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The results of a long-term monitoring of the dynamics of phenetic features in ten populations of the bush snail Bradybaena fruticum (Mull.) in the Moscow region and city parks of Moscow have revealed that the frequency of the allele of striped shells remained unchanged in large natural populations, while there was a shift in the frequencies of this allele in small urbanized isolates. Simultaneously, in a series of generations, a tendency for the frequency of yellow shells to increase has been revealed, which can be accounted for by the ongoing lightening of the habitats (decreasing the shade density) and confirms the adaptability of the feature of shell color. The long-term experiment to maintain the viability of four urban populations of the bush snail Bradybaena fruticum (Mull.), which started with enriching their gene pool in 2003 and finished with monitoring in 2005, has revealed a shift in the frequencies of the stripe allele of shells. Further control over the condition of the gene pool of the rehabilitated populations (2017–2019) has revealed constancy of the frequency of this feature since 2005 within two generations of snails, including two populations where p < 0.01 and one where p < 0.05. Thus, the monitoring of the results of the experiment to enrich the gene pool of populations confirms that the patented method for maintaining population viability proves effective for restoration of the genetic diversity and viability of animal populations.

Natal dispersal of young common shrews (Sorex araneus) was studied in field conditions in the southern part of Tver oblast, in central European Russia. Total individual marking of shrews was conducted over an area of 22 ha. The places of birth of the young were determined by the home ranges of relative overwintered females. The animals were genotyped by ten microsatellite loci: L62, L68, L45, C117, L69, C5, B30, D106, D103, and D138. Family analysis was carried out using the Cervus 3.07 software. In 2013, with the population density in October being 6.5 individuals/ha, 33 mother‒pup dyads were identified for 229 yearlings and 20 females. The share of yearlings born within the study area was 14.8%, while the core of the population consisted of animals that had arrived from outside the plot. In 2014, with the population density in October reaching only 2.6 individuals/ha, nine mother‒pup dyads were found for 58 yearlings and nine mature females. The share of the animals born within the plot boundaries was 15.5%. Within the plot, dispersal from the natal ranges varied from 0 to 610 m, Me = 224, in 2013, and from 45 to 410 m, Me = 297, in 2014. The data obtained fail to confirm a meaningful year-to-year difference. Taking into account the corrections for the proportion of territory under control, the majority of young animals appear to have dispersed over a range of more than 400 m both during the high fall population density and during its decrease the next year.

The article presents the results of analysis of the variability of 23 allozyme loci in 10 populations of Siberian Stone pine. Populations from South Siberia mountain regions had higher percentage of polymorphic loci in averageand mean number of alleles per loci (P99% = 44,57 %, NA = 1,543 ± 0,014) compared to Ural populations (P99%=29,57%,NA = 1,348 ± 0,015). The average values of the observed and expected heterozygosity in the populations of the Altai-Sayan (HO = 0,087 ±0,007 and HE = 0,090 ± 0,004) and the Ural mountain region (HO = 0,083 ± 0,008 и HE = 0,082 ± 0,005)were close. About 8.4% of the total genetic diversity is due to differences between the studied populations. The results ofmultidimensional data analysis confirm the existence of the Altai-Sayan and Ural refugia in the post-glacial period andthe dispersal of Siberian stone pine to the North from the Ural glacier refugium.

The results of morphological and molecular genetic analysis confirming the hybrid nature of Salix × zhataica Efimova, Shurduk et Ahti are presented. In particular, according to the complex of phenotypic features (on the basis of discriminant analysis), the hybrid, which resulted, apparently, from interspecific hybridization of S. brachypoda (Trautv. et C.A. Mey.) Kom. and S. pyrolifolia Ledeb., is closer to S. brachypoda, indirectly indicating that this “parent” can be maternal. The polymorphism of molecular-genetic markers such as nuclear microsatellite loci and nucleotide sequences of the ITS region was analyzed in order to verify the hybrid and its parent species, S. brachypoda (Trautv. et C.A. Mey.) Kom. and S. pyrolifolia Ledeb. For instance, in the ITS region, two single nucleotide transitions were found, which indicate that the hybrid borrowed the corresponding nucleotides from both parent species. The given data indicate that S. × zhataica is indeed a hybrid between S. brachypoda and S. pyrolifolia.

—We identified the main genetic characteristics of the Kamchatka–Chukotka gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) population using nine nuclear microsatellite loci. Eight loci are polymorphic, with two to 15 alleles per locus. The average number of alleles per locus is 4.44. The values of expected and observed heterozygosity lie within 0.081–0.888 and 0.085–0.781, respectively. These levels of heterozygosity are comparable. The fixation index value (0.018 ± 0.037) indicates a genotypic equilibrium and makes it possible to suggest that the study population at its current size is genetically sufficient and that there is no inbreeding. Our data have been compared with world populations. As a result, we can state that the studied population, along with the Alaskan population, comprises most of the genetic diversity of the species. The selected and tested nuclear microsatellite loci (NVH fr34, NVH fp13, NVH fp46-1, NVH fp54, NVH fp79-4, NVH fp82-2, NVH fp89, and NVH fp92-1) have been determined as suitable for both individual identification and certification of birds in captivity, as well as for programs of genetic monitoring of wild populations.

The genetic diversity of four population of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in Moscow parks have been studied. For the first time, a comparison of the gene pool of planted stands in urban areas with the gene pool of natural populations and planted stands of the Moscow region investigated earlier revealed a significant reduction in the genetic diversity of planted stands of Moscow parks in comparison with conditionally native populations from the Moscow region. In three of the four urban planted stands, a decrease was revealed in the proportion of polymorphic loci (down to 0.41 and 0.50) compared to conditionally native forests (0.64). All plant stands do not differ from conditionally native in terms of average heterozygosity and average number of alleles per locus. However, the test for allelic frequency heterogeneity demonstrated a significant difference of all planted stands (from Moscow and the Moscow region) from conditionally native populations both by 3–11 loci and by all (17) polymorphic loci. The quality of the gene pool of three of the four Moscow planted stands was evaluated as unsatisfactory and one of them as critical. A reduction in viability of urban planted stands with a reduced gene pool diversity was revealed: two of the three plantations died. In our opinion, this is a consequence of the sharp deviations of the observed diversity of the gene pool of the studied plantations from the natural norm, i.e., an optimal state of the gene pool historical in this natural area. Thus, economic necessity of genetic control over the state of saplings in reforestation is obvious.

A comparative analysis of the gene pool state in natural populations and planted stands of Norway spruce and the degree of their infestation by the bark beetle in the Moscow region was conducted taking into account the dynamic state of communities (4 populations, 148 samples, 24 isoenzyme loci). The degree of infestation by the bark beetle of conditionally native communities is 0%; for planted stands, it is 90–100%; and for a short-term community, it is 15–20%. The comparison of “healthy” populations and those infested with bark beetle by average values of observed heterozygosity (H O) detected no significant differences. However, the test on allelic frequency heterogeneity demonstrated the difference of planted stands from conditionally native populations both by three loci (Fe-2, Idh-1, Mdh-3) and by the totality of 18 polymorphic isoenzyme loci; the short-term population differs from conditionally native population only by two loci. The value of the inbreeding coefficient by the Idh-1 locus is significantly higher in both populations infested with the bark beetle than in “healthy” populations. The results of conducted studies demonstrate the necessity of continuation of the study on the gene pool state in Norway spruce populations owing to the degree of their infestation by the bark beetle along with the study on the dynamic state of the communities; this can provide a key to solving the problem of the forest preservation from pests.

We examine the diversity of six microsatellite loci and partial RAG1 exon of “barabensis” and “pseudogriseus” karyoforms in Cricetulus barabensis sensu lato species complex. A total of 435 specimens from 68 localities ranging from Altai to the Far East are investigated. The results of the population structure analysis (factor analysis and NJ tree based on Nei genetic distances) support subdivision into two well-differentiated clusters corresponding to the two karyoforms. These karyoforms are also well differentiated by the level of microsatellite variability. In several “barabensis” specimens, we found microsatellite alleles that are common in “pseudogriseus” populations but are otherwise absent in “barabensis.” Most of these specimens originate from a single population in one of the zones of potential contact between karyoforms, Kharkhorin in Central Mongolia. These molecular results are consistent with previously published karyological data in suggesting that rare hybridization events between the two chromosomal races occur in nature.

Siberian stone pine, Pinus sibirica Du Tour is one of the most economically and environmentally important forest-forming species of conifers in Russia. To study these forests a large number of highly polymorphic molecular genetic markers, such as microsatellite loci, are required. Prior to the new high-throughput next generation sequencing (NGS) methods, discovery of microsatellite loci and development of micro-satellite markers were very time consuming and laborious. The recently developed draft assembly of the Siberian stone pine genome, sequenced using the NGS methods, allowed us to identify a large number of microsatellite loci in the Siberian stone pine genome and to develop species-specific PCR primers for amplification and genotyping of 70 microsatellite loci. The primers were designed using contigs containing short simple sequence tandem repeats from the Siberian stone pine whole genome draft assembly. Based on the testing of primers for 70 microsatellite loci with tri-, tetra- or pentanucleotide repeats, 18 most promising, reliable and polymorphic loci were selected that can be used further as molecular genetic markers in population genetic studies of Siberian stone pine.

Aspen Populus tremula L. (Salicaceae) is the fast-growing tree species of environmental and economic value. Aspen is capable of reproduction by both seeds and vegetative means, forming root sprouts. In an adult stand, identification of ramets of one clone among the trees of seed origin based on their morphology is difficult. A panel of 14 microsatellite loci developed for individual identification of aspen was applied for the clonal structure analysis in four natural aspen stands of the European part of Russia: Moscow and Voronezh oblasts, the Mari-El Republic, and the Republic of Tatarstan. In 52 trees from the Moscow sample, 41 multilocus genotypes were identified; in the Voronezh sample, among 30 individuals, 25 different genotypes were detected; and in the sample from Mari-El, 32 trees were represented by 13 genotypes. In the stand from Sabinsky Forestry, Tatarstan, all of the examined 29 trees were represented by a single genotype. The ancestral tree carrier of this genotype which was the most heterozygous (0.929) among all studied aspen individuals (sample mean, 0.598) obviously has spread over a large territory during several cutting and reproduction cycles, currently occupying the area of 2.2 ha. For aspen, usually suffering from Aspen trunk rot, such high viability is evidence of resistance to the main pathogens. The revealed superclone deserves further study with karyological methods and flow cytometry to determine ploidy level and analysis of the growth rate and the quality of wood for possible use in plantation forest production.

Based on the analysis of the variability of 25 allozyme loci, genetic variation within and differentiation between populations of Siberian Stone Pine growing at the trailing-edge range margin in the southern taiga up to the forest-steppe transition zone in Western Siberia have been estimated. At the current stage, climate change and anthropogenic impact have not caused a substantial reduction in genetic diversity within and increase in differentiation between isolated small stands at the southern edge of their distribution in the lowland areas of the Siberian Stone Pine range.

The Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour) is one of the main forest-forming coniferous species of the boreal ecosystems of Western Siberia. We used the isozyme method to analyze 11 ecotypes representing the latitudinal and longitudinal profiles within the species range, including samples from the geographic boundaries of the distribution. The genetic structure of the ecotypes is described on the basis of the variability for 26 isozyme loci encoding for 16 enzyme systems. The greatest genetic diversity was observed in the taiga ecotypes in the central part of the studied area, while the ecotypes along the species range boundaries were shown to be genetically depauperized. Approximately 8.1 % of the observed genetic diversity is attributed to differences between the studied ecotypes. We detected high levels of genetic diversity for the Fest-2, Pgm-1, Sod-4, and a few other loci, as well as a correlation between allele frequencies and geographical locations of the populations. The results of multivariate analysis of allelic frequencies as well as cluster analysis allowed us to discriminate three major groups of ecotypes: north-eastern, central and south-western. In view of our results, we compare two hypotheses: one which attributes the spatial distribution of genetic variations to the selectivity for some of the polymorphic allozyme loci, and the other based in the history of the formation of the range of the Siberian stone pine.

Siberian dwarf pine, or Japanese stone pine, Pinus pumila (Pall.) Regel is widespread in eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East; the species is bird-dispersed and has a unique crawling or shrub living form. A mixed mating system (predominant outcrossing with self-pollination and matings of close relatives) leads to the formation of partly inbred progenies in P. pumila, as in the majority of other conifers. The question arises as to whether inbred individuals persist in the reproductive part of a population, which can have negative genetic consequences. The ADH, FDH, FEST, GDH, GOT, IDH, LAP, MNR, MDH, PEPCA, 6-PGD, PGI, PGM, SKDH, and SOD isozyme systems were analyzed to study the dynamics of heterozygosity in four P. pumila natural populations from the Pacific region, optimal for the species. Samples were collected in northern Koryakia, southern Kamchatka (two samples), and the Kunashir Island (Kurils). Wright’s fixation index was used to estimate the level of inbreeding in embryos from dormant seeds resulting from open pollination and in maternal plants. A substantial level of inbreeding (F IS = 0.124−0.342) was observed in the embryo samples but not in three out of the four adult samples. The inbreeding level at the reproductive age was high only in the sample from Koryakia, which can be explained by a relatively young age of plants in the population frequently affected by fires. A general increase in heterozygosity in the course of ontogeny, characteristic of other conifers as well, was attributed to elimination of inbred progenies and by balancing selection in favor of heterozygotes, which is a key factor maintaining allozyme polymorphism in populations.

Swiss stone pine Pinus cembra L. is a species with fragmented range, occurring in the Alpine-East Carpathian mountain system. Seeds of P. cembra are dispersed by nutcrackers, which offers potential possibilities for gene exchange among populations. Using isozyme analysis, we have examined five samples from two parts of the Swiss stone pine range: the Alps (Switzerland and Austria) and the Carpathians (two samples from the northern macroslope of the Gorgany Ridge, Eastern Carpathians, Ivano-Frankivs'ka oblast and one sample from Zakarpats'ka oblast of Ukraine). The allele frequencies of 30 isozyme loci, coding for enzymes ADH, FDH, FEST, GDH, GOT, IDH, LAP, MNR, MDH, PEPCA, 6-PGD, PGI, PGM, SDH, SKDH, SOD, were analyzed using cluster analysis and Principal Component Analysis. Two clusters, corresponding to the isolated Alpine and Carpathian parts of the range, were found. The main contribution to these differences were made by loci Adh-1, Adh-2, Fest-2, Lap-3, Mdh-4, and Sod-4. The interpopulation differentiation proved to be somewhat higher than that typical for pines (FST = 7.4%), but within the limits characteristic for taxonomically close species. Thus, isolation of the populations did not lead to their marked differentiation, which may be explained by gene flow and balancing selection, which equalizes gene frequencies across the fragmented species area. Interlocus (FST heterogeneity (from 0.003 to 0.173) suggests adaptive significance of some of the allozyme polymorphisms or linkage of some loci with adaptive genes. The Carpathian populations were shown to have higher gene diversity than the Alpine ones (expected heterozygosities 0.095–0.114 and 0.060–0.080, respectively). A deficiency of heterozygotes (as compared to the Hardy-Weinberg proportions), observed in the embryo sample, was probably explained by inbreeding. The reduction in the area of Carpathian pine forests in Holocene, caused by the global climatic changes and the anthropogenic impact, is hazardous for the gene pool of the species. The maintenance of genetic uniqueness of both Carpathian populations of P. cembra in general, and individual stands in particular, requires special measures for protection of Swiss stone pine in the Eastern Carpathians.

A comparative analysis was performed of the polymorphism of the oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (Fr.) Kumm naturally occurring strains isolated from the natural substrates from two geographically remote Russian natural preserves, the Central Forest Biosphere Tver State Preserve and the Moscow State University Zvenigorod Biological Station (Moscow oblast), and within the city of Moscow. The results of the frequency analysis for the allozyme loci alleles and for the sexual and somatic incompatibility groups are presented; the genetic structure and the interpopulation relations among 58 Pleurotus ostreatus dikaryotic strains are estimated. The natural samples from the Moscow and Tver oblasts are shown to have a high degree of polymorphism with a genetic differentiation of 0.743; in spite of their territorial remoteness, they are, however, actively exchanging genetic material. The natural fungal isolates form two reproductively isolated groups.