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The nutritive value of starch, the major source of dietary energy in pigs, varies depending on its susceptibility for digestion. The botanical origin of starch determines starch structure, and therefore, digestibility. To compare digestibility of starch, fiber, gross energy (GE), crude protein, and amino acid (AA), and to characterize undigested starch of grains in growing pigs, seven ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight, 30 kg) were fed six diets containing 96% of one of six test ingredients (three pulse grains: zero-tannin faba bean, green field pea, or mixed-cultivar chickpea; three cereal grains: hulled barley, hard red spring wheat, or hybrid yellow, dent corn), or a N-free diet in a 7 × 7 Latin square at 2.8 × maintenance digestible energy. Grain samples were ground with a hammer mill through a 2.78-mm screen. Amylose content ranged from 29% to 34% for pulse grains and from 22% to 25% for cereal grains. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in cereal (94% to 97%) than pulse grains (85% to 90%) and was lowest (P < 0.05) in faba bean (85.3%) followed by field pea (87.2%) and chickpea (90.1%). However, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch of all tested grains was close to 100%. Apparent hindgut fermentability (AHF, as ATTD − AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (9.9% to 15%) than cereal grains (3.3% to 4.8%). The AHF of total dietary fiber tended to be the greatest (P < 0.10) for corn (43.5%) and lowest for wheat (25.3%). The AHF of GE was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (17% to 20%) than in cereal grains (9% to 11%) and resulted in greater (P < 0.05) digestible energy (DE) contribution from hindgut fermentation for pulse grains than cereal grains (0.9 vs. 0.5 Mcal/kg). Wheat had the greatest standardized ileal digestibility of total AA (90.2%; P < 0.05). Confocal laser scanning microscopy images revealed that 20% to 30% of starch granules of pulse grains were entrapped in protein matrixes. In scanning electron microscopy images, starch granules were larger in faba bean and field pea than cereal grains. Digesta samples revealed pin holes and surface cracks in starch granules of corn and wheat, respectively. In conclusion, hindgut fermentation of starch and fiber was greater in pulse grains than cereal grains resulting in a greater DE value despite lower ileal DE for pulse grain than cereal grains. Defining the digestible and fermentable fractions of starch may enhance the accuracy of equations to predict the net energy value of these feedstuffs.

Canola meal (CM) can replace soybean meal (SBM) as dietary source of supplemental protein for pigs; however, varying nutritive quality of CM may cause inaccurate diet formulation and unexpected growth performance, but is rarely reported. In an 8 × 8 Latin square, the standardised ileal digestibility coefficient (CSID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility coefficient (CATTD) of gross energy (GE), digestible energy (DE) value and the predicted net energy (NE) value were evaluated for 5 Brassica napus CM samples originating in a single crop year from 5 Western Canadian crushing plants and compared to SBM. Eight ileal-cannulated grower pigs (initial body weight [BW]: 32 ± 1.9 kg) were fed 8 diets (400 g SBM/kg, five 400 g CM/kg, wheat-based basal and N-free) at 2.8 × maintenance (0.46 MJ of DE per kg of BW0.75) for 8 periods of 9 days each. Standardised to 100 g moisture/kg, the SBM and 5 CM samples contained 461 and 357–413 g CP/kg, 23.9 and 10.6–35.8 g ether extract (EE), 69 and 218–251 g neutral detergent fibre (NDF)/kg and 17.6 and 17.9–18.1 MJ GE/kg, respectively. The CSID of essential AA such as lysine, threonine and methionine was greater (P

OBJECTIVES: Starch with increasing ratio of amylose to amylopectin decreases ileal starch digestibility in pigs. Microbes in the large intestine ferment undigested starch and produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). The benefits of SCFA in modulating gut health stimulated interest in dietary strategies to increase microbial carbohydrate fermentation and digesta SCFA in pigs and humans. We studied effects of increasing dietary amylose on SCFA and the expression of transporters of glucose (sodium-glucose cotransporter 1, SGLT1) and SCFA (monocarboxylic acid transporter 1, MCT1; sodium-coupled monocarboxylate transporter, SMCT), and sweet taste receptor type 1, member 3 (T1R3) along the intestine of weaned pigs. METHODS: Weaned pigs (n = 32; 8.4 kg) were allocated to 1 of 4 diets containing 67% purified starch with 0, 20, 35, or 70% amylose in randomized complete blocks. On day 21, 47-day-old pigs were euthanized to collect digesta for SCFA and intestinal tissue for molecular analyses. RESULTS: Ileal starch digestibility was 44% lower and hindgut starch fermentation was 14% greater in pigs fed 70% amylose (P

Two experiments were conducted to (1) determine net energy (NE) values of soybean meal (SBM), Napus canola meal (NCM), Juncea canola meal (JCM), field pea, and wheat millrun (WM) using indirect calorimetry, and (2) compare the determined NE values with the calculated NE values of the same feedstuffs based on a prediction equation. In experiment 1, six ileal-cannulated barrows (31 kg) were fed five diets in 5 × 6 Youden square to give six replicates per diet. Diets were cornstarch-based diets containing SBM, NCM, JCM, field pea, or WM. The SBM was included as a reference. In experiment 2, six ileal-cannulated barrows (70 kg) were fed a N-free diet for determining energy digestibility and NE values of test feedstuffs fed in experiment 1 by difference method. The NE values of test feedstuffs were also calculated from the digestible energy (DE) values and analyzed macronutrient content of the test feedstuffs. On dry matter (DM) basis, SBM, NCM, JCM, field pea, and WM contained 51%, 41%, 42%, 28%, and 18% crude protein; 1.52%, 2.95%, 2.36%, 1.33%, and 3.12% ether extract; 2.93%, 0.14%, 1.44%, 36.7%, and 28.7% starch; and 5.30%, 21.0%, 13.4%, 9.49%, and 16.1% acid detergent fiber, respectively. The determined NE value for SBM (2.29 Mcal/kg) did not differ from that of NCM (1.72 Mcal/kg DM) or JCM (2.14 Mcal/kg DM). The NCM and JCM did not differ in NE value. Also, the determined NE value did not differ between field pea (2.00 Mcal/kg) and WM (2.55 Mcal/kg). The calculated NE values for SBM (2.18 Mcal/kg DM), NCM (1.73 Mcal/kg DM), and JCM (1.86 Mcal/kg DM) did not differ from the corresponding determined NE values of the same feedstuffs. However, the calculated NE value for field pea (2.51 Mcal/kg DM) was greater (P = 0.004) than the determined NE value of field pea, whereas the calculated NE value for WM (2.27 Mcal/kg DM) tended to be lower (P = 0.054) than the determined NE value of WM. In conclusion, the NE value for SBM and canola meals can be predicted based on the DE value and the macronutrient composition of the same feedstuffs. However, the NE value for field pea and WM may not be predicted precisely based on the DE value and the macronutrient composition of the same feedstuffs.

Canola meal (CM) contains less crude protein (CP) and more fiber and anti-nutritional factors such as glucosinolates than soybean meal (SBM) and consequently has a lower nutrient digestibility. Therefore, processing strategies that may increase the feeding value of CM warrant study. In two experiments, the effects of extrusion of Brassica napus CM on apparent (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) in growing pigs, and growth performance and diet digestibility in weaned pigs were assessed. Solvent-extracted CM was extruded using a single-screw extruder at three screw speeds: 250 (CM-250), 350 (CM-350), or 450 (CM-450) rpm. In exp. 1, in a double 4 × 4 Latin square, eight ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight [BW], 68.1 kg) were fed corn starch-based diets containing 50% CM or extruded CM. The CM sample contained 43.2% CP, 33.2% total dietary fiber (TDF), and 8.9 µmol of total glucosinolates/g on a dry matter (DM) basis. Extrusion increased (P < 0.05) the AID of CP, reduced (P < 0.05) apparent hindgut fermentation of CP, and decreased (P < 0.05) predicted net energy (NE) value of diets. Extrusion increased diet AID and CM SID of most indispensable AA by 3.1 to 5.3%-units. In exp. 2, 200 weaned pigs (initial BW, 8.3 kg) were fed diets containing 20% SBM, CM, or extruded CM starting 2 wk postweaning for 3 wk. The CM sample contained 42.7% CP, 28.3% TDF, and 5.3 µmol total glucosinolates/g DM. Wheat-based diets provided 2.3 Mcal NE/kg and 5.1 g SID Lys/Mcal NE. Dietary inclusion of extruded CM replacing SBM decreased (P < 0.05) diet ATTD of DM, GE and CP, and DE value. Average daily feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), and gain:feed (G:F) of pigs did not differ between extruded CM and SBM diets and were not affected by extrusion, but increasing extruder screw speed linearly increased (P < 0.05) ADG for day 1 to 7 and G:F for the entire trial. In conclusion, extrusion increased diet AID and CM SID of AA but not DE and predicted NE values of CM. However, increasing extruder speed did not further increase the SID of most of the AA of CM in growing pigs. Dietary inclusion of 20% CM or extruded CM did not affect the growth performance in weaned pigs.

Applying probiotics to improve gut health and growth performance of pigs is considered an effective approach to reduce use of antimicrobial growth promoters in swine production. Understanding the properties of these probiotics is a prerequisite for the selection of probiotic strains for pigs. Host-adapted probiotic strains were suggested to exert probiotic effects by different mechanisms when compared to free-living or nomadic probiotic strains. This study assessed the effect of probiotic intervention with Limosilactobacillus reuteri TMW1.656, a host-adapted species producing the antimicrobial compound reutericyclin, its isogenic and reutericyclin-negative L. reuteri TMW1.656ΔrtcN, and with Limosilactobacillus fermentum and Lacticaseibacillus casei, two species with a nomadic lifestyle. Probiotic strains were supplemented to the post weaning diet in piglets by fermented feed or as freeze-dried cultures. The composition of fecal microbiota was determined by high throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA gene sequence tags; Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfringens were quantified by qPCR targeting specific virulence factors. Inclusion of host-adapted L. reuteri effectively reduced ETEC abundance in swine intestine. In contrast, nomadic L. fermentum and L. casei did not show inhibitory effects on ETEC but reduced the abundance of Clostridium spp. In addition, the increasing abundance of Bacteriodetes after weaning was correlated to a reduction of ETEC abundance. Remarkably, the early colonization of piglets with ETEC was impacted by maternal-neonatal transmission; the pattern of virulence factors changed significantly over time after weaning. Probiotic intervention or the production of reutericyclin showed limited effect on the overall composition of commensal gut microbiota. In conclusion, the present study provided evidence that the lifestyle of lactobacilli is a relevant criterion for selection of probiotic cultures while the production of antimicrobial compounds has only minor effects.

Soybean meal (SBM) contains anti-nutritional factors (ANF) that may limit kinetics and total extent of protein digestion in pigs. This study evaluated the effects of thermomechanical and enzyme-facilitated (TE) processing on in vitro kinetics of crude protein (CP) digestion and CP and amino acid (AA) digestibility in weaned pigs. Each batch of SBM (48% CP) was divided into two parts: non-processed SBM as control vs. thermomechanical and enzyme-facilitated processed soybean meal (TES) as the experimental group. For digestion kinetics, samples (three batches of non-processed SBM vs. TES) were incubated in triplicate sequentially with pepsin at pH 3.5 for 1.5 h (stomach phase) and subsequently with pancreatin and bile extract at pH 6.8 for 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, or 6 h (small intestine phase). Protein was classified into CPfast, CPslow, and CPresistant corresponding to CP digested within the first 0.5 h, from 0.5 to 4 h, and after 4 h plus undigested CP, respectively. Eight weaned barrows (Large White × Duroc, 9.43 ± 0.40 kg) were surgically fitted with a T-cannula at the terminal ileum. Pigs were randomly assigned to a Youden square with three diets over four periods. The three diets were an N-free diet and two diets using 40% SBM or TES as the sole source of AA with Cr2O3 as an indigestible marker. Each period included sequentially a 5-d adaptation, 2-d collection of feces, and 2-d collection of ileal digesta. The TE processing reduced ANF content in TES by 91% for lectin, 22% for trypsin inhibitor activity, 75% for β-conglycinin, and 62% for glycinin compared with SBM. In vitro, TE processing increased (P < 0.05) digested CP by 5.6% and enhanced the kinetics of CP digestion by tending to increase (P = 0.056) CPfast by 25% and reducing (P < 0.05) CPslow and CPresistant by 48% and 11%, respectively. In pigs, TE processing increased (P < 0.05) apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP in TES by 2.3% and 2.1%, respectively. The TE processing increased (P < 0.05) AID and SID of all AA up to 3.3%, except for AID of Pro and SID of Pro, Gly, and Cys. The TE processing did not change reactive Lys or Lys:CP but increased (P < 0.05) SID of Lys and reactive Lys by 3%. Combined, the greater in vitro digestion kinetics matched the greater in vivo AID and SID of CP in TES and lower ANF compared with SBM. Thus, TE processing created a protein source that is digested faster and to a greater extent than SBM, thereby lowering the chance of protein fermentation.

In 2 studies, ileal digestibility of amino acids (AA), energy value of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and effects of increasing dietary inclusion of chickpea on diet nutrient digestibility and growth performance were evaluated. In Exp. 1, 6 ileal-cannulated barrows (89.9 kg BW) were fed diets containing 965 or 812.5 g chickpea (Kabuli type; mix of cultivars CDC Frontier, CDC Orion, CDC Luna and CDC Leader)/kg in a crossover design. Chickpea contained 213 g crude protein (CP), 328 g starch, 88 g crude fat, 125 g total dietary fibre, 12.9 g chemically available lysine, 5.2 g trypsin inhibitory activity and 4 g tannin per kg (as-is basis). For chickpea, coefficients of standardised ileal digestibility were 0.660 for CP and 0.717 for lysine, the coefficient of apparent ileal digestibility (CAID) of gross energy (GE) was 0.623, the apparent total tract digestibility (CATTD) of GE was 0.886, the digestible energy (DE) value was 15.8 MJ/kg (as fed) and the predicted net energy (NE) value was 11.3 MJ/kg. In Exp. 2, 320 pigs (initial BW: 9.6 kg), weaned at 20 ± 1 days of age, were fed diets containing 0, 75, 150, 225 or 300 g chickpea/kg in substitution for up to 200 g soybean meal and 100 g wheat grain/kg for 3 weeks starting 2 weeks post-weaning. Steam-pelleted diets were formulated to provide 9.8 MJ NE/kg and 1.2 g standardised ileal digestible lysine/MJ NE. Increasing chickpea inclusion quadratically increased (P

Background: Changes in whole-grain chemical composition can affect the site of nutrient digestion, which may alter substrate availability and gut microbiota composition.Objective: This study elucidated the function of whole-grain fermentable fiber composition on ileal substrate flow, hindgut substrate availability, and subsequent gut microbial profiles in pigs.Methods: Five whole grains-1) high-fermentability, high-β-glucan hull-less barley (HFB); 2) high-fermentability, high-amylose hull-less barley (HFA); 3) moderate-fermentability hull-less barley (MFB); 4) low-fermentability hulled barley (LFB); or 5) low-fermentability hard red spring wheat (LFW)-were included at 800 g/kg into diets fed to ileal-cannulated growing pigs for 9 d in a 6 (periods) × 5 (diets) Youden square. Digesta were analyzed for nutrient flow and microbial composition via 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing.Results: The consumption of fermentable whole grains, HFB, and HFA increased (P < 0.05) ileal starch flow by 69% and dry matter flow by 37% compared with LFB and LFW intakes. The consumption of HFB and HFA increased (P < 0.05) fecal Firmicutes phylum abundance by 26% and 21% compared with LFB intake and increased (P < 0.05) fecal Dialister genus abundance, on average, by 98% compared with LFB and LFW intakes. Fecal Sharpea and Ruminococcus genera abundances increased (P < 0.05) with HFB intake compared with LFB and LFW intakes. In contrast, the consumption of LFB increased (P < 0.05) fecal Bacteroidetes phylum abundance by 43% compared with MFB intake. Ileal starch flow and fecal Firmicutes abundance were positively correlated and determined by using principal components analysis.Conclusions: Increasing dietary fermentable fiber from whole grains can increase ileal substrate flow and hindgut substrate availability, shifting the fecal microbiota toward Firmicutes phylum members. Thus, digesta substrate flow is important to shape gut microbial profiles in pigs, which indicates that the manipulation of substrate flow should be considered as a tool to modulate gut microbiota composition.

Feed enzymes may ameliorate reduced nutrient and energy digestibility in nursery pigs. The objective was to test effects of super-dosing phytase and fiber-degrading enzymes on digestibility of DM, GE, CP, AA, and Ca. We tested supplementing a super dose (added 1,500 FYT/kg) of phytase (Ronozyme Hi-Phos) with or without carbohydrase cocktail that contained 85 FXU β-xylanase/kg, 587 U/g endo-1,4-β-glucanase, 513 U/g endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase, 15,000 U/g hemicellulases, and 3,000 U/g pectinases in corn-soybean meal diets in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Diets included 68% corn, 17% SBM, and a basal level of 500 FTU/kg of phytase, and were formulated to contain 2.50 Mcal/kg NE and 5.10 gSID Lys/Mcal NE. Eight ileal-cannulated nursery pigs (initial BW 10 kg) were fed 4 diets at 3.0 × maintenance DE (110 kcal per kg of BW0.75) for four 9-day periods in a double 4 × 4 Latin square. Apparent hindgut fermentation (AHF) was calculated as apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) minus apparent ileal digestibility (AID). Interactions between super-dosing phytase and carbohydrase cocktail were observed. Supplementing either carbohydrase cocktail or super dose phytase, but not their combination, increased (P < 0.05) diet AID of DM, GE, CP, and most AA by 4–5%-units. Supplementing super dose phytase increased (P < 0.05) AID of P by 16%-units and ATTD of P by 10%-units. Supplementing super dose phytase or carbohydrase cocktail did not affect AID of Ca and ATTD of GE, CP, and Ca, and diet DE value. Supplementing carbohydrase cocktail without super dose phytase decreased (P < 0.05) diet AHF of DM, GE, and CP. In conclusion, dietary inclusion of super dose phytase or carbohydrase cocktail increased ileal digestibility of nutrients in nursery pigs, and thereby reduced protein entering the large intestine. Additive or synergistic effects of carbohydrase cocktail and super dose phytase were not detected.

Field pea grain can be included in growing-finishing pig diets as an alternative starch and protein source without affecting growth performance. However, for weaned pigs, there is a concern to include field pea grain in diets because of lower energy digestibility compared with soybean meal and corn grain and the presence of trypsin inhibitors that may affect protein digestion. Processing using heat and friction may reduce trypsin inhibitor activity in field pea grain and increase both energy and protein digestibility; however, its effect on weaned pigs remains unknown. To explore, field pea grain was cold-pelleted (70–75 °C), steam-pelleted (80–85 °C) or single-screw extruded (115 °C). The raw and 3 processed field pea grain samples were included in 4 test diets at 956 g/kg and fed to 8 ileal-cannulated weaned barrows (initial body weight, 11.6 ± 1.2 kg) in a double 4 × 4 Latin square. A N-free diet was also fed to pigs to measure basal endogenous losses of amino acids. Cold-pelleting and extrusion reduced trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) by 0.8–1.1 mg/g in field pea grain. Cold-pelleting increased (P

Canola meal (CM) is the second most fed protein source in swine production worldwide. However, nutritive quality of CM varies and may affect growth performance of pigs. To explore, 240 pigs (initial body weight: 9.6 ± 0.7 kg) were weaned at 19 ± 1 days of age and fed diets containing 200 g/kg soybean meal (SBM) or 4 Brassica napus CM samples (CM1, CM2, CM3 and CM4 selected from 4 solvent extraction plants in 3 western Canadian provinces) starting 2 weeks post-weaning for 4 weeks (day 1–28). In the 4 CM samples, crude protein (CP) ranged from 362 to 419 g/kg, acid detergent fibre from 158 to 195 g/kg and total glucosinolates from 1.13 to 7.38 μmol/g. Diets were formulated to provide 9.6 MJ net energy (NE)/kg and 1.2 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) lysine (Lys)/MJ NE and were steam-pelleted. Comparing CM with SBM, dietary inclusion of CM decreased ( P P = 0.027) by 0.078 MJ/kg. Among the 4 CM diets, the CATTD of DM, GE and CP did not differ, but DE and predicted NE value differed ( P P P

BACKGROUND Variant chemical composition and physical structure of whole grains may change the site of energy digestion from the small to the large intestine. OBJECTIVE We determined the site of nutrient digestion, standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AAs), and net energy (NE) value of barley cultivars that vary in nutrient composition compared with wheat. METHODS Ileal-cannulated barrows (27.7 kg initial body weight) were fed diets containing 800 g whole grains/kg alongside a basal and nitrogen-free diet for calculations in a 6 (period) × 7 (diet) Youden square. Diets included 1 of 5 whole grains-1) high-fermentable, high-β-glucan, hull-less barley (HFB); 2) high-fermentable, high-amylose, hull-less barley (HFA); 3) moderate-fermentable, hull-less barley (MFB); 4) low-fermentable, hulled barley (LFB); and 5) low-fermentable, hard red spring wheat (LFW). Intestine nutrient flow and whole-body energy utilization were tested and explained by using whole-grain and digesta confocal laser scanning. RESULTS Starch apparent ileal digestibility was 14-29% lower (P < 0.05) in HFB and HFA than in MFB, LFB, and LFW due to the unique embedding of starch within the protein-fiber matrix of HFB and the high amylose content in HFA. Starch hindgut fermentation was 50-130% higher (P < 0.05) in HFB and HFA than in MFB, LFB, and LFW. The SID of indispensable AAs was lower (P < 0.05) in HFB and HFA than in MFB, LFB, and LFW. NE value was 18% higher (P < 0.05) for HFB than for HFA and was not different from MFB, LFB, and LFW. CONCLUSIONS Whole grains high in fermentable carbohydrates shifted digestion from the small intestine to the hindgut. NE value depended on the concentration of fermentable fiber and starch and digestible protein, ranging from 2.12-1.76 Mcal/kg in barley to 1.94 Mcal/kg in wheat. High-fiber whole grains may be used as energy substrates for pigs; however, the reduced SID of AAs requires titration of indispensable AAs to maintain growth.

A study was conducted to determine the coefficient of standardized ileal digestibility (CSID) of amino acids (AA) and calculate net energy (NE) for 4 canola co-products namely: Brassica (B.) juncea canola meal and B. napus canola meal, B. napus expeller and B. napus press-cake for growing pigs. From canola seed, the co-product meal is from solvent extraction, expeller from expelling after conditioning and press-cake from pressing without conditioning. Five ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight = 65.7 kg) were fed 5 diets in a 5 × 5 Latin square. Five diets were maize starch-based diets with one of each of 4 canola co-products as sole source of protein and an N-free diet. The CSID of AA for diets was calculated using the N-free diet. Amino acid digestibility was determined by the direct method, whereas gross energy (GE) digestibility of test feedstuffs was determined by difference from the N-free diet. On as is basis, B. juncea canola meal and B. napus canola meal, expeller and press-cake contained 381, 384, 391 and 248 g/kg crude protein; 19.9, 21.4, 22.6 and 13.8 g/kg lysine; 24.6, 28.5, 104 and 313 g/kg ether extract and 183, 261, 231 and 182 g/kg neutral detergent fibre, respectively. The CSID of lysine, coefficient of apparent total tract digestibility (CATTD) and calculated NE value were greater (P < 0.05) for B. juncea canola meal than for B. napus canola meal (0.79 vs. 0.72, 0.79 vs. 0.67, 9.7 vs. 8.3 MJ/kg; respectively). The CSID of lysine for B. napus canola meal (0.72) and B. napus canola press-cake (0.68) did not differ, but was lower (P < 0.05) than that for B. napus canola expeller (0.80). The CATTD of GE for B. napus canola meal (0.67) and B. napus canola press-cake (0.64) did not differ, but was lower (P < 0.05) than that for B. napus canola expeller (0.74). However, the calculated NE value for B. napus canola press-cake (10.9 MJ/kg) was greater (P < 0.05) than that for B. napus canola expeller (10.5 MJ/kg), but both were greater (P < 0.05) than that for B. napus canola meal (8.3 MJ/kg DM). In conclusion, B. juncea canola meal had greater CSID of AA and calculated NE value than B. napus canola meal, indicating that B. juncea canola meal can contribute more dietary digestible AA and energy to the pig than B. napus canola meal. Differences in CATTD of GE, NE value and CSID of AA data among B. napus canola co-products indicate that method of oil extraction from canola seed can affect energy and AA availability in the resulting canola co-products.

Feeding fermented feed to weaned pigs may improve nutrient digestibility and gut health and thereby reduce diarrhea incidence. Effects of feeding wheat grain fermented for 24 h with were evaluated with 36 weaned pigs (7.3 kg BW). Fermented wheat grain contained (DM basis) 14.2% CP, 0.45% chemically available Lys, and 7.8% NDF, whereas unfermented wheat grain contained 16.4% CP, 0.45% chemically available Lys, and 9.9% NDF. Pigs were fed 6 mash wheat-based diets balanced for water content during 2 phases: Phase 1 diets for 1 wk (d 0-7) with 20% unfermented or fermented wheat and, subsequently, Phase 2 diets for 2 wk (d 8-21) with 50% unfermented or fermented wheat. The 6 diets were unfermented wheat (CTRL), unfermented and chemically acidified wheat (ACD), fermented wheat with TMW1.656 and 10% sucrose, fermented wheat with TMW1.656 and 5% glucose + 5% fructose, fermented wheat with LTH5794 and 10% sucrose, and fermented wheat with LTH5794 and 5% glucose + 5% fructose. Diets were formulated to provide 2.5 and 2.4 Mcal NE/kg and 5.3 and 5.0 g standardized ileal digestible Lys/Mcal NE for Phase 1 and 2 diets, respectively. Feeding fermented wheat reduced ( < 0.05) apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of diet DM (84.7 vs. 85.4%), GE (84.4 vs. 85.3%), and CP (81.8 vs. 83.6%) for d 15 through 21 compared with the CTRL and ACD diets. Weaned pigs fed fermented wheat diets had lower ( < 0.05) ADFI than pigs fed the CTRL and ACD diets for d 0 through 7. The ADFI, ADG, and G:F did not differ between pigs fed fermented and unfermented diets. Concentrations of acetic, propionic, and branched-chain fatty acids and total VFA in feces increased ( < 0.05) for pigs fed fermented wheat diets containing exopolysaccharides (EPS). However, VFA did not differ in ileal digesta. Villus height in the duodenum and jejunum increased in pigs fed fermented wheat without EPS ( < 0.05) compared with pigs fed fermented wheat with EPS. However, pigs fed the CTRL and ACD diets had longer ( < 0.05) villi and deeper crypts in the ileum than pigs fed fermented wheat. The ratio of villus height to crypt depth did not differ in the 3 segments of small intestine of weaned pigs. In conclusion, feeding fermented wheat grain diets to weaned pigs did not affect gut morphology, intestinal fermentation, growth performance, and ATTD of nutrients; however, EPS stimulated hindgut fermentation and may promote health benefits.

The objectives were to determine the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and AMEn value of cold-pressed camelina cake (CPCC) and the effect of adding multi-enzyme to a corn-CPCC diet for broilers. The 600 male broiler chicks were divided into 40 groups and fed 5 diets in a completely randomized design (8 groups per diet) from d 15 to d 21 of age. A corn basal diet and the basal diet with 30% of it replaced by CPCC were used in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with or without multi-enzyme (2,800 U of cellulase, 1,800 U of pectinase, 400 U of mannanase, 50 U of galactanase, 1,000 U of xylanase, 600 U of glucanase, 2,500 U of amylase, and 200 U of protease/kilogram of diet; Superzyme OM, 1 g/kg). The fifth diet was N-free. The corn basal diet was fed to determine nutrient digestibility and retention for CPCC by substitution. The N-free diet was fed to estimate basal endogenous AA losses for determining SID of AA. Diets contained TiO2 as indigestible marker. On a DM basis, CPCC contained 39.8% CP, 38.3% neutral detergent fiber, 12.7% ether extract, 1.89% Lys, 0.70% Met, 1.56% Thr, and 0.45% Trp. The SID of Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp for CPCC were 76.5, 85.5, 72.8, and 84.1%, respectively. The AMEn value for CPCC was 1,671 kcal/kg of DM. Multi-enzyme supplementation increased (P < 0.05) the SID of Met and Thr and the AMEn value of the corn-CPCC-based diet by 1.4, 1.3, and 3.0%, respectively. The multi-enzyme increased (P = 0.026) the AMEn value of CPCC from 1,671 to 1,941 kcal/kg of DM. In conclusion, the CPCC evaluated in the present study can be included in poultry diets as a source of energy and AA. Multi-enzyme supplementation increased the AMEn value of CPCC for broilers.

Barley grain is commonly fed to growing-finishing pigs as the major cereal feed energy source in western Canada. However, its nutritional value for weaned pigs is poorly characterized. Formulating low nutrient dense diets may reduce feed cost. Weaned pigs may be able to maintain growth performance by adjusting feed intake to meet nutrient requirement. Four diets based on either 644 g wheat/kg or 676 g barley/kg with either 9.63 or 10.0 MJ net energy (NE)/kg were fed to 208 weaned pigs (9.0 kg) as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with 13 replicate pens per diet. Diets were formulated to have 1.07 g standardised ileal digestible lysine/MJ NE and were fed for 21 days. Feed added, feed remaining and pig body weight were measured weekly to calculate pen average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (G:F). Faeces were collected to calculate diet apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE) and crude protein (CP). Compared with wheat-based diets, feeding barley-based diets reduced ( P P P P > 0.05). Diet ND did not affect ( P > 0.05) ADFI, ADG or G:F. In conclusion, feeding barley as cereal energy for weaned pigs instead of wheat grain may increase growth performance. Reducing dietary NE value by 0.37 MJ/kg while maintaining the SID AA content/NE ratio did not affect growth performance in weaned pigs.

Field pea is an alternative starch and protein source for swine; however, feeding raw field pea to weaned pigs may reduce feed efficiency (G:F). Growth performance of weaned pigs fed field pea processed using treatments with heat and friction is unknown. To explore the effects of feed processing, field pea was ground (4.0-mm sieve), then either cold-pelleted (70–75 °C), steam-pelleted (80–85 °C) or extruded (115 °C) and then re-ground (3.2-mm sieve). Diets included 400 g per kg raw, cold-pelleted, steam-pelleted or extruded field pea replacing 300 g soybean meal (SBM) and 100 g wheat grain and were formulated to provide 10.0 MJ net energy (NE)/kg and 12.1 g standardised ileal digestible lysine/kg. In total, 236 pigs (weaned at 20 days of age) were housed in 60 pens in 4 rooms and fed 1 of 5 diets starting 2 weeks post-weaning [initial body weight (BW): 10 kg] for 3 weeks. The CATTD of gross energy and crude protein, digestible energy and predicted NE value were lower (P 0.05) by feeding or processing of field pea. To conclude, weaned pigs fed 400 g field pea/kg diet in substitution of SBM could maintain growth performance. Greater ADFI for field pea diets than SBM diet indicated that pigs compensated for the reduced energy value of field pea diets. Raw field pea can be included in late nursery diets without thermal treatment to replace 300 g SBM and 100 g wheat grain/kg diet.

Background Substantial variation in growth rates exists in normal-birth-weight piglets, possibly due to differences in energy efficiency. Within this population, slow growth rates are associated with reduced insulin sensitivity. Slowly digestible starch (SDS) may improve growth efficiency in slowly growing pigs, because it reduces postprandial blood glucose. Objective The aim of this study was to investigate maintenance energy requirements and efficiency of energy used for growth (incremental energy efficiency) of slow-growing or fast-growing piglets (SG-pigs and FG-pigs, respectively) with equal birth weight that were fed either an SDS or a rapidly digestible-starch (RDS) diet. Methods Sixteen groups of either five 10-wk-old SG-pigs (mean ± SD: 11.3 ± 1.4 kg) or FG-pigs (15.1 ± 1.7 kg) were housed in climate respiration chambers and fed diets containing 40% RDS or SDS for 2 wk. In week 1, feed was available ad libitum. In week 2, feed supply was restricted to 65% of the observed weekly averaged feed intake [kJ · kg body weight (BW)-0.6 · d-1] in week 1. After week 2, pigs were feed deprived for 24 h, after which heat production was determined. Energy balances, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), and incremental energy efficiencies were calculated and analyzed using a general linear model. Results Gross energy intake (kJ · kg BW-0.6 · d-1) was 4% greater (P = 0.047) for FG-pigs than for SG-pigs. ATTD of fat was 6%-units greater (P = 0.003) for RDS-fed than for SDS-fed pigs. Fasting heat production and incremental energy efficiencies did not differ between pig types or diets. Incremental use of metabolizable energy for fat retention was 2% units (P = 0.054) greater for RDS-fed than SDS-fed pigs. Conclusions A lower energy intake rather than greater maintenance requirements or lower energy efficiency explains the slow growth of SG-pigs. Incremental RDS intake increased fat deposition more than SDS, whereas energy efficiency was not affected. Thus, feeding SDS instead of RDS does not improve growth efficiency but may result in slightly leaner pigs.

Background The piglets’ transition from milk to solid feed induces a succession of bacterial communities, enhancing the hosts’ ability to harvest energy from dietary carbohydrates. To reconstruct microbial carbohydrate metabolism in weanling pigs, this study combined 16S rRNA gene sequencing (n = 191) and shotgun metagenomics (n = 72). Results Time and wheat content in feed explained most of the variation of the microbiota as assessed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing in weanling pigs. De novo metagenomic binning reconstructed 360 high-quality genomes that represented 11 prokaryotic and 1 archaeal phylum. Analysis of carbohydrate metabolism in these genomes revealed that starch fermentation is carried out by a consortium of Firmicutes expressing extracellular α-(1 → 4)-glucan branching enzyme (GH13) and Bacteroidetes expressing periplasmic neopullulanase (GH13) and α-glucosidase (GH97). Fructans were degraded by extracellular GH32 enzymes from Bacteriodetes and Lactobacillus. Lactose fermentation by β-galactosidases (GH2 and GH42) was identified in Firmicutes. In conclusion, the assembly of 360 high-quality genomes as the first metagenomic reference for swine intestinal microbiota allowed identification of key microbial contributors to degradation of starch, fructans, and lactose. Conclusions Microbial consortia that are responsible for degradation of these glycans differ substantially from the microbial consortia that degrade the same glycans in humans. Our study thus enables improvement of feeding models with higher feed efficiency and better pathogen control for weanling pigs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40168-019-0662-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The carnivorous nature of the domestic cat makes feline metabolism of carbohydrates unique. The cats' glycemic response has been previously studied, with variable outcomes in response to carbohydrate level and source, but is an important response to understand how to control glycemia. The objectives of this study were to determine the glucose and insulin responses of cats fed 3 commercial diets differing in carbohydrate content and source, and to investigate the effects of diet on RQ, energy expenditure (EE), and glycemic response. Domestic shorthair cats (=19, 10 males, 9 females) of similar age (4.3 ± 0.48 yr, mean ± SD) and of ideal body condition score were used. Cats were fed, once a day, 1 of 3 commercial diets that differed in their perceived glycemic response (PGR; 36.8%, 30.7%, and 23.6% starch for high, medium, and low PGR, respectively) with cats cycling through all diets in 3 periods in 6 complete and 1 incomplete 3 × 3 Latin square. Each period consisted of 8 d of adaptation to the diet, followed by 21-h calorimetry measurements, and real-time interstitial glucose measurements on day 9. On day 10, sequential blood sampling was completed to determine blood glucose and insulin. BW and ME intake did not differ among treatments. EE in the fasted state did not differ among treatments (P = 0.160), whereas postprandial EE was highest for the high PGR diet compared with the medium PGR and low PGR diets (P < 0.001). In conclusion, cats revealed a prolonged postprandial glucose and insulin response compared with other monogastric animals, yet diet effects were minimal. Overall, interstitial glucose measures were less variable than serum glucose measurements and followed a parallel pattern to RQ. Therefore, going forward, calorimetry and continuous interstitial glucose monitoring should be considered as less invasive alternatives to repeated blood sampling.

In swine production, use of feed antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promotant will be reduced; thus, feed alternatives to manage gut health are required to prevent post-weaning diarrhea. Dietary fiber, resistant starch, oligosaccharides, and exo-polysaccharides are carbohydrates are nutritional tools that may be part of managing gut health in pigs. Antibiotics are hypothesized to influence gut health via modulation of intestinal microbial profiles; fermentation and intestinal inflammation are considered important mechanisms. As alternative, dietary fiber sources differ in 2 key properties: fermentability and viscosity. Rapid fiber fermentation is associated with changes in microbial profiles and increased metabolite production. Recently, microbial composition was hypothesized to be less important, and it was thought that the focus should be on combined output of metabolites. Increased viscosity has been associated with increased gut content of virulence factors linked with diarrhea. Fiber properties may manipulate retention time and physico-chemical properties of the undigested residue. Starch is mostly digested and absorbed as glucose; however, resistant starch is not digested but fermented instead. Resistant starch acts as fermentable fiber but is unique, because it specifically increases digesta abundance of bifidobacteria that are associated with improved gut health. Oligosaccharides may be rapidly fermented and thereby influence intestinal microbial profiles and metabolite production. Raw materials and some feed additives both influence kinetics of fermentation and have prebiotic activity. Their kinetics of fermentation should be quantified so that it can be considered in feed formulation. Finally, exopolysaccharides from Lactobacillus reuteri and unique oligosaccharides may serve as scavenger molecules for pathogenic bacteria, e.g., enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), to bind to instead of adhering to the gut wall, thereby avoiding diarrhea initiation. In conclusion, dietary fiber and other carbohydrates may be important solutions to maintain gut health when antibiotics are removed as growth promotants from swine feeds.

Dietary inclusion of fibrous alternative feedstuffs in swine diets to replace cereal grains can be economically important for pork producers; however, limits for young pigs to ingest high-fibre diets are not well established. The effects of increasing inclusion of sugar beet pulp (SBP) by substituting wheat grain on diet nutrient digestibility and growth performance of young pigs were evaluated. In total, 220 pigs (initial body weight 7.5 kg) were fed Phase 1 diets for 2 weeks (day 1–14) starting 1 week after weaning at 19 days of age and sequentially Phase 2 diets for 3 weeks (day 15–35). Five pelleted wheat-based diets including 0, 60, 120, 180 and 240 g SBP/kg were fed. The SBP contained (as-fed) 90 g crude protein (CP) and 249 g acid detergent fibre (ADF)/kg. Phase 1 and 2 diets were formulated to provide 9.6 and 9.4 MJ NE/kg and 1.3 and 1.2 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) Lys/MJ NE, respectively. Diets were balanced for NE by increasing canola oil from 5 to 50 g/kg for Phase 1 and 2 diets and for AA by increasing crystalline AA. Increasing dietary inclusion of SBP up to 240 g/kg increased ADF content of diets to 101 g/kg, linearly reduced ( P P P P P P P P P = 0.01) for day 15–21 and quadratically reduced ( P P P P P > 0.05) between pigs fed diets containing 0 or 60 g SBP/kg. In conclusion, weaned pigs maintained growth performance with diets containing 65 g ADF/kg, but not for diets containing up to 101 g ADF/kg.

Canola press-cake (CPC) is a co-product of biodiesel production from small to medium-scale processing plants that mechanically press canola seed without pre-pressing conditioning, flaking, cooking and post-pressing solvent extraction. The CPC contains 370 g/kg CP and 204 g/kg remaining oil. Thus, CPC could be a source of AA and energy in pig diets. Growth responses to increasing dietary CPC inclusion have not been extensively evaluated in young pigs. In total, 240 pigs (7.5 ± 0.31 kg) starting 1 week after weaning at 19 d of age were fed five wheat-based diets containing 0, 50, 100, 150, or 200 g/kg CPC replacing soybean meal in two phases (Phase 1 and 2). Diets were formulated to contain 10.3 and 10.1 MJ NE/kg and 1.2 and 1.0 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) Lys/MJ NE, respectively, and were fed for 2 weeks as Phase 1 (day 0–14) and 3 weeks as Phase 2 (day 15–35). Feed added and remaining and individual pigs were weighed weekly to calculate average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily weight gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (G:F) per pen (four pigs per pen). Freshly-voided faeces were collected on day 12 and 13 and day 33 and 34 for Phase 1 and 2, respectively, to determine diet apparent total tract digestibility coefficient (CATTD) of gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP) and digestible energy (DE) value. Increasing dietary inclusion of CPC linearly reduced ( P P P P P P

Eggs not destined for human consumption from egg-breaking plants have high amino acid (AA) and fat content. In contrast, whey permeate (WP), co-product from dairy industry, has high lactose content. Thus, blends of eggs and WP can be sources of protein and energy in swine diets; however, limited information exists about the nutritional value of such blends. A study was conducted to determine standardized ileal digestibility (SID) coefficient of AA and calculated net energy (NE) value for dried whole egg (EGG) and 2 blends of WP and EGG (700 g WP/kg and 300 g EGG/kg, 7030PE; and 600 g WP/kg and 400 g EGG/kg, 6040PE). Eight ileal-cannulated barrows (35.1 kg body weight) were fed 4 diets in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design. The diets were a basal diet including a pre-grower feed and corn starch, and this basal diet with energy- and AA-yielding ingredients replaced with 300 g EGG/kg or 400 g/kg of either 7030PE or 6040PE. Energy and nutrient digestibility in the test products was determined by difference method. The SID coefficient of AA was calculated using published values for basal ileal endogenous AA losses. On dry matter basis, EGG, 7030PE and 6040PE contained 489, 186 and 214 g crude protein/kg; 36.0, 9.80 and 11.7 lysine g/kg; and 393, 88.9 and 124 g ether extract/kg, respectively. The SID coefficient of lysine was greater (P

BACKGROUND Dietary amylose resists enzymatic digestion, thereby providing a substrate for microbial fermentation that stimulates proliferation of beneficial microbiota and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the large intestine of pigs and humans. However, the effect of increasing dietary amylose in pigs immediately postweaning on growth, nutrient digestibility and flow, and intestinal microbial and SCFA profiles has not been studied and can be used as a model for newly weaned human infants. OBJECTIVE We studied the effects of increasing dietary amylose on growth, nutrient digestibility, and intestinal microbial and metabolite profiles in weaned pigs. METHODS Weaned pigs (n = 32) were randomly allocated to 1 of 4 diets containing 67% starch with 0%, 20%, 28%, or 63% amylose for 21 d. Subsequently, pigs were killed to collect feces and digesta for measuring starch digestion and microbial and metabolite profiles. RESULTS Feeding weaned pigs 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose decreased (P < 0.05) feed intake by 5% and growth by ≥ 12%. Ileal digestibility of dry matter decreased (P < 0.05) by 10% and starch by 9%, thereby increasing (P < 0.05) hindgut fermentation, cecal and colonic total SCFAs, and colonic Bacteroides, and lowering (P < 0.01) ileal, cecal, and colonic pH in pigs consuming 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose. Cecal and colonic Bifidobacteria spp. increased by 14-30% (P < 0.05) and Clostridium clusters IV and XIVa were decreased (P < 0.01) in pigs consuming 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose. CONCLUSION Increasing dietary amylose in pigs immediately postweaning stimulated hindgut fermentation and Bifidobacteria spp., thereby manipulating the gut environment, but also reduced intake and growth. An optimum dietary amylose concentration should be determined, which would maintain desired growth rate and gut environment in weaned pigs.

Brassica napus and Brassica juncea canola meal (CM) may replace soybean meal (SBM) in pig diets, but differ in fiber, glucosinolates content and profile. Preference of weaned pigs provided double-choice selections to diets containing 20% SBM, B. napus CM, or B. juncea CM was evaluated in two studies. In experiment 1, 216 pigs (9.4 ± 1.6 kg initial BW) were housed in 27 pens of 8 pigs (four gilts and four barrows). In experiment 2, 144 pigs (8.9 ± 1.1 kg) were housed in 36 pens of 4 pigs (two gilts and two barrows). Pigs were offered three dietary choices: B. napus CM with SBM as reference (B. napus CM [SBM]), B. juncea CM with SBM as reference (B. juncea CM [SBM]), and B. juncea CM with B. napus CM as reference (B. juncea CM [B. napus CM]) in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square. Diets were formulated to provide 2.4 Mcal NE/kg and 4.5 g standardized ileal digestible Lys/Mcal NE and were balanced using canola oil and crystalline AA. Each pair of diets was offered in two self-feeders per pen as mash (experiment 1) or pellets (experiment 2) during three test-periods of 4-d, followed by a 3-d non-test period when a common diet was offered in both feeders. Feeders with different diets were rotated daily among pens during preference periods for both experiments, and feeder positions (right or left) were switched daily in experiment 2. Prior to the study and between periods, pigs were fed non-test diets containing SBM (experiment 1) or without test feedstuffs (experiment 2). Overall in both experiments, pigs preferred (P < 0.001) SBM over B. napus and B. juncea CM diets, and preferred (P < 0.001) B. napus over B. juncea CM diet. Dietary choice did not affect (P > 0.05) growth performance in both experiments, except for greater G:F (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the B. juncea CM [B. napus CM] diets than pigs fed the B. napus CM [SBM] or B. juncea CM [SBM] diets in experiment 1. In conclusion, weaned pigs preferred SBM over CM diets when given a choice, and preferred B. napus over the B. juncea diet that contained more total glucosinolates especially gluconapin. Weaned pigs fed the B. juncea CM [B. napus CM] diets in the double-choice selection did not reduce feed intake, weight gain, and G:F compared to pigs fed the B. napus CM [SBM] or B. juncea CM [SBM] diets.

Energy and nutrient digestibility of solvent-extracted canola meal (CM) is limited in pigs by its relatively high fiber content. The seed hull, which greatly contributes to the fiber content of CM, is denser than the oil-free cotyledon. By utilizing streams of air, air classification partially separates these seed components on the basis of their different sizes and densities to produce a low-fiber, light-particle fraction and a high-fiber, heavy-particle fraction. Compared with parent CM, ADF and NDF were reduced by 31.9% and 29.5% in the light-particle fraction and were enriched by 16.5% and 9.0% in the heavy-particle fraction (DM basis), respectively. Particle size was 638, 18.9, and 76.1 µm for the parent CM and light- and heavy-particle fractions, respectively. To determine the nutrient digestibility of CM and their air-classified fractions, Brassica napus and B. juncea CM and their 2 air-classified fractions were evaluated in a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement together with a basal diet and an N-free diet. The experiment was conducted as an 8 × 8 Latin square in which diets contained 40% B. napus or B. juncea CM or their air-classified fractions and 60% basal diet. Digesta data from pigs fed the N-free diet served to subtract basal endogenous AA losses. Eight ileal-cannulated barrows (32 kg initial BW) were fed the 8 diets at 2.7 times maintenance DE for eight 11-d periods. At the end of each period, feces were collected for 48 h, and ileal digesta were collected for two 12-h periods. The DE and calculated NE values and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE were 6.3%, 10.0%, and 7.8% greater (P < 0.001) for B. juncea CM than for B. napus CM; 6.1%, 10.8%, and 5.3% greater (P < 0.001) for the light-particle fraction than for parent CM; and 5.4%, 7.2%, and 3.8% lower (P < 0.001) for the heavy-particle fraction than for parent CM, respectively. The standardized ileal digestibilities (SID) of His, Ile, Val, Asp, and Tyr were greater (P < 0.05) for B. juncea CM than for B. napus CM. The SID of CP and AA were greater (P < 0.01) in the light-particle fraction than in the heavy-particle fraction. The SID of Trp, Glu, Pro, and Tyr were greater (P < 0.05) in the light-particle fraction than in parent CM. In conclusion, B. juncea CM had greater energy and AA digestibility than B. napus CM because of reduced fiber content. Air classification of CM increased its energy and AA digestibility in the light-particle fraction for pigs because of the reduced dietary fiber content and decreased particle size.

Background Diagnosis of enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) associated diarrhea is complicated by the diversity of E.coli virulence factors. This study developed a multiplex quantitative PCR assay based on high-resolution melting curves analysis (HRM-qPCR) to identify and quantify genes encoding five ETEC fimbriae related to diarrhea in swine, i.e. K99, F41, F18, F6 and K88. Methods Five fimbriae expressed by ETEC were amplified in multiple HRM-qPCR reactions to allow simultaneous identification and quantification of five target genes. The assay was calibrated to allow quantification of the most abundant target gene, and validated by analysis of 30 samples obtained from piglets with diarrhea and healthy controls, and comparison to standard qPCR detection. Results The five amplicons with melting temperatures (Tm) ranging from 74.7 ± 0.06 to 80.5 ± 0.15 °C were well-separated by HRM-qPCR. The area of amplicons under the melting peak correlated linearly to the proportion of the template in the calibration mixture if the proportion exceeded 4.8% (K88) or

Novel Brassica ( B. ) juncea has a thinner seed coat and therefore lower fibre content than conventional B. napus canola meal (CM) and could potentially be fed at greater dietary inclusions to pigs. In a 2×2×3 factorial arrangement, 528 barrows and 528 gilts [33.6kg body weight] housed in 48 pens (22 barrows or gilts) were fed either B. juncea or B. napus CM at 100, 200 or 300g/kg of diet with up to 200g/kg wheat DDGS to slaughter weight (120kg). Compared with B. napus , B. juncea CM had 32g/kg greater CP, 12g/kg lower crude fat, 86g/kg lower ADF, and 91g/kg lower NDF content. However, aliphatic glucosinolate content was 2.7 times greater in B. juncea (11.76μmol/g) than B. napus CM (4.34μmol/g). For the entire trial (d 0–72), daily weight gain (ADG) was not affected by canola species, but feed disappearance (ADFI) was 45g/d lower ( P =0.06) and feed efficiency 7g/g greater ( P B. juncea than B. napus CM. Carcass traits were not affected by canola species except dressing, which was 1% lower ( P B. juncea than B. napus CM. For the entire trial, increasing CM inclusion from 100 to 300g/kg of diet decreased ADFI ( P P P P P P B. juncea CM the same as conventional B. napus CM without decreasing growth performance or carcass traits. Feeding growing-finishing pigs a diet with 300 vs. 200 or 100g/kg CM with up to 200g/kg of wheat DDGS resulted in decreased weight gain and a minor decrease in carcass weight, dressing and loin depth, but increased feed efficiency.

Striving for maximum replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with field pea in swine diets is economically important for pork producers. To explore, effects of increasing inclusion of field pea by substituting SBM on diet nutrient digestibility and growth performance of young pigs were evaluated. In total, 260 pigs (8.5 kg) starting 1 week after weaning at 19 days of age were fed Phase 1 diets for 2 weeks (day 1–14) and sequentially Phase 2 diets for 3 weeks (day 15–35). Five pelleted wheat-based diets including 0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 g yellow field pea ( Pisum sativum L., subsp. hortense )/kg in substitution for up to 300 g SBM/kg and 100 g wheat/kg were fed. Phase 1 and 2 diets were formulated to provide 10.2 and 9.8 MJ net energy (NE)/kg, and 1.2 and 1.0 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) Lys/MJ NE, respectively. Diets were balanced for NE by reducing dietary canola oil from 48 to 34 g/kg and from 27 to 12 g/kg for Phase 1 and 2 diets, respectively, and for amino acids by increasing crystalline amino acids. Increasing inclusion of field pea to 400 g/kg linearly reduced (P G : F ). Growth performance was not affected for day 8–14 and 15–21. Increasing inclusion of field pea quadratically increased (P G : F for day 22–28. For day 29–35, increasing inclusion of field pea tended to linearly increase (P G : F . Overall (day 1–35), increasing dietary inclusion of field pea did not affect ADFI, ADG or G : F . In conclusion, up to 400 g/kg field pea can entirely replace SBM in nursery diets formulated to equal NE value and SID amino acid content without detrimental effects on growth performance after a 7-day adaptation.

Phosphorus (P) in most diets for sows is poorly digested because pigs do not produce salivary or gastric phytase to hydrolyze P from phytate (inositol hexaphosphate), thus leading to a relatively high amount of P in the manure. An experiment was carried out to study the efficacy of a novel bacterial 6-phytase produced by a strain of Aspergillus oryzae expressing two synthetic genes, both mimicking a phytase gene from a Citrobacter braakii strain. The apparent total tract digestibility coefficient (CATTD) of P, calcium (Ca), crude protein (CP), and gross energy, concentrations of plasma variables, and sow performance were used as response variables. In total, 45 crossbred gestating sows (Large white×Landrace) were individually housed with their litter. Three diets were prepared: (1) positive control (PC; 5.2 g available P/kg), regular sow diet containing inorganic P; (2) negative control (NC; 2.0 g available P/kg) without inorganic P; and (3) NC + 500 FTU/kg diet (NC + PHY). Each diet was fed to 15 sows for 21 days (from day 108 of gestation to day 15 of lactation). To the diets, 3.0 g titanium dioxide/kg was added as a marker to determine CATTD of nutrients. Blood samples were collected from the anterior vena cava at day 1 and 15 of lactation to determine plasma minerals (P, Ca, magnesium, copper, iron, and zinc) and plasma urea, glucose, total protein, albumin, and globulin. At day 15 of lactation, CATTD of P did not differ between PC and NC. Phytase supplementation to NC increased (P

Digestibility of ether extract (EE) or fatty acids (FA) is traditionally measured by chemical analyses for EE or GLC methods for FA combined with marker concentration in diet and digesta or feces. Digestibility of EE or FA may be predicted by marker concentrations and spectral analyses of diet and digesta or feces. On the basis of Beer's law, a noncalibration spectroscopic method, which used functional group digestibility (FGD) determined with marker concentration and peak intensity of spectra of diets and undigested residues (digesta or feces), was developed to predict the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of total FA and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of EE. To validate, 4 diets containing 30% flaxseed and field pea coextruded with 4 extruder treatments and a wheat and soybean basal diet with predetermined AID of total FA and ATTD of EE were used. Samples of ingredients, diets, and freeze-dried digesta and feces were scanned on a Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) instrument with a single-reflection attenuated total reflection (ATR) accessory. The intensity of either the methylene (CH2) antisymmetric stretching peak at 2,923 cm(-1) (R(2) = 0.90, P < 0.01) or the symmetric stretching peak at 2,852 cm(-1) (R(2) = 0.86, P < 0.01) of ingredients, diet, and digesta spectra was related strongly to the concentration of total FA. The AID of total FA of diets measured using GLC was predicted by the spectroscopic method using FGD at 2,923 and 2,852 cm(-1) (R(2) = 0.75, P < 0.01) with a bias of 0.54 (SD = 3.78%) and -1.35 (SD = 3.74%), respectively. The accumulated peak intensity in the region between 1,766 and 1,695 cm(-1) of spectra was related to EE concentration in ingredients and diets (R(2) = 0.61, P = 0.01) and feces (R(2) = 0.88, P < 0.01). The relation was improved by using second-derivative spectra of the sum of peak intensities at 1,743 and 1,710 cm(-1) for ingredients and diets (R(2) = 0.90, P = 0.01) and at 1,735 and 1,710 cm(-1) for feces (R(2) = 0.92, P < 0.01). The ATTD of EE of test diets determined with proximate analysis was estimated by the FGD of nonderivative spectra with or without baseline (R(2) = 0.90, P < 0.01) with a bias of 3.15 (SD = 3.14%) and 3.50 (SD = 3.24%), respectively. In conclusion, instead of using GLC methods or predictions based on calibrations, the AID of total FA and ATTD of EE can also be estimated directly from ATR FT-IR spectra, provided the ratio of marker in the diet and undigested residue is known.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of diarrhea in piglets; ETEC cells colonize the intestinal mucosa with adhesins and deliver toxins that cause fluid loss. This study determined the antiadhesive properties of bacterial exopolysaccharides (reuteran and levan) and related glycans (dextran and inulin) in a small intestinal segment perfusion (SISP) model. The SISP model used 10 jejunal segments from 5-week-old piglets. Five segments were infected with ETEC expressing K88 fimbriae (ETEC K88), while five segments were treated with saline. Every two segments (ETEC and non-ETEC infected) were infused with 65 ml of 10 g liter −1 of glycans or saline (control) for 8 h. High-resolution melting-curve (HRM) quantitative PCR (qPCR) indicated that E. coli is the dominant bacterium in infected segments, while other bacteria were predominant in noninfected segments. Infection by ETEC K88 was also verified by qPCR; gene copy numbers of K88 fimbriae and the heat-labile toxin (LT) in mucosal scrapings and outflow fluid of infected segments were significantly higher than those in noninfected segments. Genes coding for K88 fimbriae and LT were also detected in noninfected segments. LT amplicons from infected and noninfected segments were 99% identical over 481 bp, demonstrating the presence of autochthonous ETEC K88. All glycans reduced fluid loss caused by ETEC K88 infection. Reuteran tended ( P = 0.06) to decrease ETEC K88 levels in mucosal scraping sample, as judged by qPCR. Fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis demonstrated that reuteran significantly ( P = 0.012) decreased levels of adherent ETEC K88. Overall, reuteran may prevent piglet diarrhea by reducing adhesion of ETEC K88.

The origin of resistant starch (RS) in distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS) of triticale, wheat, barley, and corn from dry-grind ethanol production was studied. A considerable portion of starch (up to 18% in DDGS) escaped from either granular starch hydrolysis or conventional jet-cooking and fermentation processes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that some starch granules were still encapsulated in cells of grain kernel or embedded in protein matrix after milling and were thus physically inaccessible to amylases (type RS1). The crystalline structures of native starch granules were not completely degraded by amylases, retaining the skeletal structures in residual starch during granular starch hydrolysis or leaving residue granules and fragments with layered structures after jet-cooking followed by the liquefaction and saccharification process, indicating the presence of RS2. Moreover, retrograded starch molecules (mainly amylose) as RS3, complexes of starch with other nonferme...

Canola meal (CM) is widely included in swine diets, but its fiber matrix compromises its nutritional value. Whether steam-explosion with high pressure can increase nutrient digestibility of CM and hence growth performance in pigs is unknown. To explore, Brassica napus CM was processed with steam pressure at 700 or 1,100 kPa for 5 min followed by a sudden release of pressure to produce steam-exploded CM7 and CM11, respectively. Four diets containing 20% CM, CM7, CM11, or soybean meal (SBM) were formulated to provide 2.3 Mcal net energy (NE)/kg and 5.1 g standardized ileal digestible lysine/Mcal NE. From 2 weeks post-weaning, 256 pigs (BW, 10 kg) were fed the 4 diets for 4 weeks in a randomized complete block design with 16 blocks and 4 pigs per pen. Apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), and gross energy (GE) was 4.8, 4.3 and 3.7%-units lower (P < 0.05), respectively, for the 3 CM diets than the SBM diet, whereas diet digestible energy (DE) value was not different. Steam-explosion of CM did not affect diet ATTD of DM and GE, but reduced (P < 0.05) diet ATTD of CP. For the entire trial (day 1–28), steam-explosion at either 700 or 1,100 kPa increased (P < 0.05) average daily feed intake (ADFI) of CM, but the CM diet had lower (P < 0.05) ADFI than the SBM diet. Average daily gain (ADG) did not differ among the 4 diets. Consequently, feed efficiency (G:F) was greater (P < 0.05) for the 3 CM diets than the SBM diet. In conclusion, steam-explosion of CM did not increase diet nutrient digestibility or growth performance of weaned pigs.

Dietary inclusion of co-products (Co-P) provides opportunities for diversifying the feedstuff matrix by using local feedstuffs, reducing feed costs, and producing value-added pork. In 2 studies, we determined effects of Co-P (canola meal, distillers dried grains with solubles, and co-extruded oil seed and field pea) inclusion level and reduced dietary CP concentration on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and jowl fatty acid profiles of growing-finishing pigs. Pigs were fed isoenergetic and isolysinic diets over 4 growth phases with 8 pen observations per dietary regimen. At slaughter, carcasses were characterized for all pigs and jowl fat was collected from 2 pigs per pen. In Exp. 1, 1,056 pigs (initial BW, 35.3 ± 0.4 kg) were fed 3 levels of dietary Co-P (low, mid, and high) and 2 CP concentrations (low and normal). Overall (d 0 to 86), increasing Co-P inclusion from low to mid or high decreased (P < 0.001) ADFI and ADG of pigs. Low CP concentration increased (P < 0.05) ADFI and ADG compared with normal CP concentration. An interaction (P = 0.026) occurred between dietary Co-P inclusion and CP concentration for G:F; low CP reduced (P < 0.05) G:F compared with normal CP for pig fed low Co-P, but G:F did not differ between CP concentrations for pigs fed mid and high Co-P. Increasing dietary Co-P inclusion from low to high increased (P < 0.001) α-linolenic acid (ALA) in jowl fat but decreased (P < 0.001) carcass weight and loin depth. In Exp. 2, 1,008 pigs (initial BW, 30.3 ± 0.4 kg) were assigned to 5 dietary regimens with Co-P increasing from 2.0 to 50.0% or a sixth regimen with 10% extra supplemental AA for the 37.5% Co-P diet. Overall (d 0 to 97), increasing Co-P inclusion did not affect ADFI, ADG, and G:F. Increasing dietary Co-P inclusion linearly decreased (P < 0.01) carcass weight, dressing percentage, backfat thickness, and loin depth but linearly increased (P < 0.001) jowl ALA. Supplementing 10% extra AA to the 37.5% Co-P diet did not affect growth performance or dressing percentage but increased (P = 0.014) carcass leanness and decreased (P = 0.023) backfat thickness compared with the 37.5% Co-P diet, indicating that dietary AA supply did not limit BW gain. In conclusion, Co-P can be included by up to 50% in diets for growing-finishing pigs without affecting G:F. However, increasing dietary Co-P may reduce ADG, ADFI, and carcass weight even if diets are balanced for dietary NE and standardized ileal digestible AA content.

The effects of substituting soybean meal (SBM) with increasing levels of solvent-extracted canola meal (CM) derived from modern Brassica juncea were evaluated on diet nutrient digestibility and growth performance of young pigs. In total, 240 weaned pigs with an initial body weight of 7.7 kg, starting 1 week after weaning at 19 days of age were involved. Pigs were fed Phase 1 test diets for 2 weeks (days 0–14) and sequentially Phase 2 test diets for 3 weeks (days 15–35). Five pelleted wheat-based diets containing 0, 60, 120, 180 or 240 g juncea CM/kg were formulated to contain 10.0 and 9.7 MJ net energy (NE)/kg and 1.2 and 1.1 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) lysine/MJ NE, for the Phase 1 and 2 diets, respectively. Juncea CM was added at the expense of SBM and the diets were balanced for NE by increasing canola oil from 56 to 80 and 26 to 50 g/kg for Phase 1 and 2 diets, respectively, and for amino acids by increasing crystalline amino acids. Increasing inclusion of juncea CM linearly reduced (P

Some non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) promote the intestinal abundance of pathogenic Escherichia coli in pigs. However, their impact on pathogenic clostridia in the porcine intestinal tract is unknown. The present study aimed to determine the abundance of pathogens belonging to Clostridium clusters I and XI in faeces of growing pigs fed four semi-purified diets containing 5% of purified NSP differing in viscosity and fermentability (low-fermentable low-viscous cellulose; low-fermentable high-viscous carboxymethylcellulose; high-fermentable low-viscous oat β -glucan; and high-fermentable high-viscous oat β -glucan). For quantification of clostridial pathogens, toxin genes were determined using quantitative PCR. Clostridium perfringens α-toxin was detected in faeces of pigs fed low-fermentable cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose diets but was generally below detection limit for the two high-fermentable oat β -glucans. Clostridium botulinum toxin C2 was higher ( P Clostridium difficile toxin B and Clostridium sordellii phospholipase C were not detected in pig faeces indicating that pigs were not colonized by these clostridial species belonging to Clostridium cluster XI. In conclusion, high-fermentable β -glucans decreased the faecal abundance of C. perfringens and, together with low-fermentable high-viscous CMC, that of C. botulinum in growing pigs when compared to low-fermentable low-viscous CEL. Besides fermentability, structural characteristics and indirect effects of NSP on nutrient flow into the large intestine may have played a role for the abundance of pathogenic clostridial species.

Yellow-seeded Brassica (B.) juncea is a novel canola species. Therefore, its meal co-product requires feed quality evaluation and comparison to conventional, dark-seeded B. napus canola meal for pigs. The B. juncea canola meal contains less fibre than B. napus canola meal (190 vs. 260 g NDF/kg, as is), but also less lysine (20.3 vs. 22.1 g/kg). Nutrient digestibility and fermentibility of B. juncea and B. napus canola meal were assessed in a 2 × 2factorial arrangement. Six ileal-cannulated pigs (47 kg BW) were fed six diets in a 6 × 6 Latin square: basal diet (460 g wheat/kg and corn starch), 4 diets with 460 g wheat/kg and either B. juncea or B. napus canola meal at 250 or 500 g/kg replacing corn starch, sugar and canola oil, and an N-free diet based on corn starch. The B. juncea canola meal had greater (P < 0.05) CATTD of gross energy than B. napus canola meal (0.70 vs. 0.63) most likely due to its lower fibre content. Ileal total VFA concentration was lower (P < 0.001) in pigs fed B. juncea than B. napus canola meal diets (15.2 vs. 20.8 μmol/g of wet digesta). In pigs fed B. juncea canola meal instead of B. napus canola meal diets, the molar ratio was greater (P < 0.01) for digesta propionate and faecal acetate, but lower (P < 0.05) for digesta and faecal butyrate. Canola meal species did not affect the CAID of gross energy, CSID of amino acid and faecal VFA content. The digestible energy (DE) value was greater (P < 0.01; 12.1 vs. 10.9 MJ/kg, standardised to 100 g/kg moisture) for B. juncea than B. napus canola meal. Increasing dietary inclusion of canola meal up to 500 g/kg reduced (P < 0.01) diet digestibility of gross energy but not amino acids and decreased (P < 0.05) intestinal fermentability of B. napus but not B. juncea. In conclusion, B. juncea canola meal had greater fermentability and ATTD of gross energy than B. napus canola meal, but digestibility of amino acids did not differ. Increasing dietary inclusion of canola meal up to 500 g/kg reduced digestibility of gross energy but not digestibility of AA. Fermentability of B. napus canola meal but not B. juncea canola meal decreased in the pig intestine with increased dietary inclusion. Hence, yellow-seeded B. juncea canola meal had a greater DE value, similar amino acid digestibility as conventional dark-seed B. napus canola meal and may limit protein fermentation in the pig intestine.

Free amino acids (AA) appear to be absorbed faster than protein-bound AA (PB-AA). We conducted an experiment to assess the effect of feeding pigs with a partially free (F-AA) or totally PB-AA diet on expression of selected genes and performance of pigs. The expression of cationic AA transporters b(0,+) and CAT-1 in intestinal mucosa, liver, and longissimus (LM) and semitendinosus (SM) muscles, as well as that of myosin in LM and SM, was analyzed. Twelve pigs (31.7 ± 2.7 kg) were used. The F-AA diet was based on wheat, supplemented with 0.59% L-Lys, 0.33% L-Thr, and 0.10% DL-Met. The PB-AA diet was formulated with wheat-soybean meal. Average daily feed intake was 1.53 kg per pig. The expression of b(0,+) and CAT-1 was analyzed in jejunal and ileal mucosa, liver, LM, and SM; myosin expression was also analyzed in both muscles. Pigs fed the PB-AA diet tended to have higher weight gain and feed efficiency (P < 0.10), and had thinner back fat (P = 0.02). The expression of b(0,+) was higher (P < 0.01) in jejunum but lower (P < 0.01) in the liver of pigs fed the F-AA diet; CAT-1 tended to be lower in liver but higher in LM of PB-AA pigs. Myosin expression was not affected. Intestinal AA absorption was faster in pigs fed the F-AA diet, but AA uptake by the liver seemed to be faster in pigs fed the PB-AA. Performance and expression of AA transporters and myosin suggest that the dietary content of free or protein-bound AA does not affect their availability for protein synthesis in pigs.

Weaning is often stressful for piglets and accompanied by morphological, histological, microbial, and immunological changes along the digestive tract. Dietary nucleotides are bioactive compounds which have the potential to diminish weaning-associated challenges. The experiment was carried out with 5 litters each of 7 pigs (mixed sex), weaned at 20 d of age. One baseline pig per litter was slaughtered at d 0. The remaining 30 pigs were housed individually and randomly allocated to 2 dietary treatments: the control diet or the control diet supplemented with a mixture of nucleotides. Measurements of growth performance traits included ADFI, ADG, G:F, and BW. At d 17, fresh fecal samples were taken to determine bacterial numbers. On d 19 and 20, pigs were slaughtered and blood samples were analyzed for plasma immunoglobulins and intestinal samples were assessed for morphological traits. Digesta from the jejunum and cecum were collected for analysis of the microbiome. The ADFI was greater in the nucleotide treatment compared with the control treatment (P < 0.05), but ADG, G:F, and BW did not differ between treatments. Plasma IgA concentrations increased with age and were greater in the nucleotide (P < 0.05) compared with the control group. There were no treatment differences in plasma IgG and IgM, gut morphology, or intestinal and fecal bacterial counts. Supplemental nucleotides may increase ADFI but without having any impact on growth performance of the pigs. Greater plasma IgA concentrations indicate that adding nucleotides in the weaning diet supported humoral immunity. However, there was no effect of dietary nucleotide supplementation on the composition of the bacterial community in parts of the small and large intestine. Further research is warranted before the use of nucleotide as a feed additive in pig diet can be recommended.

The effects of substitution of soybean meal with increasing levels of green lentil (Lens culinaris) were evaluated in 240 starter pigs from 9 to 20 kg. Five pelleted wheat-based diets containing 0, 75, 150, 225, or 300 g lentil/kg were formulated to contain 9.76 MJ net energy (NE)/kg and 1.20 g standardised ileal digestible lysine (Lys)/MJ NE and were fed for 3 weeks starting 2 weeks after weaning at 19 days of age. Lentil was added by replacing soybean meal and wheat and the diets were balanced for NE using canola oil and for amino acids using crystalline Lys, threonine, methionine and tryptophan. Increasing dietary inclusion of lentil linearly decreased (P 0.05). In conclusion, inclusion of green lentil should not exceed 225 g/kg in diets for nursery pigs to maintain similar performance as pigs fed a diet with soybean meal as the main supplemental protein feedstuff.

This study was conducted to determine whether supplemental phytase affects the activities of trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine and the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AAs) in pigs fed sorghum–soybean meal (SBM) diets. Twelve pigs (22.3 ± 1.8 kg initial weight) were housed individually in metabolism crates. Dietary treatments were a basal sorghum–SBM diet (182 g/kg CP) with or without supplementation of 500 phytase activity units. Both diets met or exceeded the requirements of the indispensable AA, available P and Ca of growing pigs. At the end of the 17-day study, pigs were euthanized to harvest digesta from stomach, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum and measure their trypsin and chymotrypsin activity. The AID of AA was measured in ileal digesta. Phytase decreased (P 0.50) the AID of CP and AA. In conclusion, trypsin and chymotrypsin activities were mostly either unaffected or reduced by phytase, which might be a factor in the lack of improved AID of AA and CP in pigs fed phytase-supplemented sorghum–SBM diets.

The effects of feeding increasing levels of expeller-pressed (EP) canola meal in substitution for soybean meal as an energy and amino acid source were evaluated in 240 weaned pigs with an initial body weight of 7.3 ± 0.6 kg. Five pelleted wheat-based diets containing 0, 50, 100, 150 or 200 g EP canola meal/kg were formulated to contain 10.0 MJ net energy (NE)/kg and 1.18 g standardised ileal digestible (SID) lysine/MJ NE and were fed for 4 wk starting 1 wk after weaning at 19 days of age. Expeller-pressed canola meal was added at the expense of soybean meal and the diets were balanced for NE using canola oil and for amino acids using crystalline lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan. Increasing inclusion of EP canola meal linearly reduced (P