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The woolly flying squirrel, Eupetaurus cinereus, is among the rarest and least studied mammals in the world. For much of the 20th century it was thought to be extinct, until it was rediscovered in 1994 in northern Pakistan. This study outlines the first taxonomic and biogeographical review of the genus Eupetaurus, which until now has contained only a single species. Careful review of museum specimens and published records of Eupetaurus demonstrates that the genus occurs in three widely disjunct areas situated on the western (northern Pakistan and north-western India), north-central (south-central Tibet, northern Sikkim and western Bhutan) and south-eastern margins (north-western Yunnan, China) of the Himalayas. Taxonomic differentiation between these apparently allopatric populations of Eupetaurus was assessed with an integrative approach involving both morphological examinations and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Phylogenetic reconstruction was implemented using sequences of three mitochondrial [cytochrome b (Cytb), mitochondrially encoded 12S and 16S ribosomal RNA (12S, 16S)] and one nuclear [interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP)] gene fragment. Morphological assessments involved qualitative examinations of features preserved on museum skins and skulls, supplemented with principal components analysis of craniometric data. Based on genetic and morphological comparisons, we suggest that the three widely disjunct populations of Eupetaurus are each sufficiently differentiated genetically and morphologically to be recognized as distinct species, two of which are described here as new.

All scalopine moles are found in North America, except the Gansu mole (Scapanulus oweni), which is endemic to central-west China. In 2019, we collected two specimens of Scalopini on Mt Namjagbarwa in the eastern Himalayas, Tibet, China. We sequenced two mitochondrial (CYT B and 12S) and three nuclear (APOB, BRCA1 and RAG2) genes to estimate the phylogenetic relationships of the two moles, and also compared their morphology with other genera and species within the Scalopini. Both morphological and molecular analyses strongly suggest that the specimens represent a new monotypic genus and species, which are formally described here as Alpiscaptulus medogensis gen. et sp. nov. The dental formula of the new mole (44 teeth) is distinct from the Chinese Scapanulus oweni (36 teeth) and its hairy and pale brown tail is unique among species of the Scalopini. The Kimura-2-parameter (K2P) distances of CYT B between A. medogensis and the four recognized Scalopini genera range from 14.5% to 18.9%. A sister relationship between A. medogensis and Scapanulus oweni was strongly supported in the phylogenetic trees. The divergence between A. medogensis and Scapanulus oweni occurred in the mid-Miocene (c. 11.56 Mya), which corresponds with the rapid uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau.

The flying squirrels (Pteromyini, Rodentia) are the most diverse and widely distributed group of gliding mammals. Taxonomic boundaries and relationships within flying squirrels remain an area of active research in mammalogy. The discovery of new specimens of Pteromys (Hylopetes) leonardi Thomas, 1921, previously considered a synonym of Hylopetes alboniger, in Yunnan Province, China allowed a morphological and genetic reassessment of the status of this taxon. Phylogenetic reconstruction was implemented using sequences of two mitochondrial (12S ribosomal RNA and 16S ribosomal RNA) and one nuclear (interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein) gene fragments. Morphological assessments involved examinations of features preserved on skins, skulls, and penises of museum specimens, supplemented with principal component analysis of craniometric data. Together these assessments revealed that this taxon should be recognized not only as a distinct species, but should also be placed within a new genus, described here as Priapomys gen. nov.

Phylogenetic relationships within the sinica-group of macaques based on morphological, behavioral, and molecular characteristics have remained controversial. The Nepal population of Assam macaques ( Macaca assamensis) (NPAM), the westernmost population of the species, is morphologically distinct but has never been used in phylogenetic analyses. Here, the phylogenetic relationship of NPAM with other congeners was tested using multiple mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal loci. The divergence times and evolutionary genetic distances among macaques were also estimated. Results revealed two major mitochondrial DNA clades of macaques under the sinica-group: the first clade included M. thibetana, M. sinica, and eastern subspecies of Assam macaque ( M. assamensis assamensis); the second clade included M. radiata together with species from the eastern and central Himalaya, namely, M. leucogenys, M. munzala, and NPAM. Among the second-clade species, NPAM was the first to diverge from the other members of the clade around 1.9 million years ago. Our results revealed that NPAM is phylogenetically distinct from the eastern Assam macaques and closer to other species and hence may represent a separate species. Because of its phylogenetic distinctiveness, isolated distribution, and small population size, the Nepal population of sinica-group macaques warrants detailed taxonomic revision and high conservation priority.

The interpretation of patterns of biodiversity requires the disentanglement of geographical and environmental variables. Disjunct alpine communities are geographically isolated from one another but experience similar environmental impacts. Isolated homogenous habitats may promote speciation but constrain functional trait variation. In this study, we examined the hypothesis that dispersal limitation promotes taxonomic divergence, whereas habitat similarity in alpine mountains leads to functional convergence. We performed standardized field investigation to sample non-volant small mammals from 18 prominent alpine sites in the Three Parallel Rivers area. We estimated indices quantifying taxonomic and functional alpha- and beta-diversity, as well as beta-diversity components. We then assessed the respective importance of geographical and environmental predictors in explaining taxonomic and functional compositions. No evidence was found to show that species were more functionally similar than expected in local assemblages. However, the taxonomic turnover components were higher than functional ones (0.471±0.230 vs. 0.243±0.215), with nestedness components showing the opposite pattern (0.063±0.054 vs. 0.269±0.225). This indicated that differences in taxonomic compositions between sites occurred from replacement of functionally similar species. Geographical barriers were the key factor influencing both taxonomic total dissimilarity and turnover components, whereas functional beta-diversity was primarily explained by climatic factors such as minimum temperature of the coldest month. Our findings provide empirical evidence that taxonomic and functional diversity patterns can be independently driven by different ecological processes. Our results point to the importance of clarifying different components of beta-diversity to understand the underlying mechanisms of community assembly. These results also shed light on the assembly rules and ecological processes of terrestrial mammal communities in extreme environments.理解生物多样性格局及其形成过程通常需要综合考虑地理和环境因素的影响。不同的高山群落在地理上可能受到峡谷、江河、人类活动等阻隔，但共享相似的栖息地环境。这些受到隔离的同质栖息地可能在促进物种形成的同时限制功能性状的变化。在本研究中，我们以非飞行小型兽类为研究对象，对高山栖息地的扩散限制过程促进物种分化，但栖息地相似性导致功能性状收敛的假说进行了验证。我们对三江并流区18个高山样点的非飞行小型兽类进行了标准化野外采样。计算了物种和功能α和β多样性，以及β多样性成分的相关指数。然后，我们分别评价了地理和环境因素对上述多样性指标的解释程度。结果并未显示局地尺度的功能结构比预期更加相似。但物种周转成分高于功能周转成分（0.471±0.230 vs. 0.243±0.215），且物种嵌套成分低于功能嵌套成分（0.063±0.054 vs. 0.269±0.225），说明不同高山样点间的物种组成差异是由功能相似的物种引起的。物种总β多样性及周转成分仅受地理隔离驱动，而功能总β多样性及周转成分主要受到低温等环境因子驱动。我们的结果证明，在特定情况下，同一区域内物种和功能β多样性及其成分的主要生态驱动因素可能并不一致。该结果提示了通过β多样性分解可以极大程度加深我们对生物多样性格局及其驱动因素的理解。本研究还为极端环境中的陆生哺乳动物群落构建过程提供了实际案例。.

Here, we assessed the spatiotemporal distribution of the poorly studied Mishmi takin Budorcas taxicolor to gain a preliminary understanding of the spatiotemporal ecology of the species. We used presence data from line transects and camera-trap surveys combined with a presence-only species distribution model to identify the key factors relevant to takin distribution. Distance to residential site was the main contributing factor to the model predicting habitat suitability for takin. Mishmi takin appeared to prefer habitats far away from residential locations. Our predicted suitable habitats for takin were highly fragmented and were constrained in narrow ranges of remote mountain areas. A circular distribution curve fitted to camera events indicated that grouped takin were more active during the day and less active at night compared to solitary takin. Differences in activity patterns between takin in groups and solitaries might relate to sexual segregation and calve attendance. Our information on the distribution and habitat characteristics of the species will assist habitat management and our prediction map could guide future field surveys for locating a long-term monitoring program.

In the Anthropocene, understanding the impacts of anthropogenic influence on biodiversity and behavior of vulnerable wildlife communities is increasingly relevant to effective conservation. However, comparative studies aimed at disentangling the concurrent effect of different types of human disturbance on multifaceted biodiversity and on activity patterns of mammals are surprisingly rare. We applied a multiregion community model to separately estimate the effects of cumulative human modification (e.g., settlement, agriculture, and transportation) and human presence (aggregated presence of dogs, people, and livestock) on species richness and functional composition of medium- and large-bodied mammals based on camera trap data collected across 45 subtropical montane forests. We divided the detected mammal species into three trophic guilds-carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores-and assessed the nocturnal shifts of each guild in response to anthropogenic activities. Overall, species richness tended to increase (β coefficient = 0.954) as human modification increased but richness decreased as human presence increased (β = -1.054). Human modification was associated with significantly lower functional diversity (mean nearest taxon distance [MNTD], β = -0.134; standardized effect sizes of MNTD, β = -0.397), community average body mass (β = -0.240), and proportion of carnivores (β = -0.580). Human presence was associated with a strongly reduced proportion of herbivores (β = -0.522), whereas proportion of omnivores significantly increased as human presence (β = 0.378) and habitat modification (β = 0.419) increased. In terms of activity patterns, omnivores (β = 12.103) and carnivores (β = 9.368) became more nocturnal in response to human modification. Our results suggest that human modification and human presence have differing effects on mammals and demonstrate that anthropogenic disturbances can lead to drastic loss of functional diversity and result in a shift to nocturnal behavior of mammals. Conservation planning should consider concurrent effects of different types of human disturbance on species richness, functional diversity, and behavior of wildlife communities.Pérdidas en la Diversidad Funcional y Cambios en el Comportamiento Nocturno de los Mamíferos bajo la Perturbación Antropogénica Resumen En el Antropoceno, el conocimiento sobre la influencia antropogénica sobre la biodiversidad y el comportamiento de las comunidades vulnerables de fauna es cada vez más relevante para la conservación efectiva. Sin embargo, sorprende que los estudios comparativos dirigidos a desentrañar el efecto concurrente de los diferentes tipos de perturbación humana sobre la biodiversidad multifacética y sobre los patrones de actividad de los mamíferos son escasos. Aplicamos un modelo de comunidad multirregional para estimar de manera separada los efectos de la modificación humana (p. ej.: establecimientos, agricultura, transporte) y la presencia humana (presencia agregada de perros, gente y ganado) acumuladas sobre la riqueza de especies y la composición funcional de los mamíferos de tamaño mediano y grande con base en datos de fototrampas recolectados en 45 bosques montanos subtropicales. Dividimos las especies de mamíferos detectadas en tres gremios tróficos: carnívoros, herbívoros y omnívoros, y analizamos los cambios nocturnos de cada gremio como respuesta a las actividades antropogénicas. En general, la riqueza de especies tuvo una tendencia al incremento (coeficiente β = 0.954) conforme aumentaron las modificaciones humanas, pero la riqueza disminuyó conforme incrementó la presencia humana (β = −1.054). Las modificaciones humanas estuvieron asociadas con una diversidad funcional (distancia promedio al taxón más cercano [DPTC], β = −0.134; tamaños del efecto estandarizado de la DPTC, β = −0.397), masa corporal promedio de la comunidad (β = −0.240) y proporción de carnívoros (β = −0.580) significativamente más bajas. La presencia humana estuvo asociada con una proporción gravemente reducida de herbívoros (β = −0.522), mientras que la proporción de omnívoros incrementó significativamente conforme aumentaron la presencia humana (β = 0.378) y la modificación del hábitat (β = 0.419). En cuanto a los patrones de actividad, los omnívoros (β = 12.103) y los carnívoros (β = 9.368) se volvieron más nocturnos como respuesta a las modificaciones humanas. Nuestros resultados sugieren que las modificaciones humanas y la presencia de personas tienen efectos diferentes sobre los mamíferos y demuestran que las perturbaciones antropogénicas pueden llevar a pérdidas drásticas de la diversidad funcional y resultar en un cambio hacia el comportamiento nocturno en los mamíferos. La planeación de la conservación debería considerar los efectos concurrentes de los diferentes tipos de perturbaciones humanas sobre la riqueza de especies, la diversidad funcional y el comportamiento de las comunidades faunísticas.在人类世, 理解人类活动对受胁野生动物群落结构及行为的影响与生物多样性的有效保护密切相关, 然而鲜有研究对比分析不同类型人类活动对哺乳动物物种和功能多样性的影响。本研究基于亚热带山地森林 45 个调查样地的红外相机监测数据, 采用多区域群落模型分析长期累积的人类改造 (居民点、农业和交通运输等) 和实时人类活动 (红外相机记录到的狗、人和牲畜) 对大中型哺乳动物物种多样性及功能组成的影响。研究将红外相机探测到的哺乳动物按食性 (功能) 分为食肉类、食草类和杂食类, 并分析人类活动对各类群夜行性变化的影响。结果表明: 整体物种多样性随人类改造的增加而上升 (β = 0.954), 但随实时人类活动的增加而下降 (β = −1.054); 群落功能多样性 (MNTD, β = −0.134; ses.MNTD, β = −0.397)、平均体重 (β = −0.240) 和食肉类占比 (β = −0.580) 均随人类改造的增加而显著下降;食草类占比随实时人类活动的增强而显著减少 (β = −0.522); 杂食类占比则随人类改造 (β = 0.378) 和实时人类活动 (β = 0.419) 的增加而显著增加; 行为节律分析结果表明, 人类改造显著增加杂食类 (β = 12.103) 和食肉类 (β = 9.368) 夜行性水平。研究证实, 人类改造和实时人类活动对哺乳动物群落结构及功能的影响存在差别; 人类活动会导致哺乳动物功能多样性急剧减少和夜行性行为显著改变。因此, 制定保护计划时应该综合考虑不同类型人类活动对野生动物物种多样性、功能多样性和行为的共同影响。.

Biodiversity hotspots should be given high priority for conservation under the situation of global climate change. The sky islands in southwestern China are characterized by extraordinarily high species diversity and are among one of the world's top biodiversity hotspots. However, neither the actual species diversity in this region or mechanisms generating this diversity are well explored. Here, we report on the phylogeographic analysis of the long-tailed mole (Scaptonyx fusicaudus), a semi-fossorial mammal that inhabits the montane cool forests across the Chinese sky islands and is considered to represent one species divided into two subspecies. Analyses using DNA sequence data from one mitochondrial and six nuclear genes revealed that populations inhabiting different mountains exhibited exceptionally strong geographic structure. The lowlands and large rivers act as "soft" and "hard" barriers to dispersal, respectively, isolating evolutionary lineages for up to 11 million years. Our results suggest that the mountain ranges act as interglacial refugia buffering populations from climate fluctuations, further facilitating allopatric diversification. Strikingly, species delimitation analyses suggests that the long-tailed mole may comprise 18 operational taxonomic units and 17 putative species. Our results suggest that for low-vagility species, the complex topography of the Chinese sky islands has shaped genetic diversity and structure and promoted exceptional diversification through a combination of eco-environmental stability as well as geographic fragmentation. The patterns observed in S. fusicaudus may be representative for other cold-adapted species, reflecting the generation of mammalian faunal diversity in the sky-island mountains of southwestern China.

The flying squirrels of the tribe Pteromyini (Family Sciuridae) currently include 15 genera of which the genus Biswamoyopterus comprises two recognized species, B.biswasi Saha, 1981 and B.laoensis Sanamxay et al., 2013. These two species were each described from only one specimen that are separated from each other by 1,250 kilometres in southern Asia, where they occur in northeast India and central Lao PDR respectively. In 2017 and 2018, two specimens of Biswamoyopterus were discovered from Mount Gaoligong, west Yunnan province, southwest China (between the type locality of the two recognized species). This study aimed to evaluate the taxonomic status of these two newly acquired specimens of Biswamoyopterus by comparing their morphology with the two described species of the genus. The results of this study showed that the specimens from Yunnan province (China) differed from both B.laoensis and B.biswasi in both pelage colour and craniology, and should be recognised as a distinct species, B.gaoligongensissp. nov., which is formally described here. This study contributes to the understanding of the flying squirrels of southern Asia and identifies an additional species that appears to be endemic to southwest China; however, more research is required to provide details of its ecology, distribution, and conservation status.

Background The speckled-pelage brush-furred rats (Lophuromys flavopunctatus group) have been difficult to define given conflicting genetic, morphological, and distributional records that combine to obscure meaningful accounts of its taxonomic diversity and evolution. In this study, we inferred the systematics, phylogeography, and evolutionary history of the L. flavopunctatus group using maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic inference, divergence times, historical biogeographic reconstruction, and morphometric discriminant tests. We compiled comprehensive datasets of three loci (two mitochondrial [mtDNA] and one nuclear) and two morphometric datasets (linear and geometric) from across the known range of the genus Lophuromys. Results The mtDNA phylogeny supported the division of the genus Lophuromys into three primary groups with nearly equidistant pairwise differentiation: one group corresponding to the subgenus Kivumys (Kivumys group) and two groups corresponding to the subgenus Lophuromys (L. sikapusi group and L. flavopunctatus group). The L. flavopunctatus group comprised the speckled-pelage brush-furred Lophuromys endemic to Ethiopia (Ethiopian L. flavopunctatus members [ETHFLAVO]) and the non-Ethiopian ones (non-Ethiopian L. flavopunctatus members [NONETHFLAVO]) in deeply nested relationships. There were distinctly geographically structured mtDNA clades among the NONETHFLAVO, which were incongruous with the nuclear tree where several clades were unresolved. The morphometric datasets did not systematically assign samples to meaningful taxonomic units or agree with the mtDNA clades. The divergence dating and ancestral range reconstructions showed the NONETHFLAVO colonized the current ranges over two independent dispersal events out of Ethiopia in the early Pleistocene. Conclusion The phylogenetic associations and divergence times of the L. flavopunctatus group support the hypothesis that paleoclimatic impacts and ecosystem refugia during the Pleistocene impacted the evolutionary radiation of these rodents. The overlap in craniodental variation between distinct mtDNA clades among the NONETHFLAVO suggests unraveling underlying ecomorphological drivers is key to reconciling taxonomically informative morphological characters. The genus Lophuromys requires a taxonomic reassessment based on extensive genomic evidence to elucidate the patterns and impacts of genetic isolation at clade contact zones.

For organisms to survive and prosper in a harsh environment, particularly under rapid climate change, poses tremendous challenges. Recent studies have highlighted the continued loss of megafauna in terrestrial ecosystems and the subsequent surge of small mammals, such as rodents, bats, lagomorphs, and insectivores. However, the ecological partitioning of these animals will likely lead to large variation in their responses to environmental change. In the present study, we investigated the evolutionary history and genetic adaptations of white-bellied rats (Niviventer Marshall, 1976), which are widespread in the natural terrestrial ecosystems in Asia but also known as important zoonotic pathogen vectors and transmitters. The southeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was inferred as the origin center of this genus, with parallel diversification in temperate and tropical niches. Demographic history analyses from mitochondrial and nuclear sequences of Niviventer demonstrated population size increases and range expansion for species in Southeast Asia, and habitat generalists elsewhere. Unexpectedly, population increases were seen in N. eha, which inhabits the highest elevation among Niviventer species. Genome scans of nuclear exons revealed that among the congeneric species, N. eha has the largest number of positively selected genes. Protein functions of these genes are mainly related to olfaction, taste, and tumor suppression. Extensive genetic modification presents a major strategy in response to global changes in these alpine species.

The distribution of small mammals in mountainous environments across different elevations can provide important information on the effects of climate change on the dispersal of species. However, few studies conducted on Afromontane ecosystems have compared the altitudinal patterns of small mammal diversity. We investigated the species diversity and abundance of non-volant small mammals (hereafter ‘small mammals’) on Mt. Kenya, the second tallest mountain in Africa, using a standard sampling scheme. Nine sampling transects were established at intervals of 200 m on the eastern (Chogoria) and western (Sirimon) slopes. A total of 1 905 individuals representing 25 species of small mammals were trapped after 12 240 trap-nights. Abundance was highest at mid-elevations on both slopes. However, species richness and distribution patterns differed between the two slopes. More species were recorded on Chogoria (24) than on Sirimon (17).On Chogoria, species richness was higher at mid-high elevations, with a peak at mid-elevation (2 800 m a.s.l.), whereas species richness showed little variation on the Sirimon slope. These results indicate that patterns of species diversity can differ between slopes on the same mountain. In addition, we extensively reviewed literature on Mt. Kenya’s mammals and compiled a comprehensive checklist of 76 mammalian species. However, additional research is required to improve our understanding of small mammal diversity in mountain habitats in Africa.

Sustainable conservation and management of a species require detailed knowledge of its population status and distribution pattern. The population of the Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis in Nepal, probably a new subspecies endemic to the country, is yet to be studied for documenting its spatial distribution and size. We did extensive surveys across three major river systems of Nepal (Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali river systems) by modified line transect method covering almost the entire distribution range of the species within the Nepal territory. We counted a total of 829 individuals in 43 groups that accounted for the average group size of 19.29 (±10.40) individuals. The elevation distribution of the species ranged between 130m and 2650m. Further, we assessed the potential distribution areas of the species by ecological niche modeling employing maximum entropy algorithm. The census and ecological niche modeling congruently revealed the mid-hills of eastern and central Nepal outside the protected areas as the major habitats of this nationally endangered and protected primate. Conservation attempts, therefore, should focus on this area.

Kenya has a rich mammalian fauna. We reviewed recently published books and papers including the six volumes of Mammals of Africa to develop an up-to-date annotated checklist of all mammals recorded from Kenya. A total of 390 species have been identified in the country, including 106 species of rodents, 104 species of bats, 63 species of even-toed ungulates (including whales and dolphins), 36 species of insectivores and carnivores, 19 species of primates, five species of elephant shrews, four species of hyraxes and odd-toed ungulates, three species of afrosoricids, pangolins, and hares, and one species of aardvark, elephant, sirenian and hedgehog. The number of species in this checklist is expected to increase with additional surveys and as the taxonomic status of small mammals (e.g., bats, shrews and rodents) becomes better understood.

Ecological dynamics and faunal diversity documentation is normally conducted by direct observation and trapping of live animals. However, surveys of carnivore scat prey and surface bone remains, which are relatively inexpensive, can provide complementary data that expand carnivore diet breadth and may improve accuracy regarding inferences of the ecological dynamics of a given ecosystem. We used this inexpensive method to document species diversity variation with elevation on the leeward (Sirimon) and windward (Chogoria) areas of Mt. Kenya. Bone and fecal specimens were opportunistically collected by walking 2 km in opposite directions from transect points selected at 200-m intervals along the elevational gradient of the study areas. We collected a total of 220 carnivore fecal and owl pellet specimens from both study sites, which were mainly deposited by the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), leopard (Panthera pardus), serval (Leptailurus serval), genet (Genetta sp.), and Mackinder’s Cape owl (Bubo capensis mackinderi). Serval scats were the most common, followed by those of the spotted hyena. Scats and bones were found at the lowest density at the lowest elevations, peaked at mid-higher elevations, and then declined at the highest elevations. Based on skeletal analysis only, there were more species in Sirimon (19) than in Chogoria (12). Small fauna (rodents to duiker size bovids) formed the bulk of the identified remains, representing 87.9% of the Sirimon fauna and 90.9% of the Chogoria fauna. The genus Otomys was the dominant prey of the owl and serval in both sites. Three giraffe teeth were found at 3 500 m a.s.l. in Chogoria on the edge of Lake Ellis, suggesting that it is an occasional visitor to such high elevations. This study underscores the value of fecal and bone surveys in understanding the diet and diversity of mammals in ecological ecosystems, but such surveys should be complemented with analysis of hairs found in scats to obtain a more complete list of carnivore prey at Mt. Kenya.

The species and subspecies status of various populations of the Himalayan langur (Semnopithecus entellus) have been disputed in many literatures. Before delineating the taxonomic boundaries, it is important to identify the potential distribution areas of extant populations of the species. Ecological niche modeling (ENM) can be coupled with the systematic survey of species presence to identify the species’ potential distribution range. Therefore, we did extensive survey and population census of the Himalayan langur across three major river basins (Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali) of Nepal and analyzed the population patterns. In addition, we also modelled the ecological niche of the species by using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm. We counted a total of 559 individuals from 33 troops that accounted the average troop size of 16.94 (±8.39) individuals. Within Nepal territory, the highest population of langurs was observed from the Gandaki River basin followed by the Karnali River basin. We revealed that Himalayan langurs have a wide range of altitudinal (49 m - 4190 m above sea level) distributions from Bhutan to Kashmir across southern flank of the Himalaya. We warrant for the detail distribution assessment and taxonomic analysis of Himalayan langurs using ecological, morphological and genetic variables.

Background Past climatological events and contemporary geophysical barriers shape the distribution, population genetic structure, and evolutionary history of many organisms. The Himalayan region, frequently referred to as the third pole of the Earth, has experienced large-scale climatic oscillations in the past and bears unique geographic, topographic, and climatic areas. The influences of the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and present-day geographical barriers such as rivers in shaping the demographic history and population genetic structure of organisms in the Nepal Himalaya have not yet been documented. Hence, we examined the effects of late-Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles and riverine barriers on the genetic composition of Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus), a colobine primate with a wide range of altitudinal distribution across the Nepalese Himalaya, using the mitochondrial DNA control region (CR, 1090 bp) and cytochrome B (CYTB, 1140 bp) sequences combined with paleodistribution modeling. Results DNA sequences were successfully retrieved from 67 non-invasively collected fecal samples belonging to 18 wild Hanuman langur troops covering the entire distribution range of the species in Nepal. We identified 37 haplotypes from the concatenated CR + CYTB (2230 bp) sequences, with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.958 ± 0.015 and 0.0237 ± 0.0008, respectively. The troops were clustered into six major clades corresponding to their river-isolated spatial distribution, with the significantly high genetic variation among these clades confirming the barrier effects of the snow-fed Himalayan rivers on genetic structuring. Analysis of demographic history projected a decrease in population size with the onset of the last glacial maximum (LGM); and, in accordance with the molecular analyses, paleodistribution modeling revealed a range shift in its suitable habitat downward/southward during the LGM. The complex genetic structure among the populations of central Nepal, and the stable optimal habitat through the last interglacial period to the present suggest that the central mid-hills of Nepal served as glacial refugia for the Hanuman langur. Conclusions Hanuman langurs of the Nepal Himalaya region exhibit high genetic diversity, with their population genetic structure is strongly shaped by riverine barrier effects beyond isolation by distance; hence, this species demands detailed future phylogenetic study. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1280-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

AIM: The drivers of extraordinary species diversity and endemism in biodiversity hotspots remain elusive. To identify such drivers, it is necessary to understand the origin of allopatric cryptic diversity that formed as an important part of the biodiversity in low‐latitude montane areas. Here, we test hypotheses regarding the patterns and processes that underlie the diversity of Asian shrew‐like moles (Uropsilus, Uropsilinae, Talpidae), which exhibit strikingly high cryptic diversity. Specifically, we test the hypotheses that niche conservatism and complex topography explain the largely cryptic diversification of these small montane mammals. LOCATION: The mountains of Southwest China (MSC), which are a biodiversity hotspot, and adjacent areas. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 186 specimens that include all seven species of Uropsilus were collected from key geographical areas of the MSC. One mitochondrial and six nuclear genes were sequenced for phylogenetic and phylogeographical analyses. We reconstructed the phylogeny and delimited species boundaries within Uropsilus using multiple methods. We also tested the hypothesis of phylogenetic niche conservatism and examined the effect of topography on genetic divergence. Furthermore, we implemented a hierarchical examination of spatial‐temporal dynamics in our study system. RESULTS: Phylogenetic and species delimitation analyses discovered vastly more cryptic diversity than had been identified in morphology‐based taxonomy. Significant niche similarity between sibling phylogroups was detected and the genetic structure of Uropsilus accorded well with the topography of the MSC. Relatively stable biogeographical diffusion and demography, as well as in situ persistence during the last glacial cycle, were detected. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis indicates that much genetic diversification has occurred without evident niche divergence; hence topographical diversity has provided strongly geographical isolation and ecological gradients which reinforce niche conservatism for sedentary organisms. Cryptic species, as the consequence of a lack of variability in the traits, is attributed to stabilizing selection by the optimal ecological and/or climatic envelopes over evolutionary time‐scales. Our findings indicate that global biodiversity in certain areas could be underestimated. Analyses of other biological systems can determine the universality of niche conservatism in the MSC.

Gibbons in China represent the northernmost margin of present day gibbon species distribution (around N25°). Compared to tropical habitats, northern gibbon habitats are characterized by low temperatures and remarkable seasonal variation in fruit abundance. How gibbons adapt to their cold and seasonal habitats and what ecological factors affect their sociality are key questions for understanding their ecology and social system evolution, the elucidation of which will contribute to the conservation of these special populations/species. According to preliminary short-term studies, northern gibbons consume more leaves and use larger home ranges than tropical gibbons. Interestingly, some Nomascus groups consist of more than one adult female. However, these preliminary results are not well understood or incorporated into current socio-ecological theories regarding gibbon species. To better understand northern gibbons, our team has systematically studied three habituated groups of Nomascus concolor, three groups of N. nasutus, and two habituated groups of Hoolock tianxing since 2002. In this paper, we stress the challenges facing gibbons living in northern habitats and summarize their behavioral adaptations to their harsh environments. We also describe the northern gibbon social system and discuss the potential relationships between their ecology and sociality. Finally, we highlight future research questions related to northern gibbons in China.

Karyotypes of four Chinese species of field mice of the genus Apodemus were examined, including Apodemus chevrieri (diploid chromosome number, 2n=48, fundamental number of autosomal arms, FNa=56), A. draco (2n=48, FNa=48), A. ilex (2n=48, FNa=48), and A. latronum (2n=48, FNa=48). Karyotypes of A. chevrieri, A. draco, and A. ilex are reported here for the first time, providing useful information for their species taxonomy. Determining the karyotypes of all species of Apodemus in Asia, both in this and previous studies, provides a solid overview of the chromosome evolution and species differentiation of the genus in East Asia. In addition to allopatric speciation, chromosome rearrangements likely played an important role in the formation of the four Apodemus species groups as well as speciation within each group in East Asia. For example, increased centromeric heterochromatin in A. latronum may have contributed to the post-mating reproductive isolation from the A. draco-A. ilex-A. semotus clade.

Blarinellini is a tribe of soricine shrews comprised of nine fossil genera and one extant genus. Blarinelline shrews were once widely distributed throughout Eurasia and North America, though only members of the Asiatic short-tailed shrew genus Blarinella currently persist (mostly in southwestern China and adjacent areas). Only three forms of Blarinella have been recognized as either species or subspecies. However, recent molecular studies indicated a strikingly deep divergence within the genus, implying the existence of a distinct genus-level lineage. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes and one nuclear gene of three Asiatic short-tailed and two North American shrews and analyzed them morphometrically and morphologically. Our molecular analyses revealed that specimens ascribed to B. griselda formed two deeply diverged lineages, one a close relative to B. quadraticauda, whereas the other - comprised of topotype specimens from southern Gansu - diverged from other Blarinella in the middle Miocene (ca. 18.2 million years ago (Ma), 95% confidence interval=13.4-23.6 Ma). Although the skulls were similarly shaped in both lineages, we observed several diagnostic characteristics, including the shape of the upper P4. In consideration of the molecular and morphological evidence, we recognize B. griselda as the sole species of a new genus, namely, Pantherina gen. nov. Interestingly, some characteristics of Pantherina griselda are more similar to fossil genera, suggesting it represents an evolutionarily more primitive form than Blarinella. Recognition of this new genus sheds light on the systematics and evolutionary history of the tribe Blarinellini throughout Eurasia and North America.

Understanding the spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflict is essential to inform management decisions to encourage coexistence, but it is constrained by the lack of spatially-explicit data. We collected spatially-implicit data of human-wildlife conflicts from 2009–2015 around Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, and investigated the patterns and drivers of these conflicts. A questionnaire was also designed to capture local resident attitudes toward insurance-based compensation for the losses caused by targeted wildlife. We found that the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) was the most conflict-prone animal around the reserve, followed by the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and Southeast Asian sambar (Cervus equinus). Conflicts were unevenly distributed among seasons, villages, and communities, with several grids identified as conflict hotspots. Poisson models revealed that human-bear conflicts were negatively related to distance to the reserve and proportion of forest, but positively correlated to the proportion of cropland. Binomial models showed that communities affected by crop depredation were positively correlated with the proportion of cropland and negatively correlated with distance to the reserve, whereas communities affected by livestock depredation were negatively correlated with the proportion of cropland. The insurance-based scheme has compensated over 90% of losses, to the satisfaction of 90.6% of respondents. Our results suggest that human-bear conflict could be potentially reduced by eliminating food crops near the reserve boundary and livestock grazing at conflict hotspots. In addition, the insurance-based scheme could be replicated at a broader scale with improvement in loss assessment.

BackgroundCrocidura, the most speciose mammalian genus, occurs across much of Asia, Europe and Africa. The taxonomy of Chinese representatives has been studied primarily based on cursory morphological comparisons and their molecular phylogenetic analyses remain unexplored. In order to understand the phylogeny of this group in China, we estimated the first multilocus phylogeny and conducted species delimitation, including taxon sampling throughout their distribution range.ResultsWe obtained one mitochondrial gene (cytb) (~ 1, 134 bp) and three nuclear genes (ApoB,BRCA1,RAG1) (~ 2, 170 bp) for 132 samples from 57 localities. Molecular analyses identified at least 14 putative species that occur within two major well-supported groups in China. PolyphyleticC. wuchihensisappears to be composed of two putative species. Two subspecies,C. rapax rapaxandC. rapax kurodaishould be elevated to full species status. A phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial gene from AsianCrociduraspecies showed that theC. rapax rapaxis embedded withinC. attenuata, making the latter a paraphyletic group. Three strongly supported undescribed species (C.sp.1,C.sp.2 andC.sp.3) are revealed from Zada County of Tibet (Western China), Hongjiang County of Hunan Province (Central China) and Dongyang County of Zhejiang Province (Eastern China), Motuo County of Tibet, respectively. The divergence time estimation suggested that China’sCrociduraspecies began to diversify during the late Pliocene (3.66 Ma) and the Early Pleistocene (2.29 Ma), followed by a series of diversifications through the Pleistocene.ConclusionsThe cryptic diversity found in this study indicated that the number of species is strongly underestimated under the current taxonomy. We propose that the three undescribed species should be evaluated using extensive taxon sampling and comprehensive morphological and morphometric approaches. Climate change since the late Pliocene and the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau may result in the diversification and speciation of China’sCrociduraspecies. In short, the underestimated diversity underlines the need for a taxonomic revision of ChineseCrociduraspecies.

Food abundance and climatic factors can significantly affect the behavior of animals and constrain their activity budgets. The population of western black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor) in Mt. Wuliang lives in montane forest and is close to the northern extreme of the distribution for gibbons (Hylobatidae). Their habitats show remarkable seasonal variation in terms of food availability, temperature, and rainfall. To understand behavioral adaptations of western black crested gibbons to different sets of ecological conditions, we examined relationships among food availability, mean temperature, rainfall, and behavior patterns by observing two groups for 1 year each. Our results revealed that activity budget was affected by food availability and mean temperature. The gibbons spent more time eating flowers when that resource was more available and spent less time moving when fruit was more available. The gibbons spent less time feeding and more time resting, and spent less feeding time on fruit and leaves when the mean temperature was lower. These results suggest that the gibbons displayed a pronounced preference for flowers as a food resource and adopted a time minimizer strategy when high-nutrient food items (i.e., fruit) were more available. In addition, the gibbons adopted an energy-conserving strategy during periods of low temperature. The flexibility of behavioral patterns in responding to food availability and temperature may potentially improve the gibbons' prospects of surviving and reproducing in a northern montane forest.

New echolocator Echolocation is a well demonstrated convergent sensory mode in bats and toothed whales. These lineages are not closely related, and this sense might be more broadly distributed than we recognize. Using a suite of approaches, He et al. show that the lineage of soft-furred tree mice (genus Typhlomys ) includes multiple echolocators. Clear evidence of the behavioral use of echolocation under fully dark conditions was supported by the convergence of ear bone morphology and hearing-related genes with other echolocating mammals. Science , aay1513, this issue p. eaay1513

Enlarging protected area networks (PANs) is critical to ensure the long-term population viability of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), which are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Strict policies of PAN enlargement that focus on wildlife conservation have failed largely due to difficulties in encouraging stakeholder participation and meeting the elephant habitat requirement. A co-management policy that promotes sustainable resource use, wildlife conservation, and stakeholder participation may have greater feasibility than the strict policies in a developing world. Here, we identified the suitable habitat of elephants using maximum entropy models and examined whether habitat suitability is indirectly associated with local economic development in human-dominated landscapes. We found that (1) the suitable habitat was mainly in areas of forest matrix (50% natural forest cover) with multiple land-use practices rather than relatively intact forest and near communities (mean distance two km) and (2) habitat suitability was negatively associated with local economic development (rP = −0.37, P = 0.04). From the standpoint of elephant habitat and its socio-economic background, our results indicate that co-management will be more effective than the currently strict approaches of enlarging PAN. Additionally, our results provide on-ground information for elephant corridor design in southern China.

The mammalian family Talpidae (moles, shrew moles, desmans) is characterized by diverse ecomorphologies associated with terrestrial, semi-aquatic, semi-fossorial, fossorial, and aquatic-fossorial lifestyles. Prominent specializations involved with these different lifestyles, and the transitions between them, pose outstanding questions regarding the evolutionary history within the family, not only for living but also for fossil taxa. Here, we investigate the phylogenetic relationships, divergence times, and biogeographic history of the family using 19 nuclear and 2 mitochondrial genes (∼16 kb) from ∼60% of described species representing all 17 genera. Our phylogenetic analyses help settle classical questions in the evolution of moles, identify an ancient (mid-Miocene) split within the monotypic genus Scaptonyx, and indicate that talpid species richness may be nearly 30% higher than previously recognized. Our results also uniformly support the monophyly of long-tailed moles with the two shrew mole tribes and confirm that the Gansu mole is the sole living Asian member of an otherwise North American radiation. Finally, we provide evidence that aquatic specializations within the tribes Condylurini and Desmanini evolved along different morphological trajectories, though we were unable to statistically reject monophyly of the strictly fossorial tribes Talpini and Scalopini.

Species interactions including predation, competition, and parasitism, matter to species conservation. Sympatric species can have a profound influence on the population recovery of endangered species through a number of ecological processes, but particularly feeding competition. We investigated ranging (spatial pattern) and feeding (trophic overlap) behavior of sympatric critically endangered western black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor) and endangered Indochinese gray langurs (Trachypithecus crepusculus). Our 1-year study of one group of each species found potential for asymmetric feeding competition between langurs and gibbons on Mt. Wuliang, China, in that: (1) the home range (2 km2) of the gibbon group was nearly entirely within the home range of the langur group (4.2 km2); (2) langurs had a greater niche breadth than gibbons, and their trophic overlap was 0.23; (3) 14 out of 26 primary food items comprising 56.7% of gibbon annual diet were consumed by langurs; and (4) langurs routinely consumed unripe fruits before they ripened sufficiently for gibbons to eat. Differences in group size, feeding habits, and reproductive rate could increase the effects of asymmetric dietary in potential competition, which appears to limit population recovery of gibbons. Rapid recovery of one species may cause unintended conservation consequences through complex interspecific interaction. Thus, it is important that conservation strategies take species interactions into account when designing conservation interventions. To ensure the ongoing survival of gibbons it may be necessary to manage langur populations.

The high O2 affinity of European mole (Talpa europaea) blood is postulated to largely arise from the presence of two β-globin chain residues (β4 Ser and β5 Gly) that weaken the interaction of its hemoglobin (Hb) with the red cell organophosphate 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG). This latter trait is generally accepted to be an ‘adaptation to subterranean life’ despite the fact that no data are available for more basal mole lineages that have no evolutionary history of fossoriality (i.e. the ambulatory, high-elevation shrew-like moles and the semi-aquatic desmans), and which may similarly benefit from an elevated blood O2 affinity. To test whether evolution of a low DPG sensitivity phenotype is linked to derived fossorial lifestyles or represents an ancestral trait for the family, we determined the globin gene sequences and measured the intrinsic O2 affinity and co-factor sensitivity of the major Hb component of the gracile shrew-like mole (Uropsilus gracilis) and the Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus). Our results unequivocally demonstrate that the presence of β4 Ser and β5 Gly, together with a low DPG sensitivity Hb phenotype, predates the radiation of the family Talpidae, and hence did not evolve as a specific adaptation to fossorial life. By contrast, our comparative analyses suggest that variations in whole blood O2 affinity among members of this family predominantly arose from amino acid substitutions that increase or decrease the intrinsic O2 affinity of the protein.

Here, we present a camera trap survey at a Tibetan sacred mountain to ascertain the status and activity patterns of medium- to large-sized ground-dwelling mammalian fauna. We recorded 15 medium- to large-sized mammal species including 9 carnivores, 4 ungulates, 1 primate, and 1 rodent. Six of the species were categorized by IUCN as globally threatened. The results suggested that the sacred mountain was particularly important for alpine ungulates. The mean occupancy probabilities of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, Chinese goral Naemorhedus griseus, Chinese serow Capricornis milneedwardsii, and alpine musk deer Moschus chrysogaster were 0.93, 0.91, 0.87, and 0.44 respectively. Domestic dog Canis familiaris also occurs widely across the mountain, with a mean occupancy of 0.60. Temporal activity patterns showed that alpine musk deer were mostly nocturnal, with most captures occurring at night. Chinese serow were active at all periods, with an activity peak at dawn. Blue sheep were strictly diurnal, without any captures at night. Although Chinese goral were predominantly diurnal, captures also frequently occurred at night. Our study not only unveiled a wildlife haven benefiting from religious beliefs about sacred mountains but also pointed to the critical situation of the fauna in the sacred site. The fauna in such sacred sites are diverse but poorly studied, and are subject to threats from domestic dogs, garbage pollution, and population isolation. Future conservation and management efforts in such areas should evaluate the population genetic diversity and assess the impact of non-lethal human disturbance on the wildlife communities.

The critically endangered western black-crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor) is distributed in isolated habitat fragments in northern Vietnam, northwestern Laos, and southwestern China. To assess the behavioral adaptation of this species to forest fragments and its response to seasonal variation in food availability and climate, we present activity patterns of a group inhabiting an isolated forest based on two year-long studies in southern Yunnan, China. Annually, the gibbons spent nearly half of their active time resting, followed by moving and feeding. In both study periods, the time allocated to activities varied significantly between months, and was affected by food availability and climate factors. The group delayed retirement when tree fruit was abundant, and they decreased time spent moving and playing during periods of low fruit availability. In the cold months, the gibbons decreased time spent moving, and they decreased active time and resting time when rainfall was high. The results suggest that the group may seek to maximize net energy intake like energy maximizers when high quality food is most available, and adopt an energy-conserving strategy during periods of lower food availability and temperature. The gibbons showed similar diurnal variation in activity patterns to a group inhabiting a continuous forest at Dazhaizi, Mt. Wuliang, central Yunnan. However, they had a longer active period, and devoted more time to resting but less time to feeding. The individuals also spent lower percentages of time engaged in social behavior than those at Dazhaizi. These differences may be due to their smaller home range and unusual group composition caused by habitat fragmentation.

The southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau is characterized by complex topography and a discontinuous landscape, creating a sky island situation. However, the way topography shapes genetic structures and demographic histories of endemic species has not been well studied. We examined the phylogeographic pattern and demographic histories of Sorex bedfordiae , a dispersal-limited small mammal, using three nuclear genes [1977 bp] and two mitochondrial genes [1794 bp] with comprehensive molecular approaches. We recovered five well-supported clades whose distributions are along mountain ridges and roughly subdivided by large rivers. Demographic expansions in the middle Pleistocene were strongly supported by both nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Our results support the hypothesis that sky island topography and river systems strongly affect the genetic structure of non-aquatic terrestrial species. We further clarify that S. bedfordiae and S. cylindricauda are valid sibling species, whereas S. excelsus is most likely a geographic subspecies of S. bedfordiae .

The tribe Talpini is a group of strictly subterranean moles distributed across the Eurasian Continent whose phylogenetic relationships and taxonomy remain unresolved. Here we report a multi-locus nuclear-mitochondrial DNA dataset (9468 bp) from 11 talpine species encompassing all five recognized genera, together with analyses of their divergence times and evolutionary affinities inferred from maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Our results finely resolved all relationships except the root of the four recognized Asian genera, which was placed sister to the genus Talpa . With respect to the Asian clade, we moreover provide the first molecular support for a sister-taxon relationship between Parascaptor and Scaptochirus and confirm that the genus Euroscaptor is paraphyletic. Further, and despite a relatively small sample size (22 specimens), our species delimitation analyses support the existence of at least two genetically distinct, and hence potentially cryptic species. Taken together, these findings argue that generic status should be given to E. mizura and illustrate that the taxonomic diversity of the tribe Talpini in mountainous regions of southwestern China and Southeast Asia is underestimated. Finally, results of our divergence time analyses support a rapid radiation of the endemic Asian genera in the late-Miocene, which temporally corresponds with enhanced aridity and cooling arising from a significant uplift of the Himalayan–Tibetan plateau.

Black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor) are 1 of only 3 gibbon species that have been observed in long-term polygynous groups, but their mating behavior and reproductive characters have never been reported. Based on population monitoring over 7 years and direct observation for 26 months of the study groups in Wuliang Mountain, central Yunnan, we describe for the first time the copulation behavior and breeding pattern of free-ranging western black crested gibbons. The gestation period of black crested gibbons is estimated to be between 6 and 7 months. The average breeding interval is 3.5 years, with infant independence at approximately 2.5 years. We observed 2 intra-group copulations and 5 extra-group copulations. Copulations were initiated when a female gave a 'solicitation' gesture. When a male made any mating attempt, the female might refuse it. These results demonstrate direct female mate choice. Both male and female gibbons dispersed from their natal groups and sometimes replaced paired adults in other groups. We observed no evidence of infanticide during inter-group conflicts or after replacement of adults. Together with extra-group copulations, these phenomena indicate a flexible social organization and complex mating system. We also observed a male-biased sex ratio among offspring. More genetic work is necessary to describe the effects of inter-group copulation and the genetic diversity of this population.

Forest fragmentation and isolation can reduce the size of available habitat and lead to lower food availability for some primate species. The persistence of nonhuman primates in fragments depends largely on their ability to adjust their diet in response environmental change. The western black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor) is distributed in northern Vietnam, northwestern Laos, and southwestern China, but little is known about its diet except from studies in the well-protected forests of Mt. Wuliang and Mt. Ailao, central Yunnan. We studied food abundance and diet over 2 years in a small group surviving in an isolated and disturbed forest at Bajiaohe, southern Yunnan, and drew a comparison with the population at Dazhaizi in Mt. Wuliang. We found that gibbons at Bajiaohe consumed mostly fruit, but did not eat figs, unlike most other gibbon populations. Liana fruits and mature leaves were used as alternative foods during periods of tree fruit scarcity. Our results indicate that gibbons in Bajiaohe respond to habitat fragmentation and isolation by consuming a variety of plant species, depending on those that are locally available, and increasing time spent feeding on fruits of trees and lianas rather than increasing time spent consuming leaves. Am. J. Primatol. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The present study aimed to assess abundance indices and habitat associations of four sympatric ungulate species (alpine musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus, Chinese serow Capricornis milneedwardsii, and Chinese goral Naemorhedus griseus) in Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve of southwest China, using camera trapping and dung counts data. Camera traps were set along six dung transects in different habitats and explored habitat use of the sympatric ungulates using trapping rates. The results obtained revealed that Chinese serow showed a negative association with open canopy cover and low canopy cover. Alpine musk deer were associated with oak shrubs, oak forests and open canopy cover, while tufted deer avoided oak shrubs. Goral showed no significant associations with habitat variables. Alpine musk deer and tufted deer had considerable habitat overlap with Chinese serow. By finding a high correlation between indices, the study indicates that camera trapping may represent a valid index of relative abundance, matching results from other studies.

The genus Trachypithecus is the most diverse langur taxon, distributed in southwestern China, south and southeastern Asia. In this study, we include 16 recognized Trachypithecus species to reconstruct the phylogeny with particular concern to the taxonomy of the three subspecies of T. phayrei using multiple genes. Our results support a sister-relationship between T. p. phayrei and T. p. shanicus. However, the mitochondrial CYT B gene supported T. p. crepuscula as a distinct species, but the nuclear PRM1 gene suggested a closer relationship between T. p. crepuscula and T. p. phayrei. The incongruence between nuclear and mitochondrial genes suggests that hybridization may have occurred, a fact that would benefit from re-examination using multiple unlinked nuclear genes.

The phylogeny of living pikas (Ochotonidae, Ochotona) remains obscure, and pika species diversity in southwestern China has never been well explored. In this study, 96 tissue samples from 11 valid species in three classified subgenera (Pika, Ochotona and Conothoa) from 23 locations were characterized using multilocus sequences of 7031bp. Two mitochondrial (CYT B and COI) and five nuclear gene segments (RAG1, RAG2, TTN, OXAIL and IL1RAPL1) were sequenced. We analysed evolutionary histories using maximum likelihood (RAxML) and Bayesian analyses (BEAST), and we also used molecular species delimitation analyses (BPP) to explore species diversity. Our study supported O. syrinx (O. huangensis) as a distinct clade from all named subgenera. Relationships among subgenera were not fully resolved, which may be due to a rapid diversification in the middle Miocene (∼13.90Ma). Conflicting gene trees implied mitochondrial introgression from O. cansus to O. curzoniae. We uncovered three cryptic species from Shaanxi, Sichuan and Yunnan with strong support, suggesting an underestimation of species diversity in the "sky-island" mountains of southwest China.

Little is known about the ecology and evolution of the Gansu mole (Scapanulus oweni). The morphology of this monotypic genus (Talpidae, Eulipotyphla, Mammalia) indicates that it should fall into the tribe Scalopini. Although all the other scalopines are distributed in North America, S. oweni is endemic to Central and Southwest China. Previous studies have indicated that the chromosomes of talpid moles exhibit remarkable stability. However, the karyotype of S. oweni has not been determined. In this study, we report the karyotypes including G-banding and C-banding patterns of S. oweni. The diploid and fundamental autosomal numbers are 34 and 64, respectively, identical with six other talpid species and thus providing another line of evidence for chromosomal uniformity in this family. The models of karyotype stability are discussed, none of which adequately explains the chromosomal conservatism. We suggest that comprehensive approaches are needed to test in which degree that the chromosomal rearrangement, phylogeny, phylogeography and ecological adaptation have shaped the chromosomal evolution in this family.

The karyotype of the Tsing-Ling (Huanghe) pika, Ochotona huangensis Matschie, 1908 from the forest habitats of the Qinling Mountains (Shaanxi Province, China) was described for the first time. The chromosome set contains 42 chromosomes (NFa=80). The autosomes are 15 meta-submetacentric pairs and 5 subtelocentric pairs. The X chromosome is a medium sized submetacentric; the Y chromosome is a small sized acrocentric. C-banding revealed a localization of heterochromatin in the pericentromeric regions of all autosomes.

Tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) is currently placed in Order Scandentia and has a wide distribution in Southeast Asia and Southwest China. Due to its unique characteristics, such as small body size, high brain-to-body mass ratio, short reproductive cycle and life span, and low-cost of maintenance, tree shrew has been proposed to be an alternative experimental animal to primates in biomedical research. However, there are some debates regarding the exact phylogenetic affinity of tree shrew to primates. In this study, we determined the mtDNA entire genomes of three Chinese tree shrews (T. belangeri chinensis) and one Malayan flying lemur (Galeopterus variegatus). Combined with the published data for species in Euarchonta, we intended to discern the phylogenetic relationship among representative species of Dermoptera, Scandentia and Primates. The mtDNA genomes of Chinese tree shrews and Malayan flying lemur shared similar gene organization and structure with those of other mammals. Phylogenetic analysis based on 12 concatenated mitochondrial protein-encoding genes revealed a closer relationship between species of Scandentia and Glires, whereas species of Dermoptera were clustered with Primates. This pattern was consistent with previously reported phylogeny based on mtDNA data, but differed from the one reconstructed on the basis of nuclear genes. Our result suggested that the matrilineal affinity of tree shrew to primates may not be as close as we had thought. The ongoing project for sequencing the entire genome of Chinese tree shrew will provide more information to clarify this important issue.

Endemic Species Research Institute, Taiwan; Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, Japan[14405030, 17405018]; Vietnam's National Foundation for Science and Technology Development

Gibbons are generally reported to live in small socially monogamous family groups in which both sexes disperse when they reach maturity. For the first time, we documented the dispersal pattern in a population of gibbons living in stable polygynous groups (Nomascus concolor) integrating 16 years' field observation and genetic information from fecal DNA. All subadult males except for one dispersed at 9.8 ± 1.4 years of age (range: 8-12, N = 10). The last male remained in his natal group and obtained the breeding position at age 11 by evicting the original dominant male. Females reached sexual maturity (as evidenced by the change in body color from black to yellow) at 8 years (N = 4). Three of them dispersed and one obtained a position as a breeding female and bred in her natal group. We also observed one female returning to her natal group with her infant after her presumed father was taken over by a neighboring male. We identified only three mtDNA haplotypes from 22 individuals at Dazhaizi. Individuals in one group shared the same haplotype, with only one exception. Genetic results showed that the two breeding females were mother-daughter pairs in all three study groups at the end of this study, implying some degree of female philopatry. We argue that in the case of black crested gibbons, dispersal decisions appear to represent highly opportunistic events in response to reproductive opportunities in their natal and neighboring groups.