Search

Leprosy is a chronic disease caused by M. leprae infection that can cause severe neurological complications and physical disabilities. A leprosy-specific vaccine would be an important component within control programs but is still lacking. Given that multifunctional CD4 T cells [i.e., those capable of simultaneously secreting combinations of interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-2, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)] have now been implicated in the protective response to several infections, we tested the hypothesis if a recombinant M. leprae antigen-specific multifunctional T cells differed between leprosy patients and their healthy contacts. We used whole blood assays and peripheral blood mononuclear cells to characterize the antigen-specific T cell responses of 39 paucibacillary (PB) and 17 multibacillary (MB) leprosy patients and 31 healthy household contacts (HHC). Cells were incubated with either crude mycobacterial extracts (M. leprae cell sonicate–MLCS) and purified protein derivative (PPD) or recombinant ML2028 protein, the homolog of M. tuberculosis Ag85B. Multiplex assay revealed antigen-specific production of IFN-γ and IL-2 from cells of HHC and PB, confirming a Th1 bias within these individuals. Multiparameter flow cytometry then revealed that the population of multifunctional ML2028-specific T cells observed in HHC was larger than that observed in PB patients. Taken together, our data suggest that these multifunctional antigen-specific T cells provide a more effective response against M. leprae infection that prevents the development of leprosy. These data further our understanding of M. leprae infection/leprosy and are instructive for vaccine development.

Ecto-nucleotidase activity is involved in the infection process of Leishmania and various other parasites that enables modulation of host immune responses to promote disease progression. One of the enzymes responsible for this activity is the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase). The enzyme hydrolyzes nucleotides tri- and/or di-phosphate into monophosphate products, which are subsequently hydrolyzed into adenosine. These nucleotides can serve as purinergic signaling molecules involved in diverse cellular processes that govern immune responses. Given the importance of the extracellular metabolism of these nucleotides during intracellular pathogen infections, this study evaluates the role of ecto-nucleotidase activity during Leishmania infantum (L. infantum) infection in human macrophages. E-NTPDase protein expression and activity was evaluated in L. infantum during purine starvation, adenosine-enriched medium, or in the presence of an inhibitor of ecto-nucleotidases. Results show that E-NTPDase is expressed in L. infantum parasites, including on the cell membrane. Furthermore, functional activity of the enzyme was modulated according to the availability of adenosine in the medium. Purine starvation increased the hydrolytic capacity of nucleotides leading to higher infectivity, while growth in adenosine-enriched medium led to lower infectivity. Moreover, inhibiting E-NTPDase function decreased L. infantum infection in macrophages, suggesting the enzyme may serve as a ligand. Taken together, the ability of L. infantum to hydrolyze nucleotides is directly associated with increased infectivity in macrophages.

The Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani nucleoside hydrolase NH36 is the main antigen of the Leishmune® vaccine and one of the promising candidates for vaccination against visceral leishmaniasis. The antigenicity of the N-terminal (F1), the central (F2), or the C-terminal recombinant domain (F3) of NH36 was evaluated using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from individuals infected with L. (L.) infantum from an endemic area of visceral leishmaniasis of Spain. Both NH36 and F1 domains significantly increased the PBMC proliferation stimulation index of cured patients and infected asymptomatic individuals compared to healthy controls. Moreover, F1 induced a 19% higher proliferative response than NH36 in asymptomatic exposed subjects. In addition, in patients cured from visceral leishmaniasis, proliferation in response to NH36 and F1 was accompanied by a significant increase of IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion, which was 42-43% higher, in response to F1 than to NH36. The interleukin 17 (IL-17) secretion was stronger in asymptomatic subjects, in response to F1, as well as in cured cutaneous leishmaniasis after NH36 stimulation. While no IL-10 secretion was determined by F1, a granzyme B increase was detected in supernatants from cured patients after stimulation with either NH36 or F1. These data demonstrate that F1 is the domain of NH36 that induces a recall cellular response in individuals with acquired resistance to the infection by L. (L.) infantum. In addition, F1 and NH36 discriminated the IgG3 humoral response in patients with active visceral leishmaniasis due to L. (L.) donovani (Ethiopia) and L. (L.) infantum (Spain) from that of endemic and non-endemic area controls. NH36 showed higher reactivity with sera from L. (L.) donovani-infected individuals, indicating species specificity. We conclude that the F1 domain, previously characterized as an inducer of the Th1 and Th17 responses in cured/exposed patients infected with L. (L.) infantum chagasi, may also be involved in the generation of a protective response against L. (L.) infantum and represents a potential vaccine candidate for the control of human leishmaniasis alone, or in combination with other HLA epitopes/antigens. This work was supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ) fellowships 300639/2003-1 to MP, 310977/2014-2 to CP-d-S, and grant 404400/2012-4 to CP-d-S, MP, PL, RA, JM, EC); Fundação Carlos Chagas de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) (grant E-26-201.583/2014, E-26-102957/2011, and E-26/111.682/2013 to CP-d-S and fellowships E-26/102415/2010 and E-26/201747/2015 to DN); Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (grant 23038.005304/2011-0 to MS); CNPQ-Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa e a Inovação Tecnológica do Estado de Sergipe-PRONEX (12/2009); and FAPITEC CNPq-(PRONEX)(019.203.02712/2009-8) to RA. EC was supported by a research contract funded via VII PN I+D+I 2013–2016 and FEDER Funds (RICET RD12/0018/0003). Sí

Development of immunoprotection against visceral leishmaniasis (VL) focused on the identification of antigens capable of inducing a Th1 immune response. Alternatively, antigens targeting the CD8 and T-regulatory responses are also relevant in VL pathogenesis and worthy of being included in a preventive human vaccine. We assessed in active and cured patients and VL asymptomatic subjects the clinical signs and cytokine responses to the Leishmania donovani nucleoside hydrolase NH36 antigen and its N-(F1), central (F2) and C-terminal (F3) domains. As markers of VL resistance, the F2 induced the highest levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β, and TNF-α and, together with F1, the strongest secretion of IL-17, IL-6, and IL-10 in DTH+ and cured subjects. F2 also promoted the highest frequencies of CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ-, CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ-, CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ+, and CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ T cells in cured and asymptomatic subjects. Consistent with this, the IFN-γ increase was correlated with decreased spleen (R = -0.428, P = 0.05) and liver sizes (R = -0.428, P = 0.05) and with increased hematocrit counts (R = 0.532, P = 0.015) in response to F1 domain, and with increased hematocrit (R = 0.512, P 0.02) and hemoglobin counts (R = 0.434, P = 0.05) in response to F2. Additionally, IL-17 increases were associated with decreased spleen and liver sizes in response to F1 (R = -0.595, P = 0.005) and F2 (R = -0.462, P = 0.04). Conversely, F1 and F3 increased the CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ-, CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ-, and CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ T cell frequencies of VL patients correlated with increased spleen and liver sizes and decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit values. Therefore, cure and acquired resistance to VL correlate with the CD4+-Th1 and Th-17 T-cell responses to F2 and F1 domains. Clinical VL outcomes, by contrast, correlate with CD8+ T-cell responses against F3 and F1, potentially involved in control of the early infection. The in silico-predicted NH36 epitopes are conserved and bind to many HL-DR and HLA and B allotypes. No human vaccine against Leishmania is available thus far. In this investigation, we identified the NH36 domains and epitopes that induce CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, which could be used to potentiate a human universal T-epitope vaccine against leishmaniasis. This work was supported by the following: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ) (Fellowships 300639/2003-1 to MP, 310977/2014-2 to CP-d-S, 310797/2015-2 to AM, and grant 404400/2012-4 to CP-d-S, MP, PL, RA, JM, EC, and AM); by Fundação Carlos Chagas de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) (grant E-26-201.583/2014, E-26-102957/2011, and E-26/111.682/2013 to CP-d-S, and fellowships E-26/102415/2010 and E-26/201747/2015 to DN); by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (grant 23038.005304/2011-0 to MS), by CNPQ-Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa e a Inovação Tecnológica do Estado de Sergipe-PRONEX (12/2009); and by FAPITEC CNPq (PRONEX) (019.203.02712/2009-8) to RA. EC was supported by a research contract funded via VII PN I+D+I 2013-2016 and FEDER Funds (RICET RD12/0018/0003). Sí

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. According to official reports from 121 countries across five WHO regions, there were 213 899 newly diagnosed cases in 2014. Although leprosy affects the skin and peripheral nerves, it can present across a spectrum of clinical and histopathological forms that are strongly influenced by the immune response of the infected individuals. These forms comprise the extremes of tuberculoid leprosy (TT), with a M. leprae-specific Th1, but also a Th17, response that limits M. leprae multiplication, through to lepromatous leprosy (LL), with M. leprae-specific Th2 and T regulatory responses that do not control M. leprae replication but rather allow bacterial dissemination. The interpolar borderline clinical forms present with similar, but less extreme, immune biases. Acute inflammatory episodes, known as leprosy reactions, are complications that may occur before, during or after treatment, and cause further neurological damages that can cause irreversible chronic disabilities. This review discusses the innate and adaptive immune responses, and their interactions, that are known to affect pathogenesis and influence the clinical outcome of leprosy. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-016-0229-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a chronic and fatal disease caused byLeishmania infantumin Brazil. Leukocyte recruitment to infected tissue is a crucial event for the control of infections such as VL. Leucotriens are lipid mediators synthesized by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and they display a protective role against protozoan parasites by inducing several functions in leucocytes. We determined the role of 5-LO activity in parasite control, focusing on the inflammatory immune response againstLeishmania infantuminfection. LTB4is released duringin vitroinfection. The genetic ablation of 5-LO promoted susceptibility in highly resistant mice strains, harboring more parasites into target organs. The susceptibility was related to the failure of neutrophil migration to the infectious foci. Investigating the neutrophil failure, there was a reduction of proinflammatory cytokines involved in the related Th17 axis released into the organs. Genetic ablation of 5-LO reduced the CD4+T cells producing IL-17, without interfering in Th1 subset.L. infantumfailed to activate DC from5-LO-/-, showing reduced surface costimulatory molecule expression and proinflammatory cytokines involved in Th17 differentiation. BLT1blockage with selective antagonist interferes with DC maturation and proinflammatory cytokines release. Thus, 5-LO activation coordinates the inflammatory immune response involved in the control of VL.

Background Soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) are inflammation markers and have been poorly described in infectious disease. In this prospective study, we describe the sera kinetics of these two molecules in the course of treatment follow up in human visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Methods Sera from VL patients were collected before and during follow up of regular Antimony treatment. sCD40L and MMP-9 were measured by Luminex assay. Paired analysis by Wilcoxon signed test was used for comparison of values of the same subjects before and after initiation of treatment. Correlations between clinical data and parasite load with the serum levels of sCD40L and MMP-9 were performed by Spearman test. Tests were considered statistically significant if the probability of a type I error was less than 5% (p-value Results While sCD40L and MMP-9 were not observed in sera from non endemic controls which are at low risk of Leishmania chagasi infection, elevated levels were observed in sera from VL patients, and an increase in sCD40L and MMP-9 levels were detectable during the follow-up of VL patients undergoing antimony treatment. sCD40L levels were also high in individuals living in endemic settings at high risk of infection (endemic controls). Additionally, negative correlations were found between spleen sizes and MMP-9 before treatment and sCD40L at day 15 of treatment. Negative correlations were also found between parasite load with both sCD40L and MMP-9. Conclusion Serum sCD40L and MMP-9 are identified as new and simple biomarkers in two situations: (i) monitoring the success of therapy and (ii) predicting favorable clinical outcome of human VL.

Leishmaniose visceral (LV) é uma doença crônica e potencialmente fatal causada pelas espécies Leishmania infantum/chagasi e Leishmania donovani. O desenvolvimento da resposta Th1 é classicamente associado à proteção contra esses parasitos, mas também há uma correlação positiva entre a produção de citocinas relacionadas com o padrão Th17 e a proteção contra LV por L. donovani em seres humanos. No entanto, a participação de Th17 durante a infecção por L. infantum/chagasi permanece desconhecida. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a participação de Th17 e citocinas relacionadas, além do mecanismo pelo qual tais células operam durante a resposta imune do hospedeiro contra L. infantum/chagasi. Os resultados mostraram que o parasito é capaz de induzir grandes quantidades de TGF-, IL-1, IL-6 e IL-23 por células dendríticas derivadas da medula óssea (BMDC), citocinas envolvidas na indução e/ou manutenção do perfil Th17. Assim, co-cultivando células do baço de camundongos C57BL/6 naves com BMDCs infectadas com L. infantum/chagasi observou-se uma significativa produção de IL-17 por células T. Esses achados foram confirmados por experimentos in vivo onde se constatou a produção de IL-17 no fígado e no baço de camundongos WT infectados, sendo o pico de produção dessa citocina observado na 4ª e 6ª semanas após a infecção. O padrão de resposta do tipo Th17 é crítica para a imunidade protetora contra L. infantum/chagasi, uma vez que camudongos IL-17R-/-, IL-23p19-/- e IL-6-/- mostraram aumento da carga parasitária nos órgãos alvo da infecção, sendo que a susceptibilidade observada em camundongos IL-17R-/- foi associada com o aumento da produção de IL-10 por linfócitos, sugerindo que a IL-17 regula negativamente a produção de IL-10 levando ao controle da infecção causada pelo parasito. Ainda, a ausência da sinalização via IL-17R gerou uma diminuição da inflamação hepática, decorrente de uma menor capacidade proliferativa de linfócitos frente ao estímulo com conA. De maneira interessante, na ausência de IL-10 houve potencialização na produção de IL-17 por camundongos infectados, e esses foram mais resistentes à infecção, apresentando números reduzidos parasitos no baço e no fígado. Além de promover proteção através da modulação de IL-10, a IL-17 foi capaz de potencializar a produção de NO in vitro e in vivo. Juntos, nossos resultados demonstram que a L. infantum/chagasi é capaz de desencadear o padrão Th17 de resposta imune, o qual promove proteção do hospedeiro durante a infecção. Visceral leishmaniasis (LV) is a chronic and potentially fatal disease caused by Leishmania donovani and Leishmania infantum/chagasi. The development of Th1 response is classically associated with protection against these parasites, but recent data also show that there is a positive correlation between the Th17-related cytokines production and the protection against LV by L. donovani in humans. However, the role of this CD4+ T cells subset during L. infantum/chagasi infection remains unknown. In this study, our aim was to evaluate the Th17 and related cytokines participation, besides the mechanism by which these cells playing during the L. infantum/chagasi infection.The results showed that the parasite induces high amounts of TGF-, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-23 by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC), cytokines involved with Th17 induction and/or maintenance. Accordingly, naïve-C57BL/6 spleenocytes co-cultured with L. infantum/chagasi-infected BMDC produced significant amounts of IL-17 by TCD4+. Interestingly, IL-17 was produced in high amounts in the liver and spleen of WT infected-mice, being peaked at 4th and 6th weeks after infection. The Th17 is critical for protective immunity against L. infantum/chagasi, since that IL-17R-/-, IL-23p19-/- and IL-6-/- infected-mice showed increasing of parasite load associated with enhancement of IL-10 production in IL-17R-/- compared to WT infected-mice. Strictly, in the absence of IL-17 signaling, a smaller inflammatory infiltrate was observed in the liver. Interestingly, IL-17 production was potentiated in IL-10-/- infected-mice, and they were more resistant to infection, showing reduced parasites numbers in the spleen and liver. In addition to promoting protection through the downmodulation of IL-10, IL-17 enhanced the NO production. Together, our results demonstrate that L. infantum/chagasi trigger Th17 response that promotes the host protection during infection.