternate conception, no change in the second, and reinforcement of the third. We found a small, but significant, increase in undergraduate acceptance of evolutionary theory in two trials of the lesson plan (Cohen's d effect sizes of 0.51 and 0.19). These mixed results offer guidance on how to improve the lesson and show the potential of instructional approaches for influencing acceptance of evolution. (Contains 3 figures and 2 tables.)

The discovery of a Victorian-era microscope slide titled "Grouped Flower Seeds" began an investigation into the scientific and historical background of the antique slide to develop its usefulness as a multidisciplinary tool for PowerPoint presentations usable in contemporary biology classrooms, particularly large-enrollment sections. The resultant presentation was intended to engage students in discussing historical and contemporary biology education, as well as some of the intricacies of seed biology. Comparisons between the usefulness and scope of various seed identification resources, both online and in print, were made.

Bowers and Davis (2012) criticize Bayesian modelers for telling "just so" stories about cognition and neuroscience. Their criticisms are weakened by not giving an accurate characterization of the motivation behind Bayesian modeling or the ways in which Bayesian models are used and by not evaluating this theoretical framework against specific alternatives. We address these points by clarifying our beliefs about the goals and status of Bayesian models and by identifying what we view as the unique merits of the Bayesian approach.

In this study, we used targeted active-learning activities to help students improve their ways of reasoning about carbon flow in ecosystems. The results of a validated ecology conceptual inventory (diagnostic question clusters [DQCs]) provided us with information about students' understanding of and reasoning about transformation of inorganic and organic carbon-containing compounds in biological systems. These results helped us identify specific active-learning exercises that would be responsive to students' existing knowledge. The effects of the active-learning interventions were then examined through analysis of students' pre- and postinstruction responses on the DQCs. The biology and non-biology majors participating in this study attended a range of institutions and the instructors varied in their use of active learning; one lecture-only comparison class was included. Changes in pre- to postinstruction scores on the DQCs showed that an instructor's teaching method had a highly significant effect on student reasoning following course instruction, especially for questions pertaining to cellular-level, carbon-transforming processes. We conclude that using targeted in-class activities had a beneficial effect on student learning regardless of major or class size, and argue that using diagnostic questions to identify effective learning activities is a valuable strategy for promoting learning, as gains from lecture-only classes were minimal. (Contains 2 tables, 2 figures, and 2 footnotes.)

The current study examines 3- and 5-year-olds' representation of the concept we label "animal" and its two nested concepts--"animal"[subscript contrastive] (including only non-human animals) and "animal"[subscript inclusive] (including both humans and non-human animals). Building upon evidence that naming promotes object categorization, we introduced a novel noun for two distinct objects, and analyzed children's patterns of extension. In Experiment 1, children heard a novel noun in conjunction with two non-human animals (dog, bird). Here, both 3- and 5-year-olds readily accessed "animal"[subscript contrastive] and extended the noun systematically to other (previously un-named) non-human animals. In Experiment 2, children heard a novel noun in conjunction with a human and non-human animal. Here, 5-year-olds (but not 3-year-olds) accessed "animal"[subscript inclusive] and extended the noun systematically to humans and non-human animals. These results underscore the developmental challenge facing young children as they identify the scope of the fundamental biological term "animal" and its corresponding, nested concept(s). (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

To recruit and retain more students in all science disciplines at our small (5,000 student) public university, we implemented an interdisciplinary strategy focusing on nanotechnology and enhanced undergraduate research. Inherently interdisciplinary, the novelty of nanotechnology and its growing career potential appeal to students. To engage students in learning and to keep them engaged, we offer progressively more independent research opportunities with faculty mentors and encourage participation in a robust science learning community that supports students outside the classroom. Activities beginning in the freshman year build connections with faculty members and student peers and foster a growing individual identity as scientists. Since implementing this approach in 2005, a total of 73 students have enrolled and 32 have graduated. Half of the currently enrolled students are biology-chemistry majors and the rest are physics majors. We have significantly increased the number of student publications in peer-reviewed journals. These gains were achieved without sacrificing standards: 32 graduates have earned on average 148 credits and maintained a mean GPA of 3.17, and half have gone on to graduate school. (Contains 1 table.)

This study evaluates the impact of an independent postmidterm question analysis exercise on the ability of students to answer subsequent exam questions on the same topics. It was conducted in three sections (~400 students/section) of introductory biology. Graded midterms were returned electronically, and each student was assigned a subset of questions answered incorrectly by more than 40% of the class to analyze as homework. The majority of questions were at Bloom's application/analysis level; this exercise therefore emphasized learning at these higher levels of cognition. Students in each section answered final exam questions matched by topic to all homework questions, providing a within-class control group for each question. The percentage of students who correctly answered the matched final exam question was significantly higher (p less than 0.05) in the Topic Analysis versus Control Analysis group for seven of 19 questions. We identified two factors that influenced activity effectiveness: 1) similarity in topic emphasis of the midterm-final exam question pair and 2) quality of the completed analysis homework. Our data suggest that this easy-to-implement exercise will be useful in large-enrollment classes to help students develop self-regulated learning skills. Additional strategies to help introductory students gain a broader understanding of topic areas are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)

Prevalence statistics for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) vary widely across geographical boundaries. Some variation can be explained by diagnostic methods, case ascertainment and age at diagnosis. This study compared prevalence statistics for two distinct geographical regions, Denmark and Western Australia, both of which have had population-based registers and consistent classification systems operating over the past decade. Overall ASD prevalence rates were higher in Denmark (68.5 per 10,000 children) compared with Western Australia (51.0 per 10,000 children), while the diagnosis of childhood autism was more prevalent in Western Australia (39.3 per 10,000 children) compared with Denmark (21.8 per 10,000 children). These differences are probably caused by local phenomena affecting case ascertainment but influence from biological or geographical factors may exist.

This paper outlines the use of item analysis to assist examiners in evaluating the quality and validity of their MCQ exam questions. The generation of item analysis, particularly discrimination index, has long been established practice in professional testing and credentialing organisations and some disciplines in tertiary education, but its use appears to be inconsistent among Bioscience departments. We argue that generating some form of discrimination index is an essential part of the validation of exams, in particular to help identify errors in scoring, to identify potentially flawed questions, or to confirm the validity of challenging questions. We demonstrate each of these uses through examples drawn from first year Biology exams, with interpretations of the questions in the light of post-examination item analysis.

This study investigated whether studying dynamic-static visualizations prepared first-year Biology students better for an out-of-classroom experience in an aquarium than learning how to identify species with more traditional instructional materials. During an initial classroom phase, learners either watched underwater videos of 15 freshwater fish species (video-group, n = 46) or they were asked to identify preserved specimens of the same fish with the help of a dichotomous identification key (key-group, n = 43). Subsequently, all students were asked to identify the taught species during their visit to the aquarium. Our results indicate that the video-group was able to identify more species correctly than the key-group directly after the classroom instruction, whereas both groups performed equally well after the aquarium visit. (Contains 3 figures and 2 tables.)

In science education in the Netherlands new, context-based, curricula are being developed. As in any innovation, the outcome will largely depend on the teachers who design and implement lessons. Central to the study presented here is the idea that teachers, when designing lessons, use rules-of-thumb: notions of what a lesson should look like if certain classroom outcomes are to be reached. Our study aimed at (1) identifying the rules-of-thumb biology teachers use when designing context-based lessons for their own classroom practice, and (2) assessing how these personal rules-of-thumb relate to formal innovative goals and lesson characteristics. Six biology teachers with varying backgrounds designed and implemented a lesson or series of lessons for their own practice, while thinking aloud. We interviewed the teachers and observed their lessons. Our results suggest that rules-of-thumb, which differed substantially among the teachers, indeed to a great extent guide the decisions teachers make when designing (innovative) lessons. These rules-of-thumb were often strongly associated with intended lesson outcomes. Also, teachers' personal rules-of-thumb were more powerful in determining the lesson design than formal innovative goals and lesson characteristics. The results of this study encourage more research into how rules-of-thumb reflect teachers' practical knowledge, for which suggestions are made. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Objective: Genes likely play a substantial role in the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the genetic architecture of the disorder is unknown, and prior genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have not identified a genome-wide significant association. We have conducted a third, independent, multisite GWAS of DSM-IV-TR ADHD. Method: Families were ascertained at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH; N = 309 trios), Washington University at St. Louis (WASH-U; N = 272 trios), and University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA; N = 156 trios). Genotyping was conducted with the Illumina Human1M or Human1M-Duo BeadChip platforms. After applying quality control filters, association with ADHD was tested with 835,136 SNPs in 735 DSM-IV ADHD trios from 732 families. Results: Our smallest p value (6.7E-07) did not reach the threshold for genome-wide statistical significance (5.0E-08), but one of the 20 most significant associations was located in a candidate gene of interest for ADHD (SLC9A9, rs9810857, p = 6.4E-6). We also conducted gene-based tests of candidate genes identified in the literature and found additional evidence of association with SLC9A9. Conclusions: We and our colleagues in the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium are working to pool together GWAS samples to establish the large data sets needed to follow-up on these results and to identify genes for ADHD and other disorders. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

The aim of this work is to relate discussions of ideology and science within the Radical Science movement of the 1960s-1980s with present conversations on the integration of biology, psychology, and education. The argument is that an ideological analysis yields useful direction with respect to how a learning science might develop and how we might appeal to our best aspirations while avoiding our worst. The ideology of "how" in the title refers to beliefs about research strategies: In an ideology of "how," the aim is discovery and there is an appreciation of complexity. This stands in opposition to an ideology of "what," which focuses on diagnosis and categorization.

Whether students should memorize classification schemes (taxonomies) is a column in itself, but the author can address the role that this system plays in the study of biology. To that end, it will help to address how the system developed over time. And toward "that" end, you will do a simple activity to start. (Contains 3 figures.)