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This study aims to investigate Kazakhstani high school students' environmental knowledge, attitude toward the environment, environmental awareness, and environmental concern, and to present the effect of various extracurricular activities on high school students' knowledge, attitude, awareness, and concern. We surveyed 124 students at various grade levels. Results indicated that Kazakhstani students did not have a strong environmental knowledge base and their awareness of environmental issues is not strong at all, but they had a strong positive environmental attitude. There was no significant relationship between knowledge, attitude, and awareness based on grades in biology, chemistry, physics, math, and geography. Gender did not influence students' environmental knowledge, attitudes, and awareness but year in school did for environmental knowledge. Kazakhstani students were most concerned about air pollution, pollution of rivers and seas, and flooding, and they were the least concerned with overpopulation, radioactive waste, extinction of species, and climate change. Extracurricular activities did prove useful with increasing students' knowledge and awareness about environmental challenges but did not impact their environmental attitude. Our results imply that what is being taught about the environment in Kazakhstani schools is not substantial enough. Educators may modify the curriculum to better address environmental issues in the classroom and add more content and activities.

Students' level of engagement and approach to learning can significantly impact their overall success in a course. This study used the student course engagement questionnaire (SCEQ) to assess the engagement levels of first-year undergraduate students studying three different introductory units (chemistry, biology and nursing) at a regional Australian university. No significant differences in engagement were found between genders, or for students studying different units. One of the most notable factors influencing engagement was student age, with students under 20 years of age scoring significantly less than mature age students across nearly all measures of engagement. Tertiary educators could use several complementary approaches to improve engagement in younger students, including the use of interactive multimedia and social media to connect with students, making the unit content relatable and relevant to students' lives, providing authentic and engaging assessment items, and pursuing interactive approaches to lectures and tutorials. Given that many university students take an introductory science course during their first year, these results are likely to be relevant across a range of disciplines.

Classroom dialogues have special educational value because they allow students to engage critically but constructively with each other's ideas, solve scientific problems jointly and develop their scientific understanding. The present study focuses on how groups of twelfth-grade high school and university students communicate and co-operate through dialogue to solve a biological problem they have not encountered before. The specific research questions are as follows: (a) What are the dialogic structures that help students construct scientific explanations? (b) How does prior scientific knowledge support student dialogue in constructing explanations? A coding scheme was developed inductively for the analysis of participants' utterances. We use illustrative exemplars from participants' dialogues to discuss those aspects which might support explanatory reasoning. We focus on reasoned attention for contending opinions and striving for consensus that characterise cases of constructive dialogue. We also discuss observed objections and disagreements as triggering factors for constructive alternative explanations. Finally, we discuss the evidence showing that while prior knowledge supports student reasoning it can also hinder the ability of students to think in a creative way.

High levels of attrition characterize undergraduate science courses in the USA. Predictive analytics research seeks to build models that identify at-risk students and suggest interventions that enhance student success. This study examines whether incorporating a novel assessment type (concept inventories [CI]) and using machine learning (ML) methods (1) improves prediction quality, (2) reduces the time point of successful prediction, and (3) suggests more actionable course-level interventions. A corpus of university and course-level assessment and non-assessment variables (53 variables in total) from 3225 students (over six semesters) was gathered. Five ML methods were employed (two individuals, three ensembles) at three time points (pre-course, week 3, week 6) to quantify predictive efficacy. Inclusion of course-specific CI data along with university-specific corpora significantly improved prediction performance. Ensemble ML methods, in particular the generalized linear model with elastic net (GLMNET), yielded significantly higher area under the curve (AUC) values compared with non-ensemble techniques. Logistic regression achieved the poorest prediction performance and consistently underperformed. Surprisingly, increasing corpus size (i.e., amount of historical data) did not meaningfully impact prediction success. We discuss the roles that novel assessment types and ML techniques may play in advancing predictive learning analytics and addressing attrition in undergraduate science education.

Educators seek to harness knowledge from educational corpora to improve student performance outcomes. Although prior studies have compared the efficacy of data mining methods (DMMs) in pipelines for forecasting student success, less work has focused on identifying a set of relevant features prior to model development and quantifying the stability of feature selection techniques. Pinpointing a subset of pertinent features can (1) reduce the number of variables that need to be managed by stakeholders, (2) make "black-box" algorithms more interpretable, and (3) provide greater guidance for faculty to implement targeted interventions. To that end, we introduce a methodology integrating feature selection with cross-validation and rank each feature on subsets of the training corpus. This modified pipeline was applied to forecast the performance of 3225 students in a baccalaureate science course using a set of 57 features, four DMMs, and four filter feature selection techniques. Correlation Attribute Evaluation (CAE) and Fisher's Scoring Algorithm (FSA) achieved significantly higher Area Under the Curve (AUC) values for logistic regression (LR) and elastic net regression (GLMNET), compared to when this pipeline step was omitted. Relief Attribute Evaluation (RAE) was highly unstable and produced models with the poorest prediction performance. Borda's method identified grade point average, number of credits taken, and performance on concept inventory assessments as the primary factors impacting predictions of student performance. We discuss the benefits of this approach when developing data pipelines for predictive modeling in undergraduate settings that are more interpretable and actionable for faculty and stakeholders.

The ability to read and compose original scientific literature is critical to educating informed citizens, yet may be severely lacking in undergraduate curricula. We developed a linked course offering in fall 2017 consisting of a 16-student group taking an introductory biology course paired with a first-year composition course. The composition course focused specifically on scientific literature composed in the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (IMRaD) structure. In the composition course, instruction focused on helping students conceptualize and compose proposals, poster presentations, and manuscripts based on their lab activities. We surveyed for prior experience with scientific literature and self-reported reading and writing confidence. Participants in the linked courses showed an improvement in self-reported ability and confidence in writing compared to a control group that did not participate. We assembled a rubric assessing correct IMRaD structure and used it to assess composition before and after the linked courses. Adherence to IMRaD improved significantly for the Methods section. Our experiences indicate that learning communities can be useful pedagogies to provide students with confidence and learning gains that facilitate use of information and communication.

This paper describes an introductory biology course for undergraduates that heavily incorporates quantitative problem solving in activities and homework assignments. The course is broken up into a series of units, each organized around a motivating biological question or theme. Homework assignments address the theme or question, and typically include a computer programming section as well as a number of written questions. Assessment based on course evaluations suggests that the course was effective in increasing engagement with Biology in a population of STEM-oriented students who are mostly nonmajors.

STEM is about the integration of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. To teach STEM effectively, students need practical examples of subject integration. A good example is the use of an electron microscope in teaching physics and biology. An electron microscope is an instrument in which the operation depends on electromagnetism and quantum mechanics, in particular wave-particle duality. In teaching physics, an electron microscope can be used to measure the separation of repeated structures that give rise to interference phenomena. This paper describes the use a tabletop scanning electron microscope to teach physics and biology together through imaging butterfly wings. Students are able to identify structures with a spacing comparable to visible light on butterflies exhibiting structural colour and much larger spacing on wings without structural colour.

Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is a cellular pathway by which individual cells self-destruct for the benefit of the organism. In this practical paper, we describe laboratory exercises with an inquiry-based learning (IBL) approach in which undergraduate students compared apoptosis among different types of cultured cells. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation was used to induce apoptosis in mouse primary cells and in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) tumor cells. Students hypothesized that, because tumor cells evade apoptosis, CHO cells would exhibit less apoptosis compared to primary cells. Treated and control cells were labeled for two hallmarks of apoptosis, fragmented DNA and active caspase-3 enzyme, and all nuclei were visualized with DAPI. Cell counts were conducted using fluorescence microscopy. Exposure to UV light induced apoptosis in both cell types compared to controls, but no significant difference in the proportions of labeled cells was observed between UV-treated primary and CHO cells. Optimal parameters for UV exposure and labeling techniques are presented. This exercise provides instructors with methodology for allowing students to use a basic cell culture system and microscopy to formulate a hypothesis and design experiments related to apoptosis. Students incorporated their work into a research paper, which served as the main mode of assessment.

In response to a request from a campus student organization, faculty from three fields came together to develop and teach an integrated interdisciplinary course on water issues and social activism. This course, "Water as Life, Death, and Power," brought together issues from the fields of anthropology, biology and chemistry to explore water rights, access to clean water, and water treatment methods. Students enrolled in the course developed interdisciplinary projects related to a variety of local and global water issues to present real-world solutions at a university-wide student research showcase. This article reports the assessment outcomes of the course, measuring changes in both interdisciplinary learning and levels of student activism.

Instructor Talk--noncontent language used by instructors in classrooms--is a recently defined and promising variable for better understanding classroom dynamics. Having previously characterized the Instructor Talk framework within the context of a single course, we present here our results surrounding the applicability of the Instructor Talk framework to noncontent language used by instructors in novel course contexts. We analyzed Instructor Talk in eight additional biology courses in their entirety and in 61 biology courses using an emergent sampling strategy. We observed widespread use of Instructor Talk with variation in the amount and category type used. The vast majority of Instructor Talk could be characterized using the originally published Instructor Talk framework, suggesting the robustness of this framework. Additionally, a new form of Instructor Talk--Negatively Phrased Instructor Talk, language that may discourage students or distract from the learning process--was detected in these novel course contexts. Finally, the emergent sampling strategy described here may allow investigation of Instructor Talk in even larger numbers of courses across institutions and disciplines. Given its widespread use, potential influence on students in learning environments, and ability to be sampled, Instructor Talk may be a key variable to consider in future research on teaching and learning in higher education.

One of the key agendas for the emerging field of disciplinary-based education research is the evaluation of the trajectory of disciplinary knowledge development from novice to expert. However, with the ongoing promotion of student-centered and collaborative undergraduate science classrooms, it is unknown how peer discourse during these exercises might influence (promote or hinder) student construction of expert knowledge. This study documented the knowledge structures of n = 13 undergraduate biology students in a first semester biology course for majors across four instructional units. Participants constructed both individual and group-negotiated concept maps and map complexity, propositional stream similarity, and propositional accuracy were used as measures of quality of knowledge structure. Results indicated that on individually-constructed maps, in general, students had moderate quality knowledge structures when compared to experts. Individual map complexity seemed to increase over time, but stream similarity and propositional accuracy were more dependent on content unit. Group-constructed maps were consistently more accurate than individually-constructed maps. Results are discussed in the context of the use of collaborative concept mapping as a means to develop disciplinary expertise in biology.

Advances in neurobiological research have created new opportunities for understanding and exploring dyslexia. The purpose of this article is to (a) provide a straightforward, although not overly simplified, overview of neurological research on dyslexia and (b) make connections between neurological research and classroom interventions for students with dyslexia. Key ideas are that neuroscience confirms the importance of systematic phonics instruction, neuroimaging has led to new ideas about how dyslexia might be treated, and specific brain regions and pathways are involved in reading. Educational neuroscience remains in early stages, but the immediate relevance for the classroom is emerging.

Cell migration, a fundamental process in development, wound healing, and immune function, is a common topic in undergraduate cell biology courses. We developed laboratory exercises with an inquiry-based learning (IBL) approach in which cell migration could be examined with the scratch assay, adapted from the primary literature. A narrow scratch was created in a confluent monolayer of cells growing on the bottom of a cell culture dish. Migration into the resultant cell-free zone from both sides of the scratch was measured after one day using the scale bar function of a digital camera. The Chinese hamster ovary cell line was used, but any adherent cell type could be examined. Students used the scratch assay to formulate hypotheses and design experiments in which variables affecting cell migration could be investigated. For example, the effect of cytoskeletal disruption was evaluated by adding the microtubule- and microfilament-disrupting drugs, colcemid and phallacidin, respectively, to the growth medium when the scratch was made. Optimal drug concentration parameters were determined for students to reference. Low drug concentrations inhibited cell migration, while higher concentrations killed the cells. This study demonstrated that the scratch assay is an accessible IBL method for studying cell migration.

We describe an advanced, inquiry driven undergraduate course in Cancer Biology that combines faculty lectures typical of undergraduate courses with literature-driven discussions typical of graduate courses. As a capstone course, one goal of this course is to integrate knowledge from previous coursework in physiology, cell and molecular biology, genetics, and chemistry, so that students acquire a state-of-the-art understanding of cancer and cancer treatment. A related goal is for students to learn, from the primary literature, how science is performed and how new scientific knowledge is used to improve cancer treatment. We report on the development of this course and the methods used to accomplish the course goals. We present the results of a 5-year survey that provides a detailed picture of the demographics of the class and demonstrates that the course results in improved understanding of both cancer biology and how science is performed. Student responses to our survey strongly support the use of original literature as a teaching tool. We suggest that incorporation of primary literature into advanced undergraduate science courses is an effective approach for improving scientific literacy.

A critical thinking assessment was used to compare biology students in a nonmajors course who participated in either a multisemester research program or in a one-semester lab study. Initially, it was thought the former would be more effective in promoting critical thinking improvement than the latter. Data from nine biology classes with pre- and posttests were used. Six sections participated in a multisemester fly genetics study, and three sections did a one-semester corn genetics study. Each student wrote a draft and a final report. In the former study, biology students studied Drosophila eye color mutants and wild type that were crossed through parental, F[subscript 1], and F[subscript 2] generations. In the latter study, parental, F[subscript 1], and F[subscript 2] ears of corn were examined. The students in the corn laboratory group actually did better on the posttest. Reasons for this result and other comparisons suggesting the value of a short, multiple-choice assessments are discussed.

This study assessed student attitude towards reformed laboratories featuring a factorial design of inquiry (IN) and explicit/reflective (ER) pedagogy to foster nature of science understanding. Students in thirty-one lab sections responded to pre and post semester assessments of their confidence, perception of usefulness, and effectance motivation toward the laboratories. Relative change in attitude (RCA) was not significantly different (p>0.05) among the treatments or their interaction for confidence, usefulness, or effectance motivation. Student self-reports (n = 137) of factors that affected their attitude suggested that grades and TAs played a larger role in determining student attitude than the laboratory treatments. This hints at the complex interactions that impact student attitude, and which should be considered when implementing course reforms.

Many efforts to improve science teaching in higher education focus on a few faculty members at an institution at a time, with limited published evidence on attempts to engage faculty across entire departments. We created a long-term, department-wide collaborative professional development program, Biology Faculty Explorations in Scientific Teaching (Biology FEST). Across 3 years of Biology FEST, 89% of the department's faculty completed a weeklong scientific teaching institute, and 83% of eligible instructors participated in additional semester-long follow-up programs. A semester after institute completion, the majority of Biology FEST alumni reported adding active learning to their courses. These instructor self-reports were corroborated by audio analysis of classroom noise and surveys of students in biology courses on the frequency of active-learning techniques used in classes taught by Biology FEST alumni and nonalumni. Three years after Biology FEST launched, faculty participants overwhelmingly reported that their teaching was positively affected. Unexpectedly, most respondents also believed that they had improved relationships with departmental colleagues and felt a greater sense of belonging to the department. Overall, our results indicate that biology department-wide collaborative efforts to develop scientific teaching skills can indeed attract large numbers of faculty, spark widespread change in teaching practices, and improve departmental relations.

Fieldwork has always been an important component in the teaching of ecology in England's secondary schools where it has been delivered almost exclusively as part of the biology curriculum for nearly 70 years. However, historical evidence shows that both the quantity and quality of ecology fieldwork has been declining in recent decades at a time when the scope, complexity and interdisciplinarity of ecological science has been growing. This paper presents evidence of a continuing decline in ecology fieldwork over the past 15 years, discusses some possible causes and reviews solutions to reverse the trend. In particular, it argues that teaching scientific ecology through geography fieldwork could overcome several of the fundamental obstacles encountered in biology education. Trends in biology and geography fieldwork are compared. These show that the risks to ecology in forging a strong relationship, and increased dependency, with geography teaching are likely to be outweighed by reciprocal benefits.

There appears to be an irresolvable disagreement between "progressives" and "conservatives" regarding the ultimate aims of education. This paper argues that the dispute is irresolvable as it currently stands because the traditional progressive/conservative dichotomies are false and based on distorted half-truths. The current impasse is due to the fact that educationalists and philosophers alike have hitherto misunderstood the fundamental purpose of educational activities. The central claim of this paper is that a "biological" perspective on education allows one to see past the traditional dichotomies and affords a coherent rationale for a set of curricular priorities by providing the framework necessary to draw principled distinctions between education, training, indoctrination, and enculturation, all without having to draw on contentious politico-ideological commitments.

The pervasive use of visual representations in textbooks, curricula, and assessments underscores their importance in K-12 science education. For example, visual representations figure prominently in the recent publication of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States in Next generation science standards: for states, by states. Achieve, Inc. on behalf of the twenty-six states and partners that collaborated on the NGSS, 2013). Although assessments of the NGSS have yet to be developed, most students are currently evaluated on their ability to interpret science visuals. While numerous studies exist on particular visuals, it is unclear whether the same types of visuals are emphasized in all science disciplines. The present study is an evaluation of the similarities and differences of visuals used to assess students' knowledge of chemistry, earth science, living environment (biology), and physics on the New York State Regents examination. Analysis of 266 distinct visual representations categorized across the four content examinations reveals that the frequency and type of visuals vary greatly between disciplines. Diagrams, Graphs, Tables, and Maps are the most prevalent across all science disciplines. Maps, Cartograms, and Time Charts are unique to the Earth Science examination, and Network Diagrams are unique to the living environment (biology) examination. This study identifies which representations are most critical for training students across the science disciplines in anticipation of the implementation and eventual assessment of the NGSS.

Learning about stem cells within the context of treating pet illness or injury is an additional way for teachers to discuss the integration of science, technology, and veterinary medicine. We explain how practitioners in veterinary medicine harvest animal stem cells from adipose (fat) tissue in treating pet illness or injury. Further, we narrate how the veterinarian's approach to pet stem cell therapy demonstrates an important step in technological progress in science, one that may lead to medical advances for humans.

This paper reports on the challenge of evaluating students' scientific literacy in a writing-to-learn context, as illustrated by our experience with an online science-writing project. In this mixed methods study, year 9 students in a case study class (13-14 year olds, n?=?26) authored a series of two "hybridised" short stories that merged scientific and narratives genres about the socioscientific issue of biosecurity. In seeking to measure the efficacy of the intervention, we sought evidence of students' conceptual understanding communicated through their stories. Finding a suitable instrument presented our first challenge. This led to the development of scoring matrices to evaluate students' derived sense of scientific literacy. Student interviews were also conducted to explore their understanding of concepts related to the biosecurity context. While the results of these analyses showed significant improvements in students' understanding arising from their participation in the writing tasks, the interviews highlighted a second challenge in evaluating students' scientific literacy: a disparity between their written and vocalised understandings. The majority of students expressed a deeper level of conceptual understanding during the interviews than they did in their stories. The interviews also revealed alternative conceptions and instances of superficial understanding that were not expressed in their writing. Aside from the methodological challenge of analysing stories quantitatively, these findings suggest that in a writing-to-learn context, evaluating students' scientific literacy can be difficult. An examination of these artefacts in combination with interviews about students' written work provided a more comprehensive evaluation of their developing scientific literacy. The implications of this study for our understanding of the derived sense of scientific literacy, as well as implications for classroom practice, are discussed.

Science education reform documents identify nature of science (NOS) as a critical component of scientific literacy and call for universities, colleges, and K-12 schools to explicitly integrate NOS learning into science curricula. In response to these calls, this study investigated the classroom practices of nine graduate assistants (GAs) who taught expository and inquiry laboratories that implemented an explicit and reflective (ER) pedagogy to teach NOS. The purpose of this qualitative study was to better understand the experiences that enabled or inhibited GA implementation of an ER strategy in a college setting. The findings revealed that achieving quality implementation in this setting was very difficult. Factors such as GAs' ability to foster meaningful classroom discussions, laboratory logistics (e.g. lack of time and supplies), and the value undergraduates and GAs saw in learning about NOS were identified by GAs and observed by the researchers as barriers to the technique maximizing its potential. Thus, for meaningful infusion of NOS into science curricula, pedagogical support for GAs to manage meaningful classroom discussions in support of NOS or other complex topics is recommended for an ER approach to NOS learning to be successful in college settings.

Background: Numerous studies have examined gene × environment interactions (G × E) in cognitive and behavioral domains. However, these studies have been limited in that they have not been able to directly assess differential patterns of gene expression in the human brain. Here, we assessed G × E interactions using two publically available datasets to assess if DNA variation is associated with post-mortem brain gene expression changes based on smoking behavior, a biobehavioral construct that is part of a complex system of genetic and environmental influences. Methods: We conducted an expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) study on two independent human brain gene expression datasets assessing G × E for selected psychiatric genes and smoking status. We employed linear regression to model the significance of the Gene × Smoking interaction term, followed by meta-analysis across datasets. Results: Overall, we observed that the effect of DNA variation on gene expression is moderated by smoking status. Expression of 16 genes was significantly associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms that demonstrated G × E effects. The strongest finding (p = 1.9 × 10[superscript -11]) was neurexin 3-alpha ("NRXN3"), a synaptic cell-cell adhesion molecule involved in maintenance of neural connections (such as the maintenance of smoking behavior). Other significant G × E associations include four glutamate genes. Conclusions: This is one of the first studies to demonstrate G × E effects within the human brain. In particular, this study implicated "NRXN3" in the maintenance of smoking. The effect of smoking on "NRXN3" expression and downstream behavior is different based upon SNP genotype, indicating that DNA profiles based on SNPs could be useful in understanding the effects of smoking behaviors. These results suggest that better measurement of psychiatric conditions, and the environment in post-mortem brain studies may yield an important avenue for understanding the biological mechanisms of G × E interactions in psychiatry.

Most transcriptome-wide association studies (TWASs) so far focus on European ancestry and lack diversity. To overcome this limitation, we aggregated genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary statistics, whole-genome sequences and expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) data from diverse ancestries. We developed a new approach, TESLA (multi-ancestry integrative study using an optimal linear combination of association statistics), to integrate an eQTL dataset with a multi-ancestry GWAS. By exploiting shared phenotypic effects between ancestries and accommodating potential effect heterogeneities, TESLA improves power over other TWAS methods. When applied to tobacco use phenotypes, TESLA identified 273 new genes, up to 55% more compared with alternative TWAS methods. These hits and subsequent fine mapping using TESLA point to target genes with biological relevance. In silico drug-repurposing analyses highlight several drugs with known efficacy, including dextromethorphan and galantamine, and new drugs such as muscle relaxants that may be repurposed for treating nicotine addiction.

Large enrolment science courses play a significant role in educating undergraduate students. The discourse in these classes usually involves an instructor lecturing with little or no student participation, despite calls from current science education reform documents to elicit and utilize students' ideas in teaching. In this study, we used the 5E instructional model to develop and implement four lessons in a large enrolment introductory biology course with multiple opportunities for teacher-student and student-student interaction. Data consisted of video and audio recordings of whole-class and small-group discussions that took place throughout the study. We then used a science classroom discourse framework developed by Mortimer and Scott (2003) to characterize the discursive interactions in each 5E lesson phase. Analysis of the data resulted in two assertions. First, the purpose, communicative approach, patterns of discourse, and teaching interventions were unique to each 5E lesson phase. Second, the type of lesson topic influenced the content of the discourse. We discuss how the findings help characterize the discourse of each phase in a 5E college science lesson and propose a model to understand internalization through discursive interaction using this reform-based approach. We conclude with implications for facilitating discourse in college science lessons and future research. This study provides support for using the discourse framework to characterize discursive interaction in college science courses.

Student interest in botany and enrolment in plant sciences courses tends to be low compared to that in other biological disciplines. One potential way of increasing student interest in botany is to focus on course material designed to raise student enthusiasm and satisfaction. Here, we introduce and evaluate virtual microscopy in botany teaching. Virtual microscopy uses high-resolution digital "virtual slides" that allow students to explore microscope sections without the advanced skills required to prepare glass slides. Questionnaire feedback from students indicated that students found the virtual slides an effective learning tool. Further, we found that student performance in assessments was significantly higher when using virtual slides than when using traditional glass slides. We suggest that virtual slides are an effective tool for increasing student satisfaction in introductory botany courses, and have the potential for increasing student enrolment in higher-level courses (honours) and research degrees. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

University instructors are challenged to involve large student populations with varying pre-existing knowledge in authentic inquiry. We present a model in which students collaborate to design and run their own experiment and engage in peer evaluation. In the model, students in different lab sections of a multi-section course explore alternative interconnected hypotheses based around a common theme. A pooled data set from the multiple sections then forms the basis for discussion during an interactive lecture session. This experience has a significant impact on student confidence towards participation in science, and establishes a model for enhanced skill development. To demonstrate the approach, we provide a case study that explores the relationships between leaf degradation, microbial colonisation and macroinvertebrate feeding in a stream ecosystem.

The study compared the effect of two adaptations of a scientific article on students' comprehension and use of scientific inquiry skills. One adaptation preserved as much as possible the canonical form of the original article (APL, Adapted Primary Literature) and the other was written in a more narrative mode typical of secondary literature (SL). Both adaptations contained the same content. Two hundred and eleven senior high school students in a Western Canadian school district participated. The numbers of males and females were approximately equal, and all students were registered in an introductory calculus course. All students were given a 90 min class by their teachers that introduced them to the basic mathematical concepts needed to read the articles. Students were randomly assigned to read either the APL or the SL and afterwards to complete a questionnaire, which was common to both groups. Major findings showed that the SL students better understood the article, that the APL students thought more critically about the article, that females understood the article better than males, and that students' attitudes towards reading the articles, regardless of group, were positively associated with their comprehension and use of inquiry skills. The results coincide in important ways with those of similar studies in Israel, and show that asking students to read text that resembles scientific writing increases their use of critical thinking skills when reading.

Following the publication of the higher education white paper increasing entry tariff and widening participation have become even more important issues for universities. This report examines the relationship between entry tariff and undergraduate achievement in Biosciences at the University of Exeter. We show that, whilst there is a significant correlation between A-level tariff and both level 1 and final degree marks, the magnitude of the correlation decreases with increasing A-level tariff. It was also found that, contrary to anecdotal evidence, there is no link between A-level maths or chemistry and degree success in biosciences. However gender was found to have a marked effect on degree success independent of A-level tariff. Female students consistently obtained marks more than one third of a degree classification higher than male students with equivalent entry qualifications. These results are compared to investigations in other disciplines, notably medicine, and in the context of the drive to increase entry tariff to allow unrestricted recruitment of the top students. (Contains 2 figures, 1 footnote, and 6 tables.)

Herein we report the development of an analytic rubric bank to assess non-content learning, namely higher order cognitive skills, the understanding of the nature of science, and effective scientific communication skills in student research projects. Preliminary findings indicate that use of this tool enhances our students' learning in these areas, particularly in the area of communication, as well as eases and speeds the assessment of these skills. Our rubric bank is notable for its adaptability to a wide range of assignments, developmental levels, and science courses. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

The objective of this study was to investigate how a measure of educational and occupational attainment, a component of cognitive reserve, modifies the relationship between biomarkers of pathology and cognition in Alzheimer's disease. The biomarkers evaluated quantified neurodegeneration via atrophy on magnetic resonance images, neuronal injury via cerebral spinal fluid t-tau, brain amyloid-[beta] load via cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-[beta][subscript 1-42] and vascular disease via white matter hyperintensities on T2/proton density magnetic resonance images. We included 109 cognitively normal subjects, 192 amnestic patients with mild cognitive impairment and 98 patients with Alzheimer's disease, from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative study, who had undergone baseline lumbar puncture and magnetic resonance imaging. We combined patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease in a group labelled "cognitively impaired" subjects. Structural Abnormality Index scores, which reflect the degree of Alzheimer's disease-like anatomic features on magnetic resonance images, were computed for each subject. We assessed Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (cognitive behaviour section) and mini-mental state examination scores as measures of general cognition and Auditory-Verbal Learning Test delayed recall, Boston naming and Trails B scores as measures of specific domains in both groups of subjects. The number of errors on the American National Adult Reading Test was used as a measure of environmental enrichment provided by educational and occupational attainment, a component of cognitive reserve. We found that in cognitively normal subjects, none of the biomarkers correlated with the measures of cognition, whereas American National Adult Reading Test scores were significantly correlated with Boston naming and mini-mental state examination results. In cognitively impaired subjects, the American National Adult Reading Test and all biomarkers of neuronal pathology and amyloid load were independently correlated with all cognitive measures. Exceptions to this general conclusion were absence of correlation between cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-[beta][subscript 1-42] and Boston naming and Trails B. In contrast, white matter hyperintensities were only correlated with Boston naming and Trails B results in the cognitively impaired. When all subjects were included in a flexible ordinal regression model that allowed for non-linear effects and interactions, we found that the American National Adult Reading Test had an independent additive association such that better performance was associated with better cognitive performance across the biomarker distribution. Our main conclusions included: (i) that in cognitively normal subjects, the variability in cognitive performance is explained partly by the American National Adult Reading Test and not by biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease pathology; (ii) in cognitively impaired subjects, the American National Adult Reading Test, biomarkers of neuronal pathology (structural magnetic resonance imaging and cerebral spinal fluid t-tau) and amyloid load (cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-[beta][subscript 1-42]) all independently explain variability in general cognitive performance; and (iii) that the association between cognition and the American National Adult Reading Test was found to be additive rather than to interact with biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease pathology.

In response to international concerns about scientific literacy and students' waning interest in school science, this study investigated the effects of a science-writing project about the socioscientific issue (SSI) of biosecurity on the development of students' scientific literacy. Students generated two "BioStories" each that merged scientific information with the narrative storylines in the project. The study was conducted in two phases. In the exploratory phase, a qualitative case study of a sixth-grade class involving classroom observations and interviews informed the design of the second, confirmatory phase of the study, which was conducted at a different school. This phase involved a mixed methods approach featuring a quasi-experimental design with two classes of Australian middle school students (i.e., sixth grade, 11 years of age, n = 55). The results support the argument that writing the sequence of stories helped the students become more familiar with biosecurity issues, develop a deeper understanding of related biological concepts, and improve their interest in science. On the basis of these findings, teachers should be encouraged to engage their students in the practice of writing about SSI in a way that integrates scientific information into narrative storylines. Extending the practice to older students and exploring additional issues related to writing about SSI are recommended for further research. (Contains 1 note, 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Self-formed out-of-class study groups may benefit student learning; however, few researchers have quantified the relationship between study group use and achievement or described changes in study group usage patterns over a semester. We related study group use to performance on content exams, explored patterns of study group use, and qualitatively described student perceptions of study groups. A pre- and posttest were used to measure student content knowledge. Internet-based surveys were used to collect quantitative data on exam performance and qualitative data on study group usage trends and student perceptions of study groups. No relationship was found between gains in content knowledge and study group use. Students who participated in study groups did, however, believe they were beneficial. Four patterns of study group use were identified: students either always (14%) or never (55%) used study groups, tried but quit using them (22%), or utilized study groups only late in the semester (9%). Thematic analysis revealed preconceptions and in-class experiences influence student decisions to utilize study groups. We conclude that students require guidance in the successful use of study groups. Instructors can help students maximize study group success by making students aware of potential group composition problems, helping students choose group members who are compatible, and providing students materials on which to focus their study efforts. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

Child maltreatment appears to be the single most preventable cause of mental illness and behavioral dysfunction in the United States. Few published studies examine the developmental and the psychobiological consequences of sexual abuse. There are multiple mechanisms through which sexual abuse can cause post-traumatic stress disorder, activate biological stress response systems, and contribute to adverse brain development. This article will critically review the psychiatric problems associated with maltreatment and the emerging biologic stress system research with a special emphasis on what is known about victimization by sexual abuse. (Contains 2 figures.)

Objective: Genes likely play a substantial role in the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the genetic architecture of the disorder is unknown, and prior genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have not identified a genome-wide significant association. We have conducted a third, independent, multisite GWAS of DSM-IV-TR ADHD. Method: Families were ascertained at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH; N = 309 trios), Washington University at St. Louis (WASH-U; N = 272 trios), and University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA; N = 156 trios). Genotyping was conducted with the Illumina Human1M or Human1M-Duo BeadChip platforms. After applying quality control filters, association with ADHD was tested with 835,136 SNPs in 735 DSM-IV ADHD trios from 732 families. Results: Our smallest p value (6.7E-07) did not reach the threshold for genome-wide statistical significance (5.0E-08), but one of the 20 most significant associations was located in a candidate gene of interest for ADHD (SLC9A9, rs9810857, p = 6.4E-6). We also conducted gene-based tests of candidate genes identified in the literature and found additional evidence of association with SLC9A9. Conclusions: We and our colleagues in the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium are working to pool together GWAS samples to establish the large data sets needed to follow-up on these results and to identify genes for ADHD and other disorders. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

Mastering the concept of photosynthesis is of critical importance to learning plant physiology and its applications, but seems to be one of the more challenging concepts in biology. This teaching challenge is no doubt compounded by the complexity by which plants alter photosynthesis in different environments. Here we suggest the use of chlorophyll fluorometers in the undergraduate plant physiology classroom as one means to enhance conceptual learning of photosynthesis and its acclimation to changing environments. We also provide an overview of current research in photosynthetic acclimation to changing conditions, review the methodological considerations of making good "F[subscript v]/F[subscript m]" measurements with small inexpensive fluorometers, and suggest an open-inquiry activity for teaching concepts of photosynthesis and photo-acclimation with fluorometers in an undergraduate plant physiology course. (Contains 6 figures.)

We present a neural network model that aims to bridge the historical gap between dynamic and structural approaches to personality. The model integrates work on the structure of the trait lexicon, the neurobiology of personality, temperament, goal-based models of personality, and an evolutionary analysis of motives. It is organized in terms of two overarching motivational systems, an approach and an avoidance system, as well as a general disinhibition and constraint system. Each overarching motivational system influences more specific motives. Traits are modeled in terms of differences in the sensitivities of the motivational systems, the baseline activation of specific motives, and inhibitory strength. The result is a motive-based neural network model of personality based on research about the structure and neurobiology of human personality. The model provides an account of personality dynamics and person-situation interactions and suggests how dynamic processing approaches and dispositional, structural approaches can be integrated in a common framework. (Contains 15 tables and 3 figures.)

Since 2002 the authors have offered an undergraduate major in Mathematical Biology at Harvey Mudd College. The major was developed and is administered jointly by the mathematics and biology faculty. In this paper the authors describe the major, courses, and faculty and student research and discuss some of the challenges and opportunities they have experienced. (Contains 2 tables.)

There has been much recent interest in the extent to which the teaching in higher education delivered by non-academic staff has increased in the recent past. Within the Biosciences there has always been a tradition of engaging postgraduate students to support the delivery of some forms of teaching. In this paper we report on the findings of a survey of bioscience departments in the UK to explore the delivery of teaching by graduate teaching assistants (GTAs). A key finding is that there does not appear to have been a significant increase in the amount of teaching delivered by GTAs: only 18% of responding departments reported an increase in the use of GTAs over the last five years. The most common form of employment of GTAs is in supporting the delivery of practical classes, particularly in year 1, though GTAs are engaged to varying extents in all forms of teaching. All of the institutions that responded indicated that some forms of training were provided, though this varied in range and in perceived quality. Overall, the academic staff indicated general satisfaction with the quality of the teaching undertaken by GTAs. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

This paper promotes the use of adapted primary literature as a curriculum and instruction innovation for use in high school. Adapted primary literature is useful for promoting an understanding of scientific and mathematical reasoning and argument and for introducing modern science into the schools. We describe a prototype adapted from a published article on a mathematical model of the spread of the West Nile virus in North America. The prototype is available as a web-based resource that includes supplemental pedagogical units. Preliminary feedback from use of the prototype in two classrooms is described and a sketch of an ongoing formal evaluation is provided.

Lipid rafts have been implicated in numerous cellular processes including cell signaling, endocytosis, and even viral infection. Isolation of these lipid rafts often involves detergent treatment of the membrane to dissolve nonraft components followed by separation of raft regions in a density gradient. We present here an inquiry-based lab series using these techniques to isolate membrane rafts from yeast cells designed for the upper division biochemistry or cell biology course laboratory. The co-localization of a common raft-associated protein with lipid rafts is then followed. This lab series involves undergraduate cell biology or biochemistry students in each step of the scientific process from experimental design to dissemination of their results. Additionally, this lab series reinforces concepts in membrane structure while exposing undergraduates to common techniques in cell biology and biochemistry. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

This paper presents an assessment of a biology education seminar for science graduate students. It describes how this seminar emphasized pedagogy "and" reflective assignments to help students identify and explore novel instructional strategies, discover who they are as teachers, focus on student learning, and acknowledge the challenges of effective teaching. Overall, the course facilitated reflection about personal teaching style and acceptance of new teaching ideas via assignments that encouraged written and verbal reflection by students.

Effective statistical collaboration in a multidisciplinary health research environment requires skills not taught in the usual statistics courses. Graduates often learn such collaborative skills through trial and error. In this paper, we discuss the development of a biostatistical collaboration course aimed at graduate students in a Health Research Methodology PhD program with Specialization in Biostatistics. The objectives of the course are to promote enthusiasm and commitment to excellence in statistical collaboration in clinical research; to enhance communication of statistical issues to non-statistician collaborators; to build statistical self-sufficiency and develop skill in applied statistics; and to enhance a culture of collaboration among statisticians and non-statistician researchers. The course uses a combination of lectures and tutorials led by faculty members, videotaped consulting practice sessions, and internship with mentoring of each student by an experienced biostatistician. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)