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Performance (from 10 weeks until slaughter), carcass and meat quality, and effectiveness of immunocastration was compared in crossbred offspring of stress positive (BP+) and negative (BP-) Belgian Pietrain and Canadian Duroc (CD) given the second vaccination of Improvac® at different times (4, 6, 8 weeks before slaughter). CD offspring had a significantly higher daily gain (DG) and feed intake (DFI), and lower predicted lean meat percentage (LMP) and dressing yield compared to BP+ and BP-, while feed conversion ratio (FCR) did not differ. CD offspring had significantly lower drip loss and higher pHi, intramuscular fat content than BP+ and BP- (except for pHi). No significant effect of vaccination time on DG nor FCR was observed. Predicted LMP tended to increase as time-post injection decreased, while meat quality was minor affected. Earlier vaccination had no effect on the effectiveness of immunocastration based on testosterone and GnRH-binding.

This study was performed to investigate meat quality traits of loin and ham of commercial pigs as affected by genetic differences in carcass and growth traits of the parent lines. Three hybrid sow lines were crossbred with two types of Belgian Pietrain with different breeding goals (BPgrowth and BPcarcass emphasizing daily growth and carcass conformation, respectively). Pig live performance and carcass quality of 270 offspring were measured, and meat quality of the loin and (cooked) ham was evaluated on 216 animals. Despite the differences in pig live performance and carcass quality for sow line, little effect on meat quality was observed. Only a lower (p

This study was designed to compare performance, carcass and meat quality of crossbred of a hybrid sow x three sire lines, i.e. stress positive Belgian Piétrain (BP), stress negative French Piétrain (FP) and Canadian Duroc (CD). BP offspring had a significantly higher carcass yield (p .001) and lean meat content (p .001) in comparison with FP, which was higher than CD. BP offspring had significantly lower pH (p .05), water-holding capacity (WHC) (p .001) and intramuscular fat (IMF) (p .001) content in the loin compared to FP and CD, but these meat quality parameters, with the exception of pH, were superior for CD as compared to FP. In accordance with loin quality, pH

Here we tested the potential of ten culinary herbs (basil, oregano, rosemary and thyme) and spices (black pepper, cayenne pepper, cumin, curcuma, garlic and sweet paprika) to limit oxidation during cooking of a high-fat beef product, and during its subsequent in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The herbs and spices were added separately at 0.5% and 1% (w/w), either during meat processing before heating of the product or after heating of the meat as a seasoning. Lipid oxidation was evaluated by malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and hexanal quantification in the meat products and gastrointestinal digests. In general, adding the herbs and spices before heating of the meat was more effective at limiting oxidation during digestion, compared to adding these compounds after heating. Doses of 1% were more effective than 0.5%. The four herbs and curcuma displayed antioxidant activity in all treatments and were more effective in limiting oxidation than the other culinary compounds, resulting in negligible concentrations of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and hexanal in the meat and digests. Black pepper, cayenne pepper and cumin moderately reduced or had no effect on oxidation during digestion when added following heating of the meat, but had a more pronounced antioxidant effect when added before heating. Sweet paprika and garlic exerted some pro-oxidant effects during cooking. During digestion, sweet paprika had an antioxidant effect, but garlic did not. The extent to which the herbs and spices limited oxidation, showed a strong correlation with their phenolic content, and lower correlations with α-tocopherol and chlorophyll.

Glutathione (GSH) is considered to play an important role in maintaining the integrity of the small intestine. In piglets, altered mucosal GSH levels might therefore be involved in weaning-induced changes of the small intestinal morphology and barrier function. To test this hypothesis, we aimed to challenge the mucosal GSH redox status during the first 28 days after weaning, by feeding diets containing 5% fresh linseed oil (CON), or 2.5% (OF1) or 5% (OF2) peroxidized linseed oil (peroxide value 225 mEq O-2/kg oil) and exploring the effects on gut integrity. Piglets were pair-fed and had a total daily feed allowance of 32 g/kg BW. A fourth treatment included animals that were fed the control diet ad libitum (ACON). Animals were sampled at days 5 and 28 post-weaning. The malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and GSH redox status (GSH/GSSG E-h) were determined in blood, liver and small intestinal mucosa. Histomorphology of the duodenal and jejunal mucosa was determined, and Ussing chambers were used to assess fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FD4) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) fluxes across the mucosa. Results show that peroxidized linseed oil imposed an oxidative challenge at day 28, but not at day 5 post-weaning. At day 28, increasing levels of dietary peroxides to pair-fed pigs linearly increased MDA levels in duodenal and jejunal mucosa. Moreover, FD4 fluxes were significantly increased in OF1 (+75%) and OF2 (+64%) in the duodenum, and HRP fluxes tended (P=0.099) to show similar differences, as compared to CON. This co-occurred with a significant 11 mV increase of the hepatic GSH/GSSG E-h, potentiated by a significantly increased GSH peroxidase activity for treatments OF1 (+47%) and OF2 (+63%) in liver as compared to CON. Furthermore; duodenal HRP flux significantly correlated with the hepatic glutathione disulphide (GSSG) level (r=0.650), as also observed in the jejunum for hepatic GSSG (r=0.627) and GSH/GSSG E-h (r=0.547). The jejunal permeability was not affected, but FD4 and HRP fluxes significantly correlated with the local GSH (r=0.619; r=0.733) and GSSG (r=0.635; r=0586) levels. Small intestinal histomorphology was not affected by dietary lipid peroxides, nor were there any correlations found with the GSH redox system. To conclude, under oxidative stress conditions, jejunal barrier function is related to the local and hepatic GSH redox system. It is suggested that the hepatic GSH system participates in the elimination of luminal peroxides, and thereby impacts on duodenal barrier function.

The antibacterial effects of odd-numbered medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), such as C7 and C9 carboxylic acids, are poorly described and, hence, their potential as a feed additive for weaned piglets has not been explored. First, the antimicrobial activity was tested in in vitro incubations simulating the digestion in the stomach (pH 3), duodenum (pH 5), and ileum (pH 7) at 0, 17.5, 35.0, and 70.0 mmol/L carboxylate and compared with even-numbered MCFA. All compounds showed a significant reduction of analyzed bacterial counts compared with the control, in many cases >2 log reduction up to complete disappearance, depending on pH and dose. At pH 3 and 5, C6 through C9 carboxylic acids were equally effective against coliforms, whereas C10 was less effective. The activity against lactobacilli and streptococci was higher at the lower pH and increased with chain length. The antimicrobial effects of C7 and C9 carboxylic acids were, in most cases, in between or, in one case, better than that of their respective neighboring even-numbered MCFA. Next, an equal mixture of C7 and C9 carboxylic acid was fed to weaned piglets at 0, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4% carboxylic acids in the diet for 42 d (8 pen replicates with 6 pigs each). At d 13/14, 1 piglet per pen was sampled to determine major gastric and proximal and distal small intestinal bacterial groups and histomorphological characteristics. Numerical improvements of animal performance for all supplemented diets were observed (P > 0.05) and this corroborated with a trend for longer villi in the proximal small intestine (P = 0.082). The highest dose tended to reduce streptococci in the stomach contents (P = 0.079). In vitro, C7 and C9 carboxylic acids demonstrated clear and significant antibacterial effects against the major bacterial groups in the stomach and small intestine. In the postweaning performance trial, they showed potential to ameliorate performance.

In order to expand with validated scientific data the limited knowledge regarding the potential application of insects as innovative feed ingredients for poultry, the present study tested a partial substitution of soya bean meal and soya bean oil with defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal (H) in the diet for growing broiler quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) on growth performance, mortality, nutrients apparent digestibility, microbiological composition of excreta, feed choice, carcass and meat traits. With this purpose, a total of 450 10-day-old birds were allocated to 15 cages (30 birds/cage) and received three dietary treatments: a Control diet (C) and two diets (H1 and H2) corresponding to 10% and 15% H inclusion levels, respectively (H substituted 28.4% soya bean oil and 16.1% soya bean meal for H1, and 100% soya bean oil and 24.8% soya bean meal for H2, respectively). At 28 days of age, quails were slaughtered, carcasses were weighed, breast muscles were then excised from 50 quails/treatment, weighed, and ultimate pH (pHu) and L*, a*, b* colour values were measured. Breast muscles were then cooked to assess cooking loss and meat toughness. For the digestibility trial, a total of 15 28-day-old quails were assigned to the three feeding groups. The excreta samples were subjected to chemical and microbiological analysis. The same 15 quails were then simultaneously provided with C and H2 diets for a 10-day feed choice trial. Productive performance, mortality and carcass traits were in line with commercial standards and similar in all experimental groups. With the exception of ether extract digestibility, which was lower in H1 group compared with C and H2 (P=0.0001), apparent digestibility of dry matter, CP, starch and energy did not differ among treatments. Microbial composition of excreta was also comparable among the three groups. Feed choice trial showed that quails did not express a preference toward C or H2 diets. Breast meat weight and yield did not differ among C, H1 and H2 quails. Differently, the inclusion of H meal reduced meat pHu compared with C. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that H. illucens larvae meal can partially replace conventional soya bean meal and soya bean oil in the diet for growing broiler quails, thus confirming to be a promising insect protein source for the feed industry. Further research to assess the impact of H meal on intestinal morphology as well as on meat quality and sensory profile would be of utmost importance.

This study builds on the results of a previous study in which six commercial feed products based on organic acids were evaluated with respect to Salmonella contamination of piglets in an artificially challenged seeder model. In the present study, the efficacy of three of these commercial products was assessed for Salmonella reduction in fattening pigs on one closed farm with a natural high Salmonella prevalence. In each of four fattening compartments, one of the following feed treatments was evaluated during two consecutive fattening rounds: (i) butyric acid (active ingredients at 1.3 kg/ton of feed; supplement A1), (ii) a combination of short-chain organic acids (mixture of free acids and salts) and natural extracts (2.92 kg/ton; supplement A4), (iii) a 1:1 blend of two commercial products consisting of medium-chain fatty acids, lactic acid, and oregano oil (3.71 kg/ton; supplement A5+A6), and (iv) a control feed. On the farm, the Salmonella status of the fattening pigs was evaluated by taking fecal samples twice during the fattening period. At the slaughterhouse, samples were collected from the cecal contents and the ileocecal lymph nodes. Salmonella isolates were serotyped and characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. This farm had a particularly high number of pigs shedding Salmonella with a wide variety of sero- and pulsotypes. Only the feed blend based on the medium-chain fatty acids was able to significantly reduce Salmonella prevalence both on the farm and at the slaughterhouse. With this combined supplement, the Salmonella reduction in the feces at slaughter age, in cecal contents at slaughter, and the lymph nodes was 50, 36, and 67%, respectively, compared with the control animals. This promising finding calls for further investigation including cost-efficiency of this combined feed product and its effect on the animals.

In two experiments with weaned piglets, the effects of fermented liquid feed (FLF) (produced with probiotic strain Pediococcus acidilactici, Bactocell®, Lallemand S.A.S.) on performance and some bacteriological and morpho-histological parameters of the gut were investigated, and the impact of sedimentation of the solids in the FLF thereon. In experiment I, FLF or the same dry feed (DRY) was offered ad libitum for 28 days to two groups of 15 weaned piglets (28 days of age) each (3 replicates of 5 pigs). Performance was negatively affected by feeding FLF and concomitant with that the group fed the FLF diet showed shorter villi (501 vs 550 μm) and smaller crypts (264 vs 289 μm) in the small intestine at 3 m proximal to the caecum (P < 0.05). It was assumed that these poorer results were due to sedimentation of the solids in the FLF and therefore a second experiment was conducted with sepiolite (10 g/kg) added to the feeds. Sepiolite tends to slow down the segregation of particles in slurry. The three feeding groups (weaned piglets, 27 days of age) in this experiment were DRY, DRY with probiotic (DRY+), and FLF. The group fed FLF (body weight gain (BWG) 254 g/piglet day; feed : gain ratio 1.38) did now perform better (P < 0.05) than the groups fed the DRY (BWG 184 g/piglet/day; feed : gain ratio 1.52) and DRY+ (BWG 185 g/piglet/day; feed : gain ratio 1.48) diets, which did not differ. Villus length in the small intestine at 3 m proximal to the caecum was also higher for the group fed FLF (558 μm) compared with the group fed the DRY+ diet (490 μm; P < 0.05). It was concluded that feeding FLF is beneficial to freshly weaned piglets on condition that sedimentation of the solids in the feed slurry can be controlled.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of different fiber sources on jejunal digestive and absorptive physiology in weaned piglets. One hundred weaned piglets were allotted according to body weight, gender and litter to four dietary treatments. Each treatment was replicated in 5 pens of 5 pigs each. The experimental diets contained 10% of a fiber source: wheat bran (WB), maize fiber (MF), soyabean fiber (SF), or pea fiber (PF). Piglets were fed ad libitum for 30 d. Reduced villus height and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio (P PF > MF > WB. Our study indicates that SF and PF could promote apparent faecal digestibility in piglets, but this is not accompanied by better jejunal morphology or digestive enzyme activities as compared with WB.

The effect of feeding Bacillus subtilis C-3102 (Calsporin) to sows and piglets on performance and gut health of weaned piglets was studied. The experiment contained 4 treatments. First, 8 of 16 sows were supplemented with 3 x 10(5) cfu B. subtilis C-3102/g feed during gestation and lactation whereas the other 8 sows were not supplemented. The probiotic was also included in the creep feed of the suckling offspring of the supplemented sows at an equal dose. Furthermore, at weaning (19-20 d of age), each of the 2 experimental groups were split up into 2 subgroups to yield 4 treatments. Therefore, 5 piglets of each sow were fed a control diet voided of probiotics and 5 littermates were offered the control diet supplemented with 3 x 10(5) cfu B. subtilis C-3102/g feed until 42 d after weaning (8 pen replicates with 5 piglets each). Piglets were sampled at d 0, 5, 13, and 42 after weaning. Supplementation of the probiotic to sows and suckling piglets resulted in higher short-chain fatty acid production in the distal small intestine and mid colon at weaning but not at d 5 and 13 after weaning, whereas villus atrophy in the small intestine and crypt deepening in the proximal small intestine was lower. Postweaning supplementation improved the feed:gain ratio for the total period (1.39 vs. 1.45; P = 0.031) and resulted in a trend for lower mRNA of IL-1 alpha (P = 0.091), higher lactobacillus counts (P = 0.074), and a significantly lower number of crypt goblet cells in distal small intestine mucosa in the early postweaning period. In addition, B. subtilis C-3102 was detected only in colonic contents or feces of piglets from the supplemented groups. Only 1 significant interaction between pre- and postweaning supplementation was found throughout the study. To conclude, preweaning supplementation positively affected some gut health parameters and postweaning supplementation improved the feed:gain ratio.

N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are essential for foetal development. Hence, including n-3 PUFA in the sow diet can be beneficial for reproduction. Both the amount and form (precursor fatty acids vs. long chain PUFA) of supplementation are important in this respect. Furthermore, including n-3 PUFA in the diet can have negative effects, such as decreased arachidonic acid (ARA) concentration and increased oxidative stress. This study aimed to compare the efficacy to increase eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentrations in the piglet, when different concentrations of linseed oil (LO, source of precursor a-linolenic acid) or fish oil (FO, source of EPA and DHA) were included in the maternal diet. Sows were fed a palm oil diet or a diet including 0.5% or 2% LO or FO from day 45 of gestation until weaning. Linoleic acid (LA) was kept constant in the diets to prevent a decrease in ARA, and all diets were supplemented with a-tocopherol acetate (150 mg/kg) and organic selenium (0.4 mg/kg) to prevent oxidative stress. Feeding 0.5% LO or 0.5% FO to the sows resulted in comparable EPA concentrations in the 5-day old piglet liver, but both diets resulted in lower EPA concentrations than when 2% LO was fed. The highest EPA concentration was obtained when 2% FO was fed. The DHA level in the piglet liver could only be increased when FO, but not LO, was fed to the sows. The 2% FO diet had no advantage over the 0.5% FO diet to increase DHA in the piglet. Despite the constant LA concentration in the sow diet, a decrease in ARA could not be avoided when LO or FO were included in the diet. Feeding 2% FO to the sows increased the malondialdehyde concentration (marker for lipid peroxidation) in sow plasma, but not in piglets.

Perinatal mortality of piglets means a serious loss for the pig industry. Therefore, finding strategies to decrease stillbirths and increase piglet vitality is crucial. Supplementing the gestation and lactation diets with n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), can be beneficial, as these PUFA are essential for the development of the foetus. Docosahexaenoic acid can be directly supplied from the maternal diet through addition of fish oil, or it may result from the conversion of dietary precursors such as alpha-linolenic acid, e.g. by addition of linseed oil. Until now, studies assessing the effects of n−3 PUFA on sow reproduction give equivocal results. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of linseed oil and fish oil in the maternal diet of a large number of sows (734 sows in total) on their reproductive performance in the current and subsequent gestation. Furthermore, the effect of diet on the farrowing process, piglet weight and vitality was analysed. From day 45 of gestation and during lactation, sows were fed a palm oil diet or one of the six n−3 PUFA diets, each containing different concentrations (0.5%, 1% or 2%) of linseed oil, fish oil or their combination. Sows fed linseed oil had 0.9 more live born piglets (P=0.02) and 0.5 more weaned piglets (P=0.02) compared to fish oil fed sows. In the subsequent gestation, linseed oil fed sows had 1.3 and 1.5 more live born piglets compared to sows fed fish oil (P=0.006) or palm oil (P

The negative effects of high ambient temperature during some months of the year on poultry production have been of great concern in many countries. Dietary modifications are among the most practical ways to alleviate the effects of high temperature. Possible effects of dietary supplementation with 200 or 400 mg/kg feed of lemon peel extract (LPE), orange peel extract (OPE) and Curcuma xanthorrhiza essential oil (CXEO) under hot conditions (34 °C with 50% relative humidity for 5 h daily starting from day 28 until day 38 of age) on blood antioxidant enzyme activities, biochemical parameters and antibody titres of broiler chickens were investigated. All extracts are rich in phenolic compounds and highly available. Compared to control, supplementation with OPE at 400 mg/kg and CXEO significantly increased erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity, plasma growth hormone concentrations and serum phosphorus, total protein and chloride concentrations and decreased serum low-density lipoprotein and cholesterol concentrations in chickens at 38 days of age. Regarding antibody titres, CXEO supplementation at 400 mg/kg caused a significant increase in bronchitis antibody titres. Supplementation with LPE and OPE gave more inconsistent results. Most interesting, 400 mg/kg LPE significantly increased 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine and GH concentration as compared to the control. In conclusion, the herbal extracts tested in this study, in particular CXEO at 400 mg/kg, may relieve some of the changes in blood composition induced by increased ambient temperatures.

The main aim of the current experiment was to assess the potential of dietary orange peel extract (OPE) and lemon peel extract (LPE) as promoters of broiler resistance to high ambient temperature. The experiment was conducted as a 2×3 factorial arrangement of treatments with 2 levels of OPE (0 and 200 mg/kg feed) and 3 levels of LPE (0, 200, and 400 mg/kg feed). At d 25, a total of 288 Ross 308 broilers were randomly assigned to 6 dietary treatments with 4 replicates of 12 broiler chickens each. The temperature was increased to 34 °C with 50% relative humidity for 5 h daily starting from d 28 until d 38. At the end of the trial (d 38), 4 male broiler chickens per pen were sampled for determination of serum components and variables of intestinal morphology. Dietary OPE and LPE did not affect weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio of broiler chickens. The inclusion of 200 mg/kg OPE increased serum total protein, but reduced serum lactate dehydrogenase and creatine phosphokinase activity in broiler chickens (P

This study evaluates 1) carcass quality, meat quality and palatability for barrows, immunocastrates and boars and 2) the effect of chicory supplemented feed during 10 days before slaughter on boar meat quality. At comparable carcass weights, estimated carcass lean meat percentage was higher in immunocastrates and boars than in barrows. Muscle thickness was higher for immunocastrates and barrows compared to boars, while fat thickness was lowest for immunocastrates and boars. Barrows, immunocastrates and boars differed in water holding capacity and boar taint. Home consumer panels were conducted to evaluate palatability. The consumers did detect differences in tenderness and juiciness, but not for boar taint. The chicory feed supplemented in boar feed decreased skatole concentration in backfat, without largely influencing meat quality or palatability. Not only boar taint, but also carcass and meat quality should be considered when evaluating alternatives for surgical castration.

Echium oil (source of stearidonic acid) and linseed oil (source of α-linolenic acid) were evaluated as alternatives for fish oil in the diet of sows to increase the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) status of the offspring. The hypothesis was that echium oil would be more efficient than linseed oil to increase the DHA concentration, as it bypasses the enzyme Δ6-desaturase. In addition, it was determined whether adding PUFA to the diet affected the plasma oxidative status. Sows were fed either a palm oil diet or a diet containing 1% linseed oil, echium oil, or fish oil from d 73 of gestation and during lactation (n = 16 per dietary treatment). Total oil concentrations in the diets were similar among dietary treatments. Blood samples were taken for fatty acid analysis and oxidative status of sows on d 73 and 93 of gestation and at parturition and the lightest and heaviest piglet per litter at birth and weaning. Colostrum was also sampled. No effect of diet was observed on total number of piglets born (13.7 ± 0.4), number of weaned piglets (10.8 ± 0.4), and gestation length (114.8 ± 0.2 d). Piglets from sows fed fish oil had lighter birth weights (1.41 ± 0.03 kg) than piglets from the linseed oil diet (1.54 ± 0.03 kg; P = 0.006), with no difference between the palm oil (1.45 ± 0.03 kg) and echium oil diet (1.49 ± 0.03 kg). Daily BW gain until weaning was less for piglets from sows fed the fish oil diet (214 ± 5 g) compared with piglets from sows fed the echium oil (240 ± 5 g; P < 0.001) or linseed oil diet (234 ± 5 g; P = 0.02). Compared with the palm oil diet, echium and linseed oil in the maternal diet increased the DHA concentration in the colostrum and the sow and piglet plasma to the same extent (1.1 to 1.4-fold; P < 0.001). On the fish oil diet, 20.7-fold, 10-fold, and 2.4-fold increases in DHA in colostrum, sow, and piglet plasma, respectively, were observed (P < 0.001). At 1% in the maternal diet, echium oil had, thus, no benefit over linseed oil and resulted in a twofold less DHA concentration in the plasma of piglets compared with fish oil. Including n-3 PUFA in the maternal diet did not affect oxidative status of the mother or the offspring.

Inclusion of oil palm fronds (OPF) in ruminant diets was previously reported to increase the tissue content of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and reduce rumen biohydrogenation, which was in contrast with our former in vitro study. Thus, a small scale in vivo study was performed to assess the effects of different inclusion levels of OPF on UFA content of intramuscular fat (longissimus dorsi, biceps femoris) and adipose tissues (subcutaneous, perirenal). Sixteen lambs were divided into 4 treatment groups, with dietary inclusion levels of OPF of 0, 100, 200 and 300 g/kg DM, respectively. Further, the diet contained a commercial sheep/goat pellet. Diets were supplemented with soybean oil (40 g/kg DM), which was equally mixed with the whole ration. Hence, the diet particularly supplied linoleic acid (LA; 563–569 g/kg total fatty acid (FA) intake). Due to selective refusal of the OPF, actual proportion of OPF in the ingested feed was lower compared with the offered diet, i.e. 44, 137 and 170 g/kg DM. The total fat intake also differed among the treatments due to differences in feed intake. After 12 weeks on the experimental diets, the lambs were slaughtered and both intramuscular fat and adipose tissues were collected for FA analysis. No differences were observed in total FA content, proportion of C18:2 n-6 and UFA/SFA ratio in OPF inclusion groups for both intramuscular fat and adipose tissues. Hence, OPF does not seem to relatively modify UFA content of adipose or intramuscular fat.

Directing protein and energy sources towards lactation is crucial to optimise milk production in sows but how this influences colostrum yield (CY) remains unknown. The aim of this study was to identify associations between CY and the sow’s use of nutrient resources. We included 37 sows in the study that were all housed, fed and managed similarly. Parity, back fat change (ΔBF), CY and performance parameters were measured. We obtained sow serum samples 3 to 4 days before farrowing and at D1 of lactation following overnight fasting. These were analysed for non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), urea, creatinine, (iso) butyrylcarnitine (C4) and immunoglobulins G (IgG) and A (IgA). The colostrum samples collected 3, 6 and 24 h after the birth of the first piglet were analysed for their nutrient and immunoglobulins content. The technical parameters associated with CY were parity group (a; parities 1 to 3 =value 0 v. parities 4 to 7 =value 1) and ΔBF D85-D109 of gestation (mm) (b): CY (g) =4290–842a–113b. ( R2=0.41, P

Salmonella represents a major challenge to the pig industry, as pork presents a risk for human salmonellosis. In this study, we have examined the effect of farm type on the prevalence of fattening pigs shedding Salmonella on 12 farms at risk for harboring Salmonella. On six open (grow-to-finish) and six closed (farrow-to-finish) farms, the prevalence of pigs shedding Salmonella was determined on two occasions approximately 2 months apart. The serovar, phage type, and antimicrobial resistance of the obtained Salmonella isolates were determined. On all farms, pigs shedding Salmonella were detected on at least one of the two sampling days. The mean within-herd prevalence was 7.8%. Closed farms were two times less likely to have pigs shedding Salmonella than open farms. On open farms, the odds of finding Salmonella shedding in pigs were 1.9 times higher when sampling was performed at slaughter age than when samples were taken halfway through the fattening period. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium was the most predominant serotype, with a prevalence of 62 to 63% on both farm types. Of all the Salmonella Typhimurium isolates, 65% had the tetraresistant profile ASSuT (ampicillin, streptomycin, sulfonamide, and tetracycline) with or without additional resistance to trimethoprim-sulfonamide. Phage type DT120 seemed to be especially associated with this antimicrobial-resistant profile. The prevalence of Salmonella Typhimurium isolates showing resistance to ampicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, sulfonamide, trimethoprim-sulfonamide, and lincomycin hydrochloride and spectinomycin sulfate tetrahydrate was significantly higher on open farms than on closed farms.

Thymol's antimicrobial properties urged researchers to study its effect on animal performance and intestinal health in pigs. However, thymol has the characteristic sharp odor of thyme and a bitter, aromatic, and sometime:; burning sensation which may elicit feeding aversions. The objectives in the current study were: (1) to determine the effect of dose of thymol and camphor on palatability and (2) to test the hypothesis that supplemental flavours or camphor, the latter as a known Transient Receptor Potential A1 blocker, could mitigate feed avoidance caused by thymol. Two analogous choice-feeding trials were conducted. Feed intake of the test diet was expressed as proportion of the total intake and tested by means of a one-sample Student's t-test against a set value of 50%. The preference for feed supplemented with 125, 500, 1250 and 2000 mg/kg thymol was 53.7 +/- 6.0% (P > 0.05), 47.5 +/- 5.1% (P > 0.05), 36.8 +/- 4.9% (P = 0.022), and 3.9 +/- 7.9% (P = 0.005) respectively. When feed containing 2000 mg/kg thymol with either flavour A (containing intense sweeteners) or flavour B (containing the same intense sweeteners and a caramel aroma) was opposed against a control diet, the relative intake of the test diets was 19.9 +/- 5.8% and 14.0 +/- 4.9% (both P < 0.05) respectively. When animals were offered one of these test diets and a reference diet with 2000 mg/kg thymol, animals exhibited a preference for the feed with 2000 mg/kg thymol + flavour A, but not for the feed with 2000 mg/kg thymol + flavour B. Thus, supplemental flavours containing intense sweeteners partially overcame feed avoidance caused by thymol which was less pronounced when the caramel aroma was present. Exposure to camphor (50 and 200 mg/kg) did not improve feed preference for a diet containing 1250 mg/kg thymol. Thymol's bitter taste might be largely responsible for the recorded feed refusal at high inclusion rates.

Summary The aim was to assess the effects of intact dried Ascophyllum nodosum seaweed on piglet performances, gut bacteria and function and plasma oxidative status. A total of 160 weaned piglets (21 days, 6.59 ± 0.91 kg) were allocated to four dietary treatments with eight pen replicates of five animals each for 28 days: a control diet; based on cereals, soybean meal and milk products, and three basal diets supplemented with either 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 g dried seaweed per kg. At day 12/13 one piglet from each pen was sacrificed. Plasma samples were taken to determine parameters of oxidative status. Digesta were sampled for microbiological plate countings onto selective media and molecular analysis using PCRDGGE. Small intestinal tissue was taken for morphological and electrophysiological determinations. Data were analysed by a linear model with treatment as fixed effect. A. nodosum supplementation had no effect on daily weight gain, nor did it alter feed conversion ratio. Plate countings failed to reveal differences among treatments. Dendograms prepared using PCR-DGGE banding patterns did not indicate clustering of microbial profiles based on diet supplement. Plasma oxidative status and outcome of morphology and of electro-physiological measurements from gut tissues were similar for all treatments. Thus, the addition of A. nodosum seaweed to well digestible diets did not enhance performances of piglets nor some gut health parameters and plasma oxidative status.

Aims: To investigate the ability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to convert linoleic acid (LA) and a-linolenic acid (alpha-LNA) to conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA), respectively. To assess pH and temperature influences on CLA and CLNA production by Lactobacillus sakei LMG 13558. Methods and Results: A screening of 48 LAB yielded one Lactobacillus curvatus, five Lactobacillus plantarum and four Lact. sakei strains displaying linoleate isomerase (LAI) activity. CLNA conversion percentages varied largely (1-60%). CLA conversion, occurring in three strains, was lower (2-5%). The LAI gene sequences of the ten LAI-positive strains shared 75-99% identity with the LAI gene sequence of a Lact. plantarum AS1.555. At pH 6.2, CLA and CLNA production by Lact. sakei LMG 13558 was higher at 30 degrees C than at 20 and 25 degrees C. At pH 5.5 (30 degrees C) or 37 degrees C (pH 6.2), LA was not converted and a-LNA only slightly converted. Conclusions: LAB show strain-dependent LAI activity. Production of CLA and CLNA is affected by pH and temperature, as shown for Lact. sakei LMG 13558. Significance and Impact of the Study: Several LAB produce CLA and/or CLNA, as shown for Lact. sakei and Lact. curvatus for the first time. These findings offer potential for the manufacturing of fermented functional foods.

Summary The present study aimed to investigate whether n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) incorporate into erythrocyte membranes of peripartal sows in a dose-responsive manner and whether the altered fatty acid profile affects the cell membrane characteristics. At day 109 of gestation (day 0), 51 sows were divided into five treatment groups. Each group received a diet with a different ratio of fish oil to pork lard for nine consecutive days. Blood samples were taken at day 0 and 10 days later. The fatty acid profile of erythrocytes was determined, as well as the osmotic fragility and oxidative stability of erythrocytes. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) were determined in plasma samples. Finally, reproductive and performance parameters of both sows and piglets were recorded until weaning. Supplementation of fish oil during the peripartal period changed the fatty acid profile of erythrocyte membranes in a dose-responsive manner. Although the n-3 PUFA content of erythrocyte membranes increased with increasing amounts of fish oil in the diet, no significant effect on erythrocyte osmotic fragility could be recorded. In contrast, oxidative stability of erythrocytes decreased linearly with increasing amounts of fish oil in the diet. Similarly, both TBARS and FRAP linearly increased with increasing percentages of fish oil in the diet. Neither piglet nor sow performance was influenced by dietary treatments, except for a decrease of both piglet survival and weaning weight with increasing quantities of fish oil supplemented. It is concluded that changes in dietary lipid sources can affect the membrane’s fatty acid profile within days, and mainly influences oxidative stability of the cells.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PPARGC1A) is a promising candidate gene for selection on meat and carcass quality traits in the pig industry. In the pig, several SNPs have been reported in both coding and regulatory regions of this gene, some of which were associated with fat characteristics, but none of these associations have been confirmed and many SNPs have not yet been evaluated. Therefore, 18 PPARGC1A SNPs were genotyped in 65 slaughter pigs of a commercial hybrid population and used in an association analysis with multiple muscle and carcass traits. Several SNPs located in the 3'UTR and exon 8 and 9 of PPARGC1A were significantly (P < 0.05-0.001) associated with various carcass composition, tenderness and muscle fibre traits. They could potentially serve as DNA selection markers, if their impact was to be confirmed by a functional analysis.

The aim of this study was to estimate genetic parameters for pork intramuscular fatty acid (FA) composition and indices for desaturase and elongase activities involved in n-3 and n-6 PUFA metabolism. The LM of 437 slaughter pigs was analyzed for FA composition (expressed as g/100 g of FA). Indices for enzyme activities were calculated from product to precursor FA ratios. Genetic parameters were estimated with single- and multi-trait animal models. The total FA content, reflecting the intramuscular fat content, was either included or not in the model. Results from the models without total FA content showed relatively high heritability estimates, generally above 0.50, for the proportion of the most important MUFA and PUFA, compared with much smaller values for the SFA. When total FA content was included in the models, heritability values decreased (P < 0.001) for most individual FA and for all sums of FA groups, except for C18:0, C18:3n-6, and C18:3n-3. Heritability estimates for the ratios C20:4n-6/C18:2n-6 and C22:6n-3/C18:3n-3, reflecting the overall conversion in the n-6 and n-3 PUFA pathway, respectively, were 0.29 and 0.35, respectively, with total FA content in the model and increased to 0.38 and 0.49, respectively, if total FA content was not in the model. Heritabilities for other more specific indices were of the same order. Genetic correlations between PUFA proportions and indices for enzyme activities with ADG were mostly negative, whereas the correlations with carcass lean meat percentage were mostly positive. It was concluded that there is meaningful genetic variation for long-chain PUFA metabolism that is only partly dependent on the carcass and muscle fat content. This may allow selection for improved FA composition of pork.

1. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary fatty acid (FA) composition, age, and gender on the FA composition of different broiler anatomical compartments. Four dietary fat sources (palm fat, P; soybean oil, S; linseed oil, L; fish oil, F) were added to a wheat-soybean meal based diet at 30 g/kg in addition to 50 g/kg palm fat. Diets were fed separately to female and male birds from d 1 to either d 21 or d 42 of age. 2. The total FA content (mg/100 g tissue) and the FA composition (g/100 g FAME) was determined in 7 anatomical compartments (skinless thigh muscle, skinless breast muscle, liver, heart, brain, abdominal fat pad, and remainders plus carcase trimmings named Rest compartment). The FA profiles differed greatly among compartments and were strongly affected by diet. 3. The S diet resulted in a 2-3-fold increase of the proportion of C18:2n-6 and C20:4n-6 in all compartments compared to the other diets, except for brain. 4. The response in the proportion of C18:3n-3 following feeding the L diet was much greater, with 4-20-fold increases compared to the other diets, except again for brain. 5. In all compartments except brain, the L diet resulted in approximately a 2-fold increase in the proportion of C22:6n-3 compared to the P and S diets and smaller, but also significant, increases for C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3. 6. The proportions of C20:5n-3, C22:5n-3 and C22:6n-3 were much higher on the F diet in all compartments, except for brain, compared to the P and S diets. The F diet resulted in higher proportions of C22:6n-3 than the proportions of C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3 in breast and thigh meat, and liver, in contrast to the other diets. 7. Brain was less responsive than other tissues to changes in the dietary FA composition. The proportion of C22:6n-3 in brain was similar on the L and F diets. 8. The effect of gender on the FA composition of different anatomical compartments was marginal. The long-chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA in breast, liver, and brain decreased with age.

Aims: The present study aimed to assess the Arcobacter contamination on bovine carcasses postevisceration and postcooling in two slaughterhouses and in ready-to-eat minced beef. Methods and Results: Carcasses (n = 247) were sampled at four sites in two slaughterhouses and 100 minced beef samples were collected at retail. Isolation was performed by a quantitative and qualitative Arcobacter selective method, and the isolates were identified by multiplex PCR, after which a part of them were characterized by enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR. Although arcobacters were isolated from 37% of the bovine carcasses postevisceration with the chest and the foreleg as most contaminated sites, cooling the carcasses for at least 24 h reduced the incidence of Arcobacter (7%) on the carcass surface significantly. Arcobacter butzleri was the species most frequently isolated, although co-contamination with multiple species also occurred. At retail, arcobacters were present in 9% of the minced beef samples, with Arcobacter butzleri as the dominant species. Conclusions: Forced air cooling of bovine carcasses for at least 24 h decreased the number of positive carcasses, but did not eliminate all arcobacters. Significance and Impact of the study: This study demonstrates that maintaining good hygiene practices throughout the food supply chain is crucial to ensure safe food products at the consumer level.

In the swine breeding industry, two economical traits are of particular importance in sires, namely, muscle growth and average daily gain (ADG). These traits are quantitative, which implies that they are under the control of multiple genes. Mutations in these genes, associated with either muscularity or growth, are useful quantitative trait nucleotides (QTN) for unraveling genetic variation of these traits and can be used in marker-assisted selection. Until now, QTN involved in muscle growth and/or ADG in pigs were identified in porcine ryanodine receptor 1 ( RYR1 ), insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2), and melanocortin-4 receptor ( MC4R ). Recently, a fourth possible QTN was found in porcine myostatin ( MSTN ). All four QTN have an influence on muscle growth and/or somatic growth, so an influence of one mutation on one or more of the other mutations should not be excluded. However, although the polymorphisms in the RYR1 and the MC4R gene affect the function of the respective protein, the polymorphisms of the IGF-2 and MSTN gene influence the mRNA expression of the respective gene. Therefore, this study investigated possible interactions between the genotypes of MSTN , IGF-2, and MC4R (population 1) or the RYR1 , IGF-2, and MSTN QTN (population 2) on IGF-2 and MSTN expression in different muscle types in pigs. In both skeletal muscle and heart muscle growth, the IGF-2:MSTN ratio seems to play an important role. Also, the RYR1 genotype had a significant effect on IGF-2 expression in m. longissimus dorsi. No effect of the MC4R QTN could be seen.

In this study, the effect of sire, sex and intramuscular fat content on the intramuscular fatty acid profile, in particular the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was investigated. Therefore, pork samples of the Longissimus thoracis were taken from 121 females and castrates that were the progeny of 5 boars. All animals had been fattened on the same diet and were slaughtered at a live weight of approximately 110 kg. Indices for the activities of Δ9, Δ6 and Δ5 desaturase, as well as elongase activity were estimated from ratios of product to precursor fatty acids. Intramuscular fat content was positively related to the total saturated fatty acid proportion ( r = 0.376; p r = 0.579; p r = − 0.637; p n − 3 PUFA, and on most individual long chain n − 6 and n − 3 PUFA. The cis -9 C18:1/C18:0 index for Δ9 desaturase activity and the cis -11 C18:1/ cis -9 C16:1 elongase activity index, as well as the combined desaturase and elongase enzyme activities in both the n − 6 and n − 3 PUFA chains were significantly influenced by sire.

The antimicrobial activity of selected essential oil (EO) components against the major culturable components of the pig gut flora has been characterised by means of an in vitro incubation model simulating the fermentation in different sections of the pig gastrointestinal tract (GIT). In a first study 7 components were screened for their antimicrobial properties. Dose–response equations were established for the 4 components with the highest potential in a second study. Binary combinations were tested as well, and the interaction effects were evaluated following the isobole method. The results of both studies indicated that carvacrol, thymol, eugenol and trans- cinnamaldehyde give opportunities to modulate the flora and fermentation pattern of the GIT of pigs. Eucalyptol, terpinen-4-ol and trans -anethole were found not to have interesting effects on the growth of the pig gut flora. The minimum concentration for carvacrol, thymol, eugenol and trans -cinnamaldehyde in jejunal simulations to reduce the number of total anaerobic bacteria compared to control with a probability of 99.7% was 255, 258, 223 and 56 mg/L respectively. This strong activity of trans -cinnamaldehyde was due to its progressively increasing effect against coliform bacteria; a dose of 104 mg/L gave a reduction of 1 log 10 CFU/mL vs . 371, 400 and 565 mg/L for carvacrol, thymol and eugenol respectively. However, trans -cinnamaldehyde showed clearly less inhibitory activity towards lactobacilli than carvacrol and thymol. Therefore, the use of trans- cinnamaldehyde (for example 100 mg/L) and to a lesser extent eugenol could result in a shift in the microbial ecology in favour of lactic acid producing bacteria and reducing the number of coliform bacteria. Carvacrol and thymol showed very similar and non-selective antimicrobial properties. Their effect was more pronounced in acidic media and demonstrated a rapidly increasing bactericidal effect from a certain concentration on (400–500 mg/L in jejunal simulations). The inhibition of the production of total short chain fatty acids (SCFA) in jejunal simulations by these 4 candidates was related to their effect against coliform bacteria, however they did not alter the lactic acid and ammonia concentrations. Few combinations demonstrated synergism; most mixtures showed zero interaction or antagonism. Carvacrol + thymol (ratio ≥1) was synergistic against total anaerobic bacteria in jejunal simulations, however this effect was rather small. In caecal simulations, carvacrol, thymol and trans -cinnamaldehyde were equally effective while eugenol had an effect only on coliforms. These data on the in vitro antimicrobial activities of EO components give support for a better control of the gastrointestinal bacterial community and the design of alternative growth promoters. Their in vivo potential is also discussed.

In this paper the selection of potential probiotic strains for producing fermented liquid feed (FLF) for pigs is presented. One hundred and forty six strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated from ileal digesta of piglets, cecal digesta of slaughter pigs and FLF from a preliminary trial at our laboratory. The strains were identified with repetitive-element PCR and partial 16S rRNA sequencing and screened for acidification potential. Ten of the strains were selected and their culture supernatant was checked for antibacterial activity against Salmonella spp. Also, they were tested in vitro in batch fermentations at 30 °C for 72 h, for their capacity to produce FLF (water:feed ratio of 4:1) with a concentration of acetic acid less than 40 mmol/L and of lactic acid above 100 mmol/L, resulting in a pH below 4.5. The Lactobacillus strains MB 3123 ( L. johnsonii ), MB 3182 ( L. salivarius group) and MB 3083 ( L. plantarum ) were found to be very effective for the production of FLF. The FLF produced by including this strain had a pH drop from 5.9 to 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 after 24 h and to 4.1 after 48 h of fermentation. Also, these three strains showed high antimicrobial activity against Salmonella spp. and produced more than 100 mmol/L lactic acid after 48 h fermentation. The MB 3170 strain increased the lactic acid concentration above 100 mmol/L after 48 h, but at 24 h the pH was only 4.5. The results indicate that it is possible to screen for probiotic strains capable of fermenting feeds and of producing high quantities of lactic acid with possible antimicrobial effects in the gastro-intestinal tract of pigs.

The present study investigated whether enrichment of the pig maternal diet with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) affects the fatty-acid composition of female piglets via enhancing of expression of the lipogenic enzymes Δ5-desaturase (Δ5d) and Δ6-desaturase (Δ6d). The sows (50% Landrace × 50% Large White) were fed a control diet or one of the experimental diets starting at day 45 in gestation. The experimental diets were supplemented either with linseed oil or fish oil, whereas the control diet contained palm oil. Expression of Δ5d and Δ6d, and fatty-acid composition was determined by Western blotting and gas-liquid chromatography, respectively, in muscle, subcutaneous adipose tissue and liver. The highest Δ5d protein expression was observed in the piglets’ muscle, followed by subcutaneous adipose tissue, with the lowest level in the liver. Expression of Δ6d in the piglets’ tissues followed an opposite pattern, and was highest in the liver, followed by subcutaneous adipose tissue, with the lowest level in muscle. Supplementation of the maternal diet with fish oil or linseed oil increased the level of n-3 PUFA of the piglets in a tissue-specific manner. The response of Δ6d and Δ5d protein expression in female piglets, with average birth weight 2.4 kg, to the dietary manipulation was also tissue-specific. It is suggested that the increase in n-3 PUFA content in the progeny was related, at least partially, to the activation of Δ6d and Δ5d expression.

Summary Myostatin (MSTN), a transforming growth factor β superfamily member, is an essential factor for the growth and development of muscle mass. The protein functions as a negative regulator of muscle growth and is related to the so-called double-muscling phenotype in cattle, where a series of mutations renders the gene inactive. One particular breed of pigs, the Belgian Pietrain, also shows a heavily muscled phenotype. The similarity of muscular phenotypes between the double-muscled cattle and Pietrain pigs indicated that MSTN may be a candidate gene for muscular hypertrophy in pigs. In this study, we sequenced and analysed the complete MSTN gene from 45 pigs of five different breeds, including the heavily muscled Pietrain breed at one extreme and the Meishan and Wild boar breeds at the other extreme. In total, 7626 bp of the porcine MSTN gene were sequenced, including the 5′ and 3′ UTR. Fifteen polymorphic loci were found, three of which were located in the promoter region, five in intron 1 and seven in intron 2. Most mutations were found when comparing the obtained MSTN sequence with porcine MSTN sequences already published. However, one polymorphism located at position 447 of the porcine MSTN promoter had a very high allele frequency in the Pietrain pig breed and disrupted a putative myocyte enhancer factor 3 binding site. Real-time PCR using Sybr Green showed that this mutation was associated with expression levels of the MSTN gene in m. longissimus dorsi at an age of 4 weeks.

In this experiment, the effect of duration and time of feeding n-3 PUFA sources on the fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of the longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle was investigated. Linseed (L) and fish oil (F), rich in alpha-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid (EPA and DHA), respectively, were supplied equivalent to a level of 1.2% oil (as fed), either during the whole fattening period or only during the first (P1; 8 wk) or second (P2; 6 to 9 wk until slaughter) fattening phase. All diets were based on barley, wheat, and soybean meal and were fed ad libitum. Crossbred pigs (n = 154; Topigs 40 x Pietrain) were randomly allotted to the 7 feeding groups. In the basal diet (B), only animal fat was used as the supplementary fat source. Three dietary groups were supplied the same fatty acid source during both fattening phases (i.e., group BB, LL, and FF). For the other 4 dietary groups, the fatty acid source was switched after the first phase (groups BL, BF, LF, and FL; the first and second letter indicating the diet in P1 and P2, respectively). Twelve animals per feeding group were selected based on average live BW. The LT was analyzed for fatty acid composition; lipid stability (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) and color stability (a* value, % of myoglobin pigments) were determined on the LT after illuminated chill storage for up to 8 d. The alpha-linolenic acid, EPA, and docosapentaenoic acid incorporation was independent of the duration of linseed feeding (1.24, 0.54, and 0.75% of total fatty acids, respectively, for group LL). Supplying fish oil during both phases resulted in the greatest EPA and DHA proportions (1.37 and 1.02% of total fatty acids; P < 0.05), but the content of docosapentaenoic acid was not affected. The proportion of DHA was greater when fish oil was administered during P2 compared with P1 (P < 0.05). There was no effect of diet on meat ultimate pH and drip loss or on lipid or color oxidation.

In the double-muscled Belgian Blue beef breed, withers height and hearth girth are routinely measured. This is mainly done to prevent a decrease in growth potential when selecting for increased muscular conformation. The muscular conformation itself is subjectively scored. It was questioned if additional body measurements may improve the accuracy of estimating live weight and whether some of these body measurements may yield information for evaluating the muscular conformation hence the slaughter value of a live animal. It was found that hearth girth and shoulder width have a high correlation with the live weight of slaughter bulls. The width of the hind quarters and withers height are good estimators as well. Models combining these different traits to estimate live weight have reliability up to 83%. Shoulder width and width of the hind quarters are a good reflection of the value of the slaughter bull, which is expressed as Euro per kg cold carcass weight. The withers height is negatively correlated (r = −0.40) with the muscular conformation of the slaughter bulls. Hearth girth has no clear relation with the muscular conformation. The four body traits, withers height, hearth girth, shoulder width and width of hind quarters are interesting traits related to economical traits in the double-muscled Belgian Blue beef breed. Using these body measurements in selection might be worthwhile to consider.

In vitro simulations of the gastric and small intestinal fermentation with varying doses of carvacrol, thymol, eugenol and trans-cinnamaldehyde and binary combinations thereof were carried out to calculate dose–response equations for the antimicrobial effect against the main pig gut flora components. Interaction effects were evaluated following the isobole method. In gastric simulations eugenol and trans-cinnamaldehyde showed clearly less inhibitory activity towards lactobacilli than carvacrol and thymol, which could also be observed in the small intestinal simulations. The minimum concentration for carvacrol, thymol, eugenol and trans-cinnamaldehyde in small intestinal simulations to reduce the number of total anaerobic bacteria compared to control with a probability of 99.7% was 255, 258, 223 and 56 mg/l respectively. This strong activity of trans-cinnamaldehyde was due to its effect against coliform bacteria; a dose of 104 mg/l gave a reduction of 1 log CFU/ml vs. 371, 400 and 565 mg/l for carvacrol, thymol and eugenol respectively. Few combinations demonstrated synergism; most mixtures showed zero interaction or antagonism. Only carvacrol + thymol was slightly synergistic.

Recently, a paternally expressed quantitative trait nucleotide (QTN) in the regulatory sequence of the IGF-II gene with effects on muscle growth and fat deposition was discovered in the pig. This QTN is also known as the IGF-II intron3 G3072A mutation. The aim of the current study was to determine the effects of age, muscle type, and IGF-II genotype (Apat, mutant allele vs. Gpat, wild-type allele) on muscle proteolytic and lipolytic enzyme activities. At approximately 4, 8, 16, and 26 wk of age, boars (n = 6 to 15 per genotype x age group) were slaughtered and mu- and m-calpain (CALP), calpastatin (CAST), cathepsins (CATH) B+L and H, acid lipase, and phospholipase activities were measured in Longissimus thoracis et lumborum, Semimembranosus, and Triceps brachii muscle samples taken soon after slaughter. Activities of CATH B+L and H, mu- and m-CALP, and acid lipase were not affected by the IGF-II genotype. Activity of CAST was greater (P < 0.005) and m-CALP:CAST was less (P < 0.05) in Apat animals. Because CAST activity and m-CALP:CAST are known to be related to protein degradation, satellite cell fusion, or both, it is likely that differences in proteolytic enzyme activities are involved in the greater percentage of muscle mass in Apat animals. Age and muscle type influenced proteolytic and lipolytic enzyme activities (P < 0.05), except for mu- and m-CALP (no effect of muscle) and acid lipase (no effect of age). The same pattern in mu-CALP, CAST, and m-CALP:CAST with age was found during growth for the 3 muscles, although clear differences (P < 0.05) between muscles existed. In general, and in agreement with previous reports, greater enzyme activities were found in the more oxidative Triceps brachii muscle compared with the other 2 muscles. A remarkable increase (P < 0.05) from 16 to 26 wk of age in mu-CALP, CAST, mu-CALP:CAST, and CATH H and a large decrease (P < 0.05) in acid phospholipase and m-CALP:CAST was found. For m-CALP and CATH B+L, a gradual decrease (P < 0.05) was found with age. Although age effects on enzyme activities could only partly be interpreted biologically in relation to the muscle growth rate, this study showed that proteolytic and lipolytic enzyme activities change during growth.

Summary Muscle growth is a complex phenomenon regulated by many factors, whereby net growth results from the combined action of synthesis and turnover. In pigs, two quantitative trait nucleotides (QTN) are known to have an important influence on muscle growth and fat deposition: one QTN is located in the ryanodine receptor 1 (RYR1) gene (RYR1 g.1843C>T) and the other, a paternally expressed QTN, is in the insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) gene (IGF2 intron3-g.3072G>A). The mutation in IGF2 abrogates in vitro interaction with a repressor, which leads to a threefold increase of IGF2 expression in post-natal muscle. The family of the calpains, a family of Ca2+-sensitive muscle endopeptidases, and their specific inhibitor calpastatin play an important role in post-natal protein degradation, also influencing muscle and carcass traits. This study investigated the possible interactions between the genotypes of the RYR1 and IGF2 QTN on IGF2 expression. Samples were taken from several muscles and from pigs at several ages, and messenger RNA expression levels were measured using a real-time quantification assay. IGF2 expression in m. longissimus dorsi of animals with mutations in both IGF2 and RYR1 was significantly lower than in animals that inherited the IGF2 mutation but were homozygous wildtype for RYR1.

The effects of three dietary protein levels on growth, meat, and carcass traits were studied in organic pigs fed a three-phase diet. Assuming lysine was the first limiting amino acid, feeds were formulated to ileal digestible (ID) lysine content, with the ID lysine:crude protein ratio set at a constant of 4%. Feeds were also formulated to an isocaloric rate (net energy: 9.4 MJ/kg during the first feeding phase, 9.25 MJ/kg during the second feeding phase and 9.1 MJ/kg during the finisher phase), with a high (HP), a medium (MP) or a low (LP) protein content ranging from 20% to 14% crude protein (CP). ID lysine content of the LP and MP feed was, respectively, 80% and 90% of the ID lysine content of the HP feed. The nutrient formulation of the HP feed was similar to nutrient levels commonly used in conventional Belgian pig farming. From 20 to 40 kg liveweight, the pigs showed better feed conversion ratios, with an increasing dietary protein concentration (r(2)=0.84). This effect was not observed in the second and third phases, although a significant effect of protein concentration on voluntary feed intake in the second phase did occur (P=0.018), probably as a compensation for the lower protein concentration in the LP diet. Analysis of the carcasses showed a lower meat percentage with lower protein concentration (P

Our objectives were to investigate and compare the effects of supplemental Mg, Trp, vitamin E (vit E), and vitamin C (vit C) on stress responses of pigs undergoing transport simulation. In this study, 126 pigs (25.1 +/- 4.4 kg BW) were allocated to one of the six following treatments: 1) negative control (no supplementation); 2) positive control (i.m. injection with 0.5 mg of carazolol/20 kg BW 12 h before vibration, beta-blocker); 3) Trp (additional amount of 6 g/kg of feed for 5 d, as-fed basis); 4) Mg (3 g/L drinking water for 2 d); 5) vit E (additional amount of 150 mg/kg of feed for 21 d, as-fed basis); 6) or vit C (additional amount of 300 mg/kg of feed for 21 d, as-fed basis). Pigs were treated in groups of three, and each treatment was replicated seven times. Feed and water intake were not different among treatments. Heart rate variables (mean, peak, and minimum heart rate, ventricular ectopic beats, and ST elevation of Channels A and B) and heart rate variability were registered from the night before vibration. Pigs were subjected to vibration in a transport simulator (8 Hz, 3 m/s) for 2 h and allowed to recover for 2 h. Generally, the positive control pigs had the lowest heart rate values (mean, peak, minimum heart rate, ST elevation of Channel A; P < 0.05), whereas Mg and Trp decreased ventricular ectopic beats and ST elevation of Channel B, respectively. The effect of vit C and E as vagal stimulators was clearly visible, whereas carazolol and Mg clearly blocked the sympathetic pathways of the autonomic nervous system. During vibration, the negative control pigs lay the least, and Mg pigs the most (P < 0.05). Salivary cortisol concentrations (taken before and after vibration and after recovery) showed that vit E pigs produced the least cortisol during stress periods. Intermediary metabolites (glucose, lactate, creatine kinase, and NEFA) were analyzed in plasma from blood taken before and after vibration. At the two sampling points, the vit E and Mg pigs had the lowest NEFA concentrations (P < 0.05), and the vit E pigs also had the lowest lactate concentrations before vibration. Urine samples were collected before and after vibration to determine catecholamine concentrations; only negative control pigs had an increase (P = 0.04) in epinephrine concentration, despite large individual variation. In general, these results indicate that the supplementation of Trp, Mg, vit E, or vit C improved coping ability of pigs during vibration comparison with the negative control treatment. A muscular injection of carazolol influenced only the heart rate variables.

The extraction and quantification of fresh meat peptides in the molecular weight (MW) range between 3 and 17 kDalton (kDa) was examined, as well as their evolution during post-mortem ageing and their relation to taste intensity. Using a Tricine-sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) method, quantification of fresh meat peptides in this MW range was possible. Correlation coefficients higher than 0.98 were found between the absolute amounts of peptides loaded on the gel and the measured amounts expressed as cytochrome c equivalents. In contrast to the extraction in the presence of SDS, extraction with 0.1 N HCl, 3% HClO(4) and 0.9% NaCl only partially recovered peptides present in fresh meat samples in both the 3-10 and 10-17 kDa MW range. A substantial increase in peptide concentration in the 3-17 kDa MW range with time post-mortem in both pork and beef fresh muscle samples was found. For grilled beef longissimus lumborum and semimembranosus samples of different origin and ripening times, both the concentration of the peptides in the 3-10 kDa MW range and the intramuscular fat content were significantly related with taste panel intensity scores, while the correlation with the amount of peptides in the 10-17 kDa MW range was not significant.

The effects of organic housing and nutrition on growth performance, meat and carcass quality traits were studied in a 2×2 factorial trial with two ways of housing and two types of feed, i.e. conventional housing and feeding practices in Belgium versus housing and feeding according to regulations for organic farming. In both housing types, 32 pigs were kept in eight pens with four pigs per pen. One half of the groups received an organic diet, the other half a conventional diet. Both feeds were isocaloric, neither of them contained antibiotic growth promoters. Three-phase feeding was applied. The conventional feed led to a more rapid growth (P

Inspired by the health conscious consumer, several studies in meat producing domesticated animals have been completed that have aimed at increasing the polyunsaturated fatty acid content, and in particular the n-3 or ω-3 long chain fatty acids, as well as the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in intramuscular fat of beef, lamb and pork meat. Increasing the n-3 content in animal meats can be achieved by including fish oil/fish meal in the diet (i.e. rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)), linseed (oil) and/or forages (i.e. rich in linolenic acid (LNA)). Diets rich in LNA result in an increased level of LNA, EPA and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) in the meat, while in most cases no effect on intramuscular DHA level was observed. Increasing DHA contents in meat was mainly achieved when fish oil/fish meal was included in the animals diet. In most studies, an increased n-3 content in the intramuscular fat was accompanied with a decreased n-6 deposition, mainly due to a lower n-6 dietary supply between the treatments. This resulted in a more favourable n-6/n-3 ratio in the meat while the polyunsaturated fatty acid/saturated fatty acid (P/S) ratio was less affected. Attempts to increase the intramuscular c9t11CLA content was accomplished by feeding ruminants n-3 rich diets (linseed either or not in combination with grass (silage)), fish oil or high concentrate diets rich in linoleic acid (LA). The c9t11CLA content in beef and lamb meat varied between 0.2 and 1.0 g/100 g of total fatty acids and was not increased to a high extent by nutritional factors. In contrast, including CLA-oils consisting of several CLA isomers in the diet of monogastrics markedly increased the intramuscular CLA content.

This study aimed to investigate the effects and possible interactions of birth weight and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) supplementation of the maternal diet on the fatty acid status of different tissues of newborn piglets. These effects are of interest as both parameters have been associated with pre-weaning mortality. Sows were fed a palm oil diet or a diet containing 1% linseed, echium or fish oil from day 73 of gestation. As fish oil becomes a scarce resource, linseed and echium oil were supplemented as sustainable alternatives, adding precursor fatty acids for DHA to the diet. At birth, the lightest and heaviest male piglet per litter were killed and samples from liver, brain and muscle were taken for fatty acid analysis. Piglets that died pre-weaning had lower birth weights than piglets surviving lactation (1.27±0.04 v. 1.55±0.02 kg; P

Heat stress in poultry is a serious problem in many countries and has been associated with oxidative stress. Hence, nutritional interventions with antioxidants might be beneficial. Therefore, the effects of dietary Curcuma xanthorrhiza (CX) and Origanum compactum (OC) essential oils on mRNA levels of heat shock protein 70 and antioxidant enzymes, oxidative status, and meat oxidative stability of heat-challenged broilers were studied. Starting on d 25 of age, a control diet and 4 diets containing 200 or 400 mg/kg feed of CX or OC (CX200, CX400, OC200, OC400 diets) were fed to 3 pen replicates of 20 Ross 308 chickens each. From d 28 of age on, the temperature was increased from 22 to 34°C with 50% RH for 5 h daily during 2 wk. Dietary CX or OC did not affect zootechnical performance. Feeding CX400 and both levels of OC increased the a* value in stored breast meat (P < 0.05), and OC diets tended to decrease the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances values in fresh breast meat (P = 0.061). Compared with control, at d 31, feeding CX400 and OC400 reduced mRNA levels of heat shock protein 70 and increased mRNA levels of catalase in kidney and liver (P < 0.05). The mRNA levels of superoxide dismutase were increased at d 31 on the OC400 diet in kidney and on the CX400 diet in heart (P < 0.05). In heart, at d 31, both dietary levels of CX and OC200 resulted in higher glutathione peroxidase activity (P < 0.05). Feeding CX400 increased superoxide dismutase activity in liver, kidney, and heart at d 31 (P < 0.05). Catalase activity was increased in the CX200 and OC400 groups at d 42 (P < 0.05). Feeding CX at both levels and OC200 decreased plasma malondialdehyde concentrations at d 42 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary essential oils rich in simple phenolic compounds offer potential for improving the antioxidant defense against heat stress-induced changes.

Double-muscled animals are of particular interest to meat producers because they are characterized by an exceptional muscular development and an increased carcass lean to fat ratio. The term is mainly restricted to cattle, but functional mutations in the myostatin gene causing this phenotype are also described in other species. The condition is associated with altered physiological and histological characteristics that bring about not only differences in meat quantity but also in animal performances and in meat quality. Therefore, the exploitation of double muscling has to be considered carefully. This article mainly focuses on observations in cattle.

Fermented liquid feed (FLF) is a feeding strategy which is said to ameliorate the gastro-intestinal health in pigs. However, the morpho-histological characteristics of the gut are mostly not assessed. Two experiments with weaned piglets were conducted in order to investigate the effect of FLF on villus height, crypt depth, villus height/crypt depth ratio and number of intra-epithelial lymphocytes (IELs). In experiment I, piglets (n = 6 per treatment) were fed a dry weaner feed or the same feed as FLF (with a feed:water ratio of 1:3; fermented with a Lactobacillus salivarius strain (MB 3083) at 30 °C). At day 9 the piglets were sacrificed and their gastro-intestinal tract was sampled at two places (3 m distal to the stomach = SI1 and 3 m proximal to the caecum = SI2). In experiment II, piglets (n = 9 per treatment) were fed the same dry weaner feed or as FLF (feed:water ratio of 1:2.5; fermented with Pediococcus acidilactici (Bactocell®, Lallemand, France) at 30 °C) and were sacrificed at day 28. In experiment I, the piglets on FLF had a significantly (P

In a growth trial with pigs, the effect of the inclusion of 150 and 300 g of Lupinus albus seeds/kg of feed in the diet was investigated. Parameters studied were: growth, feed utilization, digestibility of nutrients, slaughter and carcass characteristics. Spray dried whole egg powder, a specific inhibitor of lectins in L. albus seeds was also added (50 g/kg of feed), with the aim of verifying whether the unfavourable effects of high levels of lupin seeds could be neutralized. Feeding the diet containing 300 g of lupin seeds/kg lowered the average daily gain from 727 to 674 g and feed intake from 2.32 to 2.05 kg, while feed conversion ratio remained unaltered. The presence of whole egg powder in the lupin seed diets did not abolish the negative effects. Apparent faecal digestibility of most nutrients in the diets was not influenced by addition of lupin seeds or egg powder, except for the crude fat fraction, whereas the digestibility coefficient increased from 0.51 to 0.61. Crude fibre digestibility also increased, but only at the lowest lupin seed level. Carcass weight and dressing percentage were lower in the groups fed the highest lupin seed level. Fatty acid profile of backfat was determined and slightly higher proportions of C18:1 were observed when lupin seeds were fed. Possible reasons accounting for the lower performance of animals receiving lupin seeds are discussed, but the exact reason could not be derived from this experiment.