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Papaya (Carica papaya L.) production suffers from a multitude of abiotic and biotic constraints, among those are insect pests, diseases, and environmental conditions. One of the seriously damaging pests of papaya is invasive papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus, which can inflict heavy yield loss if not contained. Little information on papaya mealybug species has been documented due to challenges in identification approaches to species level. The current approach is based on the morphological features which are restricted to the mealybug life cycle leading to unclear identification. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where a wide diversity of mealybug species exists, it is essential to have a correct identification of these insect species due to the specificity of control measures. Molecular identification could be the best way to identify the mealybug at the species level. Presently, farmers rely heavily on chemical pesticides as their only available option for papaya mealybug control. The overuse of pesticides due to insect waxy covering has led to the development of pesticide resistance and the negative impact on the local ecosystem. Alternatively, the use of plant essential oils (EOs) with adjuvant is suggested as the safe solution to papaya mealybug control as they contain a rich source of natural chemicals that dissolve the insect wax layer, causing the cell membrane to rupture eventually leading to death. This review provides current research knowledge about the papaya mealybug identification approaches and plant EOs from Sweet orange, garlic, castor, and adjuvant (isopropyl alcohol, and paraffin) as sustainable papaya mealybug management.

Aim: The present study aimed to select a powerful tool to evaluate the antibiotic susceptibility of endosymbionts of papaya mealybug. Methodology: Antibiotic Ofloxacin (0.25µg) was used to disrupt the endosymbionts of mealybug. The antibiotic susceptibility of endosymbionts was studied by conventional method; isolation of symbionts in Luria Bertani Agar and Nutrient Agar and also metagenomic analysis was conducted using nanopore sequencing of 16S rRNA gene. Results: Molecular identification of isolates showed Gram-positive bacteria i.e., Bacillus cluasii, B. altitudinis, B. siamensis and Gram-negative bacteria, i.e., Serratia marcescens and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Metagenomic analysis using 16S amplicon sequencing resulted in identification of Candidatus Tremblaya Princeps (55%) was more abundant followed by Candidatus Mikella endobia (23%) in untreated mealybug population. Their population was reduced to 7% in Candidatus Tremblaya Princeps and below 1% in Candidatus Mikella endobia. Interpretation: The current study confirms that the metagenomic analysis acts as a power lens to evaluate the antibiotic elimination of endosymbionts, hence with this method future works on developing aposymbiotic mealybugs can be done.

Studies on the biology, life table parameters, and functional response of the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea, were carried out on papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus, under laboratory conditions. The highest larval survival rate (90.50%) was recorded on S. cerealella and then on P. marginatus (85%). The highest life table values of C. carnea, lx (0.91), R0 (106.45), T (50 days), Mx (263), and rm (0.10), were recorded on S. cerealella, whereas doubling time (6.95) and death rate (0.11) were recorded on P. marginatus. The 1st instar of C. carnea to both nymphal instars of P. marginatus exhibited type II functional response, whereas the 2nd and 3rd instars exhibited type III functional response. Predators such as C. carnea with type III functional response to P. marginatus are recognized as an effectual biological control agent as it can efficaciously establish and manage the P. marginatus population.

The papaya mealybug (PM) is a known notorious polyphagous insect pest of many plant species and has always been found associated with a new host/s in newly invaded areas. This pest recently invaded West and Central Africa. Surveys were conducted randomly from July 2014 to May 2018 to determine the host range of this pest in the Center and Littoral regions in Cameroon. Plants infested by PM were recognized by the presence of black sooty mould, leaf deformation and/or chlorosis. A standard infestation scale was used to evaluate the infestation level on each plant. After collection, infested plants were pressed, dried and identified at the national Herbarium. A total of 52 plant species (only one undetermined) belonging to 23 families were found infested by PM associated with other mealybug or with two species of mealybugs with a percentage of (79.2%, N = 75) and (20.8%, N = 75) respectively. Two plant families (out of 23 identified) and 18 plant species (out of 52 infested) were reported as host plants for the first time. The Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae are the most infested families. In addition to plant species from its native zone (tropical America), PM has established new associations with plants from tropical Africa. Carica papaya and ten additional plants were categorized as favored hosts of P. marginatus. These results will be very useful to develop appropriate management options for PM in West and Central Africa.

The population dynamics of sucking pests of guava under a high-density planting system was studied at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2016–2017. The reults revealed that maximum incidence of Aphis gosspii was observed during 13th standard week (SW) (294.40/ top 3 leaves/ tree), and that of Ferrisia virgata (122.00/ 3 leaves/ tree) during 12th SW. The maximum counts of Planococcus citri was during the 16th SW (102.00/ 3 leaves/ tree) and that of Paracoccus marginatus (108/ 3 leaves/ tree) during the 13th SW, while in case of Bemisia tabaci it was 39th SW (84.00/ 3 leaves/ tree). There existed a positive correlation with maximum temperature, solar radiation, and a negative one with minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall for the incidence of sucking pests.

Apefly, Spalgis epius (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) is a small phytophagous butterfly. The larvae feed on the bugs of Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera. In the present study, the development of immature stages and life cycle of this predatory butterfly was observed on Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in mulberry under laboratory conditions. The collected eggs have been stored in the laboratory at 40-80% Relative Humidity and 25-30 °C. The eggs had been disk-shaped and greenish-blue in colour, sculptured and each top and bottom compacted with micropylar despair withinside the top and hatched in 3.2 ± 0.15 days. It beneath is going 4 larval instars and the entire larval duration lasts 12.99 ± 0.01 days. The top surface of the larval body turned completely evolved with a wax coating. The mold on the hard dorsal side of the pupa resembled the face of a monkey structure. The prepupal larva reduced in size and the surface of the body turned dull black colour. The duration of the pupal period was recorded as 10.07 ± 0.03 days. The overall duration from egg to adult emergence was observed as 30.64 ± 0.31 days. In adults, the patch is larger in females than that in males. The information of the development and life cycle of S. epius on natural/ factitious hosts on numerous crops is advantageous to develop and standardize the mass culturing techniques for exploration of this capability species for predation of mealybugs.

This study quantified crop losses and economic impacts associated with papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) infestation in Kenya and identified the most important predictors of papaya tree (Cari...

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus is a small sized polyphagous invasive hemipteran bug that attacks several genera of host plants, causing considerable yield loss. Commonly used insecticidal control is being discouraged due to environmental and human health hazards. Information on the control of this pest with botanicals is scanty, therefore the control using selected botanicals was investigated. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of three botanicals: Hyptis suaveolens, Eugenia aromatica and Azadirachta indica were evaluated in screen cages (1.80×0.60×1.50m) for contact toxicity following standard procedures. Cypermethrin® (100 ml a.i ha-1) was used as a standard check. The secondary metabolites in the three plants were analyzed for saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, flavonoids and cardinolides following standard procedures. Effective concentration was determined using probit analysis. Both aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the botanicals caused adult mortality of P. marginatus. However, the difference in percentage mortality in aqueous extracts of A. indica (54.28±1.7), H. suaveolens (47.5±4.1) and E. aromatica (48.6±1.1) were not significant (P>0.05). Percentage mortality of ethanolic extracts of A. indica (87.40±4.8) was significantly higher (P

Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Pseudococcidae) harbour diverse microbial symbionts that play essential roles in host physiology, ecology, and evolution. In this study we aimed to reveal microbial communities associated with two different mealybugs, papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) and two-tailed mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) collected from the same host plant. Comparative analysis of microbial communities associated with these mealybugs revealed differences that appear to stem from phylogenetic associations and different nutritional requirements. This first report on both bacterial and fungal communities associated with these mealybugs provides a preliminary insight on factors affecting the endomicrobial communities. .

Acerophagus papayae (Encyrtidae: Hymenoptera) is a potential parasitoid successfully used to control papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on different horticultural crops such as papaya, mulberry, cotton, cassava, citrus, sweet potato, peas, beans, okra, eggplant, guava, Hibiscus Jatropha, Allamanda. However, the parasitic efficiency is mostly affected by prevailing weather parameter in the crop canopy. Understanding the effect of thermal stress on the parasitizing efficiency of natural enemy and the role of antioxidant mechanisms for temperature stress is important for improving efficiency under stressed condition. In this study, we investigated the effect of constant temperatures 25, 28, 30, 32 and 34oC on percent parasitism, developmental periods and adult emergence of A. papayae under laboratory condition. Increase in temperature negatively affected the performance of A. papayae in terms of developmental duration, parasitism efficiency and adult emergence. Exposure of A. papayae to different temperature led to overall increase in activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidases and glutathione-S-transferases. Our results indicated that thermal tolerance in A. papayae could be mainly associated with changes in activity of antioxidant enzymes in scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under stress.

The goal of this research was to understand the biology of P. marginatus, a common pest for papaya plants. This research used 1 type of treatment which was repeated 10 times. The results of this research were intended to illustrate the average development time of each development phase of P. marginatus. These phases were: the egg phase (6 days), the female nymph phase (10 days), the male nymph phase (17 days), female adult stage (11 days), male adult stage (3 days). On average, the female life cycle was 27 days, and the male life cycle was 26 days. On average, the pre-fertile stage lasted 4 days, the fertile stage lasted 6 days and the post fertile stage lasted 1 day. On average the pre-egg-laying adult stage lasted 4 days, the egg-laying adult stage lasted 6 days and the post-egg-laying stage lasted 1 day. After the egg-laying stage, the average fecundity of P. marginatus was 370 eggs per female and from these, a total of 350 offspring were hatched per individual. The ratio of surviving Descendents to reproductive couples of P. marginatus white lice was 9:1.

This study isolated and determined the functional characteristics of bacterial flora associated with mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) and their application as a bio-control agent. Second and fourth...

Infestation of major pests and diseases on various cassava clones in Lampung-Indonesia. Lampung Province is one ofcassava producers in Indonesia which contributes more than 30% to the total national cassava production. However, theinfestation of pests and diseases can limit cassava production in the field. The objective of this research was to observe theinfestation level of major plant pests and diseases of cassava in Lampung. A survey was conducted in August 2016 in severallocations of cassava fields owned by farmers and experimental plots in the area of Faculty of Agriculture, University ofLampung. The results showed that cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti), papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus)and red mite (Tetranychus urticae) infested at cassava clones in Lampung. The infestation of red mite tended to be higher thanthat of mealybugs. The cassava brown leaf spot disease that infested in mild to moderate severity was found on all cassavaclones, while viral disease with prevalence of 78% was only found on Duwet 1 clone in experimental plot.

Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), known as the papaya mealybug, could cause considerable yield loss of several plants. To date, there is no molecular-based study of P. marginatus. Fatty acyl-CoA reductases (FARs) are key enzymes involved in wax synthesis. In the present study, we cloned and characterized coding sequences (CDS) of two FAR genes from P. marginatus. The results showed that PmFAR1 and PmFAR2 CDS were 1,590 and 1,497 bp in length, respectively, and sequence analysis indicated that these two genes both had the conservative motifs belonging to FAR_C superfamily. Furthermore, seven candidate reference genes were analyzed for their expression stability by using common algorithms including comparative ΔCq method, geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder. Eventually, β-actin and GAPDH were the best reference genes in evaluating the expression of those two FAR genes. We found that PmFAR1 and PmFAR2 showed distinct expression patterns in different life stages. Moreover, the transcription of PmFAR1 and PmFAR2 in P. marginatus fed on resistant cassava cultivars was significantly lower compared with those fed on susceptible ones, indicating the potential function of FAR genes in cassava resistance to P. marginatus. The present study might help in better understanding the molecular mechanism of cassava resistance to mealybug.

Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus is an invasive polyphagous hemipteran that causes enormous damage to different host plants in Nigeria. However, information on the pest’s damage potential and host range is scanty; therefore, the host preference and life cycle of P. marginatus were investigated. Six economic plants: Carica papaya (Caricaceae), Solanum lycopersicum (Soalnaceae), Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae), Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) and Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae) were evaluated as food hosts to P. marginatus using free-choice and no-choice tests in screen cages (1.80×0.60×1.50m). The developmental biology was investigated following standard procedures at ambient conditions of 27±20C; 70±5% RH and 12:12 hour photoperiod. Significantly more P. marginatus migrated to and utilized C. papaya (27.5±2.9) and M. esculenta (20.75±1.3) as food host. This pest occurred on other plants in decreasing order; S. lycopersicon (17.0±1.3) > P. guajava (12.5±0.4) > A. esculentus (11.8±1.2) and T. grandis (10.00±1.4) appeared to be the least preferred. The duration of development from egg to adult ranged from 23.52±0.1 to 25.76±0.4 days in the females and 25.91±0.6 to 30.62±0.8 in the males, which passed through more nymphal instars (4) than in females (3). The life cycle of P. marginatus was completed in shorter time on C. papaya than on any other host plants. The differences between male and female adult weights (2.98±0.4mg and 3.90±0.6mg) were not significant. Paracoccus marginatus preferred pawpaw and cassava to the other crops. This information is useful for development of appropriate integrated management programme for the pest.

The survey of host range of mealybugs in five districts of Chhattisgarh plain regions namely Rajnandgaon, Balod, Dhamtari, Mahasamund and Raipur districts in which 132 plant species were observed. Among these, 72 plant species belonging to 28 families were identified as hosts out of which two species were of pulses (2.78%), one oilseed (1.39%), ten vegetables (13.89%), twelve fruits (16.67%), one fibre (1.39%), one sugarcane crop (1.39%), nineteen ornamentals (26.39%), fifteen medicinal (20.83%), two forest trees (2.78%) and nine plants under weeds (12.50%). The highest number of host plants of mealybugs were recorded in the family Malvaceae and Asteraceae followed by Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, Solanaceae, Rosaceae, Amaranthaceae and Lamiaceae. Among 72 plant species, 36 species of host plants were found having low infestation, 12 species had medium infestation and 24 plant species were observed to be highly infested by mealybugs. A total of eight mealybug species namely Ferrisia virgata Cockerell, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green, Nipaecoccus viridis Newstead, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Rastrococcus iceryoides Green and seven species of their natural enemies i.e., Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Brumoides suturalis, Scymnus sp., Chrysoperla sp., spiders as a general predator and Aenasius sp. and Pseudleptomastix mexicana as parasitoid were observed during the present studies. Among the Mealybugs species, P. solenopsis Tinsley was noticed as the most dominant species which observed on 14 species of different host plants infested with maximum 46.66 percent.

Aspects of biology of Acerophagus papayae Noyes & Schauff (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), parasitoid of papaya mealybug. Acerophagus papayae Noyes & Schauff (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is an important parasitoid of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The study was conducted with the objective to determine various aspects of the biology of A. papayae which include the effect of diet on adult longevity, fecundity and progeny, host stage susceptibility and preference, the effect of host stages on immature development, body size, and sex ratio of progenies. Effects of diet on adult longevity was done in the absence of hosts. Fecundity was measured by the number of mealybugs parasitized. Host stage susceptibility and preference were carried out by exposing 2nd and 3rd nymphal instars and pre-reproductive adults of mealybugs to parasitoids. Results showed adult parasitoids fed with 10% honey solution lived almost fourfold longer than those provided only water. A. papayae parasitized 30.1±4.92 mealybugs, with a range of 13-60 mealybugs, during 5.8 days of adult life. In no-choice (susceptibility) and paired-choice (preference) tests, the percentage of parasitized hosts were significantly greater in 2nd and 3rd instar nymphs than in adults. The mean immature developmental time of A. papayae was longer when the parasitoids develop in large host. Developmental time of male parasitoids was shorter than the females. Female wasps which emerged from hosts parasitized at the 3rd instar nymphs and adults were significantly larger than those from the 2nd instar nymphs. Sex ratios of the offspring emerged from hosts that were parasitized as 2nd instars were strongly male-biased, while the later stages yielded more females than males.

BACKGROUND The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus, is a highly polyphagous invasive pest that affects more than 200 plants, many of which are of economic importance. We modelled the potential distribution of P. marginatus using CLIMEX, a process‐oriented, climate‐based niche model. We combined this model with spatial data on irrigation and cropping patterns to increase the real‐world applicability of the model. RESULTS The resulting model agreed with known distribution points for this pest and with broad areas where P. marginatus has been reported, but for which no GPS data were available. Our model highlights the potential expansion of P. marginatus into novel areas in Central and East Africa, as well as further expansion in Central America and Asia, as these areas are highly climatically suitable, and have large expanses of suitable crop hosts. It also highlights areas, such as the central and eastern states of the USA as well as the western provinces of China, that are suitable for seasonal invasions of P. marginatus. CONCLUSION Our results offer refined resolution on areas with high potential for invasion by P. marginatus. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry, In the present study we present, for the first time, the potential global distribution of Paracoccus marginatus in order to highlight areas which are suitable for invasion.

Invasive species threaten the ecological and economic wellbeing of a country (Pimentel et al. 2001). In the last decade, several mealybugs and soft scale insects have been accidentally introduced to India, of which some have become serious pests (e.g., Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green and Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel & Miller); others are widening their host ranges and spreading rapidly. Kilifia acuminata (Signoret) and Protopulvinaria longivalvata Green seem relatively harmless but Trijuba oculata (Brain) and Pulvinaria urbicola Cockerell cause economic damage (Joshi & Rameshkumar 2013; Joshi 2017).

The European Commission requested the EFSA Panel on Plant Health to prepare and deliver risk assessments for commodities listed in Commission Implementing Regulation EU/2018/2019 as ‘High risk plants, plant products and other objects’. This Scientific Opinion covers all plant health risks posed by unrooted cuttings of Jasminum polyanthum produced in a protected environment (greenhouse) that are imported from Israel, taking into account the available scientific information, including the technical information provided by the NPPO of Israel by 15 March 2020. The relevance of an EU quarantine pest for this opinion was based on evidence that: (i) the pest is present in Israel; (ii) Jasminum is a host of the pest; and (iii) the pest can be associated with the commodity. The relevance of any other pest, not regulated in the EU, was based on evidence that: (i) the pest is present in Israel; (ii) the pest is absent in the EU; (iii) Jasminum is a host of the pest; (iv) the pest can be associated with the commodity and (v) the pest may have an impact and can pose a potential risk for the EU territory. Six species, the EU‐quarantine pest Scirtothrips dorsalis, and the EU non‐regulated pests Aonidiella orientalis,Milviscutulus mangiferae,Paracoccus marginatus,Pulvinaria psidii and Colletotrichum siamense fulfilled all relevant criteria and were selected for further evaluation. For these pests, the risk mitigation measures proposed in the technical dossier from Israel were evaluated taking into account the possible limiting factors. For these pests, an expert judgement is given on the likelihood of pest freedom taking into consideration the risk mitigation measures acting on the pest, including uncertainties associated with the assessment. The estimated degree of pest freedom varies among the pests evaluated, with S. dorsalis being the pest most frequently expected on the imported plants. The Expert Knowledge Elicitation indicated, with 95% certainty, that between 9,958 and 10,000 bags per 10,000 would be free of S. dorsalis.

Biological control is an eco-friendly approach to encounter pests in cultivated ecosystems. The major pest outbreaks with the key economically distressful examples like Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner (Hemiptera: Aphididae) upsurge in 2002 to the recent most entry of an exotic economically notorious pest—Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in 2018–2019—are an epiphany for entomologists and quarantine personnel. Natural enemies have proved worth by controlling the invasive pests like Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green and Aenasius arizonensis (Girault). With the growing international trade, the risk of invasive pests is alarming. International collaboration for the management of invasives is utmost important as exchange of resources helps in timely control of the pest at global level. Indian species accounts to diminutive 6.4% of the total Braconidae diversity across the globe. This shows how little is known about the diversity of a super diverse family from one of the mega diverse countries of the world. More crop- and season-based exploratory surveys in conjunction with efficient laboratory mass production of biocontrol agents can be a solution to many of our present pest problems.

Apefly, Spalgis epius (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) is a small aphytophagous butterfly and their larvae feeds on the insects of Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera. In the present study, development of immature stages and life cycle of this predatory butterfly was observed on mealybugs, Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in cocoa under the laboratory conditions. The morphometry results indicated that the diameter of the egg was 0.52 ± 0.06 mm and the they were collected and kept in the laboratory at 25-30°C and 40-80% Relative Humidity. The eggs were greenish blue in colour and disk shaped, sculptured and both the top and bottom compacted with micropylar despair in the top and hatched in 4.16 ± 0.29 days. It undergoes four larval instars and the total larval period lasts 13.1 ± 0.12 days. The upper surface of the larval body was fully developed with wax coating. The duration of the pre pupal stage was 3.00 ± 0.17 days. The mold on the hard dorsal side of the pupa resembled on the face of a monkey structure. The prepupal larva shrunk and turned toward dull black colour of the surface of body. The pupal period was recorded as 10.00 ± 0.04 days. The total duration from egg to adult emergence was noticed as 30.30 ± 0.33 days. In adults, the patch is bigger in females than that in the males. The knowledge of development and life cycle of S. epius on factitious/natural hosts on various crops is advantageous to develop and standardize the mass culturing techniques for exploration of this potential species for predation of mealybugs.

The current study aimed to investigate the chemical composition and insecticidal activity of Artemisia herba-alba essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation and solvent extraction against papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus. The essential oil was analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and the insecticidal activity was recorded for different times and concentrations under laboratory conditions. According to GC-MS results, the chemical components detected of essential oil isolated by ‎hydrodistillation and solvent extraction were 52 and 62 compounds of both extraction methods, the main components of essential oil of hydrodistillation method were eucalyptol (32.81%), &alpha-pinene (28.62%) and linalol (10.18%) while the major components of essential oil isolated by solvent extract were pentadecanoic acid (16.69%) and dihomo-‎‎.gamma.-linolenic acid (15.2%). The essential oil of hydrodistillation method exhibited more insecticidal ‎activity than solvent extract method against P. marginatus, 1000 mg/L of essential oil isolated by ‎hydrodistillation achieved 100% ‎mortality of papaya mealybugs after 120, ‎‎168 h of treatment with LC50 values which ‎was‎‎ 65.362 mg/L after 168 h from treatment and LT50 value which was ‎22.386 h‎‏‎‎ at 1000 mg/L.‎ The findings reveal and propose that the essential oil of A. herba-albais a rich by bioactive components and it is a prospective source of botanical insecticides.

Mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an important pest of physic nut Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae), infestations can be severe and dispersion is unknow. The objective was to determine the temporal and spatial dynamics in four experimental areas in 2014 and 2015 in Yucatan, Mexico. Incidence (mealybug-infested or uninfested plants) was assessed from May to July at nearly-regular day intervals. Temporal analysis was carried out using deterministic, growth epidemiological models, whereas spatial analysis was conducted through mapping, randomness tests and spatial autocorrelation. The exponential and logistic models described the incidence of mealybugs in 2014 with a coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.9 and 0.9); mean square error (MSE = 0.66 and 0.70); and P value

The study aimed to find the possible differences, existing between the cuticular waxes of cotton and mealybug insects, using advanced analytical studies. The biochemical composition of the leaf wax of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and the cuticular wax of the different mealybug species, including Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Ferrisia virgata Cockerell, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, and Drosicha mangiferae Green were analyzed in detail by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The results clearly confirmed that the cotton wax is dominated by the six-carbon alkanes, while the mealybug wax is a mixture of both the five-carbon alkanes and the six-carbon alkanes. Apart from these differences, the common hydrocarbons such as hexadecane, icosane, and heneicosane, the uncommon hydrocarbons such as ethane, cyclobutanone, decane, and cyclododecane, the species-specific compounds of mealybugs such as myristyl alcohol, quinoline, hexacosane, and pentacosane were also identified and their retention times (RT) were listed out in detail. The outcome of this study will be useful to develop pest management techniques targeting the waxy cuticle of mealybugs without obstructing the normal physiology and growth of the cotton crop.

In terrestrial ecosystems, changes in soil nutrient availability, plant growth or natural enemies can generate important shifts in abundance of organisms at various trophic levels. In agroecosystems the performance of (invasive) herbivores and their impacts on crops is of particular concern. Scientists are presently challenged with making reliable inferences on invader success, natural enemy performance and efficacy of biological control, particularly in tropical agroecosystems. In this study, we assess how trophic regulatory forces (bottom-up vs. top down) influence the success of three globally important pests of cassava. We examine the mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) of differing host breadth and invasion history: Phenacoccus manihoti, Paracoccus marginatus, and Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi. Potted plant fertilizer trials were combined with a regional survey in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia of 65 cassava fields of similar size and age, but with varying soil fertility. Relative abundance of each mealybug invader was mapped along a soil fertility gradient, and contrasted with site-specific measures of parasitism. Potted plant trials revealed strong bottom-up effects for P. manihoti, such that impacts of nitrogen and potassium additions were propagated through to higher trophic levels and substantially boost development and fitness of its specialist parasitoid, Anagyrus lopezi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Field surveys indicate that mealybug performance is highly species-specific and context-dependent. For example, field-level abundance of P. jackbeardsleyi and P. marginatus, was related to measures of soil fertility parameters, soil texture and plant disease incidence. Furthermore, for P. manihoti, in-field abundance is equally associated with soil texture (i.e., silt content). Principal component analysis (PCA) and regression suggested that P. manihoti and P. marginatus are disproportionately favored in low-fertility conditions, while P. jackbeardsleyi prospers in settings with high organic carbon and phosphorus. Parasitism of P. manihoti by A. lopezi varied greatly with field and soil fertility conditions, and was highest in soils with intermediate fertility levels and where management practices include the addition of fertilizer supplements. Our characterization of the relative performance of invasive mealybugs and strength of parasitism across variable soil fertility conditions will help guide parasitoid release programs and soil management practices that enhance mealybug biological control.

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), a serious invasive pest affecting horticultural crops, was first reported in Kenya in 2016 at Kwale, Mombasa, and Kilifi Counties of the coastal region. A study was conducted to establish its identification, distribution and host ranges at the coastal region. This is the first report of P. marginatus distribution and crops attacked in Kenya. The papaya mealybug was found to infest papaya (Carica papaya), cassava (Manihot esculenta), chili pepper (Capsicum annuum), guava (Psidium guajava), mango (Mangifera indica), and eggplant (Solanum melongena) in this study. An average yield loss of 91% on papaya crop was reported in the affected farms. Only 7.2% of the farms surveyed were found to have management strategies in place against the papaya mealybug. Additional surveys should be conducted to determine pest migration and potential endemic or unintentionally introduced natural enemies.

Kutu putih pepaya, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), adalah hama asing invasif yang terdeteksi untuk pertama kalinya di Indonesia pada tahun 2008. Salah satu musuh alami yang umum ditemukan adalah kumbang predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan parameter biologi dan neraca hayati serta pemangsaan C. montrouzieri pada P. marginatus. Pengamatan biologi dan neraca hayati serta pemangsaan dilakukan dengan menempatkan predator C. montrouzieri di dalam cawan Petri yang berisi kutu putih. P. marginatus. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa rataan masa inkubasi telur C. montrouzieri adalah 4,35 hari. Perkembangan larva instar-1, instar-2, instar-3, dan instar-4 secara berurutan berlangsung 4,23; 4,21; 5,84; dan 5,93 hari. Prapupa berlangsung 1,95 hari dan pupa 7,55 hari. Masa hidup imago jantan adalah 51,34 hari, sedangkan betina 83,39 hari. Jumlah telur yang diletakkan oleh satu imago betina rata-rata 198,49 butir. Laju reproduksi bersih (Ro) 117,11 individu/betina/generasi, laju pertambahan intrinsik (rm) 0,073 individu/betina/hari, rataan masa generasi (T) 64,776 hari, masa penggandaan (Dt) 9,426 hari, dan laju pertambahan terbatas (λ) adalah 1,076 per hari. Larva instar-4 C. montrouzieri merupakan fase yang paling rakus, dengan rataan jumlah telur, nimfa instar-1, instar-2, instar-3, dan imago betina kutu putih yang dimangsa per hari berturut-turut 188,0 butir; 53,4; 44,0; 26,8; dan 15,6 individu. Indeks preferensi Manly menunjukkan bahwa larva dan imago C. montrouzieri lebih memilih telur dan nimfa instar-1 P. marginatus dibandingkan dengan fase mangsa lainnya. Hasil penelitian mengindikasikan potensi yang tinggi dari C. montrouzieri dalam pengendalian hayati P. marginatus.

This is an overview of insect pests associated with tropical, subtropical and temperate fruits and vegetables grown in different agro-climatic zones of India. India is known as a fruit basket of world as well as second highest in vegetable production. Fruits and vegetables are attacked by insect pests of Heteroptera, Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. Homopterans are sucking pests that result in decreasing plant vigour and also transmitting more than 260 plant viruses. Bunchy top of banana is transmitted by Pentalonia nigronervosa, potato leaf curl virus by Myzus persicae, papaya ring spot and chilli leaf curl by Bemisia tabaci. Bacterial diseases of plants; Erwinia amylovora is transmitted by wasps and bees, E. carotovora by onion maggot fly and E. tracheiphila by spotted and stripped cucumber beetles. Fruit flies, Bactrocera spp. are the major threats to mango, guava, papaya, peach, pear and cucurbits in India. Major insect pests of fruits are mango hoppers; Idioscopus sp., Amritodus atkinsonii, banana rhizome weevil; Cosmopolites sordidus, papaya mealy bug; Paracoccus marginatus, citrus butterfly; Papilio demoleus, citrus psylla; Diaphorina citri, mealy bug; Ferrisia virgata, stem girdler; Sthenias grisator, San Jose scale; Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, codling moth; Cydia pomonella, and woolly aphid; Eriosoma lanigerum. Other than these, Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura, Plutella xylostella, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Phthorimaea operculella, Tuta absoluta, B. tabaci, Thrips tabaci and Tetranychus urticae are major threat in vegetables production causing enormous losses. Fruitflies, stone weevil, codling moth, potato tuber moth, sweet potato weevil, almond moth, redflour beetle and khapra beetle are mainly affecting produce in storage.

We investigated the suitability of six mealybug species, namely Phenacoccus solenopsis, Saccharicoccus sacchari, Paracoccus marginatus, Drosicha mangiferae, Nipaecoccus viridis and Ferrisia virgata as hosts to Aenasius arizonensis ( = Aenasius bambawalei). The study was conducted to ascertain a viable parasitic relationship between a parasitoid species and different mealybug hosts. Successful parasitization, complete development of immature stages within the host and adult emergence was observed only in P. solenopsis, whereas, other mealybug species were not found suitable as hosts by the parasitoid in both choice and no-choice tests. The development studies of A. arizonensis on P. solenopsis showed that the mean duration from oviposition to mummy formation was 6.13 days, while, from mummy formation to adult emergence, it was 5.43 and 7.05 days for male and female, respectively. The total development period from oviposition to adult emergence was 11.28 days for males and 13.13 days for females. Fe...

The papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara De Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an invasive insect species attacking a diverse range of host plants. It causes an enormous damage to crops including those of very great economic importance including the papaya, being its main host. Considering its potential threat to fruit and crops of economic importance throughout Togo, this study, which was carried out in the laboratory under conditions of 28 ± 2°C, 75 ± 5% RH, 12 : 12 LD, made it possible to determine some biological parameters of P. marginatus, essential for the implementation of management programmes for this species. The results showed that a female of P. marginatus had three periods of reproductive activity, namely pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods which last on average 7.74 ± 1.26; 6.13 ± 3.02 and 7.45 ± 4.27 days respectively. During oviposition, a female P. marginatus lays an average of 25.262 ± 11.16 eggs per day, for an average total of 224.32 ± 29.99 eggs during her lifetime, which averages 18.44 ± 3.31 days. During the post-embryonic development of P. marginatus which lasts on average 25.98 ± 4.47 days for the female against 29.70 ± 5.58 days for the male and which passes through three larval stages, the important mortality rates of the first and second larval stages were noted. They are estimated to an average of 61.40 ± 0.05 and 52.8 ± 0.025 respectively. However, at the third stage, the rate is 35.02 ± 0.03 for the female and zero for the male. These results provide a better understanding of the biology of P. marginatus under local conditions and thus provide a basis for controlling the population of the species and the damage it causes in Togo.

The African apefly (Spalgis lemolea Druce) is a potential natural enemy of the papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink). We studied the life history of apeflies in the laboratory at a temperature of 25&ndash, 27 &deg, C and a relative humidity of 55%&ndash, 65% under a 12 h photoperiod condition. The papaya mealybugs and apefly larvae were collected from papaya plants in Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania. The papaya mealybugs were introduced and allowed to multiply on potted sprouting potato plants in screened cages. In order to study the life cycle and predation of apeflies, an apefly egg was placed on an open screen-covered petri dish containing a moist blotter paper and observed for larva emergence. After the apefly larva emergence, a mixture of mealybug eggs (up to 1500), nymphs (200&ndash, 250) and adults (100&ndash, 150) was introduced in the petri dish each day and the consumption rate by the apefly larvae was quantified until the larvae reached pupal stage. Then, the apefly adults were collected and put into cages 30 cm &times, 30 cm &times, 30 cm containing cotton wool soaked in water, for observation of pre-mating, mating, egg-laying and life span. Results indicate that the apefly completed its life cycle in 23 days. The mean development period of the eggs was four days and the development period for the larva, pre-pupa, and pupa was nine, one and ten days respectively. The adult apefly emerged after 9 days of the pupa stage with mean body lengths of 10.1 &plusmn, 0.4 mm and 11.0 &plusmn, 0.8 mm for the males and females, respectively. The female laid an average of 68 eggs in groups of two to seven at different sites after 4&ndash, 5 days of emergence. In this study one apefly larva was capable of consuming about 1983 &plusmn, 117, 123 &plusmn, 6 and 80 &plusmn, 9 papaya mealybug eggs, nymphs and adults respectively during larval stage. These results reveal the predatory potential of the apefly in suppressing the population of papaya mealybugs under field conditions.

This review compiled published information on a rare butterfly, namely Apefly (Spalgis spp) in order to conserve it and explore its potential for managing papaya mealybugs (PM) (Pracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink), which attack various crop varieties of economic importance worldwide, causing a yield loss of up to 100% in Sub Saharan Africa. One of the biggest challenges behind PM management is its ability to form a wax coat that makes it difficult for chemicals used in pest management to suppress the PM once they have attacked the crops. This review provides a comprehensive description of different Spalgis species, their distribution and how they can be used to control PMs to reduce the losses of crops in Sub Saharan Africa. About 29% of the cited literature in this review indicates the Indian Apefly (Spalgis epius) to be intensively studied with explicit information of its biological control potential. The African Apefly (Spalgis lemolea) has been mentioned by 16.8% of the cited literature with limited or without detailed information ot its biological control potential. Thus, this review recommends research on understanding the biological control potential and other key information such as the life cycles, biology, diversity and ecology of the African Apefly so that the information that will be obtained can be used to design strategies towards conservation of Apefly (Spalgis lemolea. Druce) and biological management of papaya mealybug in Sub Saharan Africa. Keywords: Papaya mealybugs, Bio-control, Butterfly, Pest, Host range, Species conservation

WOS: 000434067300029, Poverty is a multi-dimensional global phenomenon. It encompasses health, housing, education, and social exclusion as well as simple incomes and expenditures. Multidimensional poverty is currently at the heart of many theoretical, empirical and institutional debates. The study was carried out in a rural settlement of Konya province in Turkey to determine the rural population's poverty structure and to quantify different general characteristics of both the poor and non-poor population according to the poverty line (relative poverty based household income-monetary approach) and asset based wealth index approach The results showed that, there was strong similarity between the income based approach and asset based wealth index approach for most factors. The source of income for the people in the study area was from non-agricultural sector and the material deprivation is also an important factor for wealth. It was found that non-agricultural income was higher in the wealth group (75-100%) than the other groups under study. The poor and low income households have high number of animals These kinds of enterprises were mostly located in the high altitude areas which were not appropriate for crop production. It can be concluded in the light of investigated results that poverty is more prevalent in harsh geographical locations., Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock as R&D Project in Turkey [TAGEM/09/AR-GE/12], The data of the study was compiled from the Project "Poverty Analysis in Agricultural Holding in Rural Area of Konya and Modeling the Appropriate Strategies" supported by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock as R&D Project (TAGEM/09/AR-GE/12) in Turkey.

The laboratory experiment was conducted at the laboratory of the Department of Entomology, Bangladesh Agricultural University to determine the effectiveness of polythene band, predatory ladybird beetles (available species found in Bangladesh viz. Coccinella transversalis (F.), Micraspis discolor (F.), Menochilus sexmaculatus (F.), Cyclonida sanguinea, Adalia bipunctata, Coccinella novemnotata and Illeis koebelei), four chemical insecticides and three botanical oils in controlling papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink. The chemical insecticides were Sevin 85 SP, Dimethoate 40 EC, Fipronil 50 EC, Deltamethrin 2.5 EC, and the botanical oils were Neem oil, Mahogany oil and Karanja oil. In the laboratory experiment, polythene banding failed to prevent the plant from the infestation of papaya mealybug. Seven commonly available species of ladybird beetles in Bangladesh did not provide any control to papaya mealybug. Among the chemical insecticides, Sevin 85 SP and Dimethoate 40 EC showed significant mortality of papaya mealybug. Deltamethrin 2.5 EC and Neem oil (2%) provided moderate control of the pest. The remaining insecticides and botanical oils were less effective to control papaya mealybug. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol, Vol 3(4): 687-691

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a polyphagous pest that damages many tropical crops. It is a native of Central America and spread to the Caribbean region and South America in the 1990s; since then it has accidentally been introduced to some islands in the Pacific region and some countries in Africa and Asia. We recorded its presence in China for the first time in 2013 from Guangdong Province and Yunnan Province in southern and southwestern China, respectively. Our genetic analysis revealed that only 1 haplotype of P. marginatus has been recorded in all of Asia, including China, reflecting the very recent invasion of P. marginatus in Asia. This study also includes a summary of the global geographical distribution of P. marginatus.

External symptoms of mycosis, chronological developments and duration of mycosis by entomopathogenenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii and Metarhizium anisopliae on mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus was studied at in vitro condition. Variations were observed in timing and duration of the different phases of mycosis. The mycosis cycle of entomopathogenic fungi was faster in M. anisopliae and B. bassiana treated P. marginatus but it was slower in V. lecanii. The M. anisopliae killed the insect faster than B. bassiana and V. lecanii. There were no variations observed in conidiogenesis phase in all the three entomopathogenic fungi. Disintegrated cuticle structure was observed at the end of the mycosis cycle.

Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is one of the papaya insect pests that causes high economic loss. The major constraint in controling this pest with insecticides is the existence of wax layer covering the insect body.The objective of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of Piper retrofractum (Pr), Anonna squamosa (As), and Tephrosia vogelii (Tv) extracts as well as their mixtures to control P. marginatus imago in the laboratory. Pr, As, and Tv extracts were tested separately and in extract mixtures against female P. marginatus by direct spray on the insect. Each treatment was observed at 24, 48, and 72 hours after treatment (HAT). Our result showed that at the LC95 – 72 HAT, Tv and As extracts were about three times more effective to P. marginatus than Pr extract. The effective concentration that causing around 95% mortality of P. marginatus are 1.250% (Tv), 1.482% (Pr), dan 0.469% (As). Extracts mixtures of Tv + As (2:1, w/w) and As + Ps (2 : 1, w/w) were about 1.67 times more effective than Tv + Pr (2:1, w/w) extracts mixtures. Based on combination index at 72 HST, extract mixtures of Tv + As and Tv + Pr had low sinergistic joint action, meanwhile As + Pr extract mixture had additive joint action. In addition, all the extracts treatments disturbed the formation of the wax coverings the eggs (egg sacs). Pr, As, and Tv extracts as well as their mixtures at certain extract comparison have the alternate potential to control the mealybug P. marginatus.

A field survey as well as market survey on Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink) was conducted in different regions of Bangladesh to know the infestation level, economic loss, and common management practices used by farmers to control this insect. Field survey revealed that more than one third of the papaya plants were affected by papaya mealybug and papaya growers faced a great economic loss. Severe infestation of papaya mealybug was also found in the nurseries of the survey areas. Market survey indicated that the retailers faced difficulties to sell infested papaya fruit. Seven plants other than papaya were recorded to which papaya mealybug also attacked. The plants were Hog plum ( Sponolia spinnata ), Chili ( Capsicum frutescence ), Okra ( Abelmoscus esculentus ), Brinjal ( Solanum melongena ), Guava ( Psidium melongena ), Velvet-apple ( Diospyros blancoi ) and Hibiscus ( Hibiscus rosa-scinensis ). The farmers of the survey area used several chemical insecticides indiscriminately against the papaya mealybug and did not get satisfactory control. Some indigenous pest management tactics were also used against papaya mealybug including the use of wood ash and bark extract of mahogany tree. Progress. Agric. 2014. 25: 17-22

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Pseudococcidae) has been found in Israel for the first time. This is also the first record of this invasive species in the Western Palaearctic region. The mealybug was detected at two locations in Northern Israel and was not accompanied by its principal natural enemies. Paracoccus marginatus is highly polyphagous and may develop large populations in Israel on annona, hibiscus, mulberry, papaya and the invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus.

Mulberry is a silkworm food plant (Bombyxmori. L) that is seriously affected by many insect pests. The incidence of Diaphania pulverulentalis (Hampson), Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink), Aleurodiscus dispersus (Russels) and Pseudodendrothrips mori (Niwa) and their natural enemies, viz. coccinellids and spiders (/100 plants), were observed through survey and surveillance for 3 months. In February 2013, the incidence of insect pests in Vaikkalpattarai and Reddipudur villages (India) was: D. pulverulentalis, 1.20 and 0.85%; P. marginatus, 6.80 and 33.10%; P. mori 42.98 and 45.50%, respectively. Further, the infestation of M. hirsutus (1.40%) and A. dispersus (59.72%) was also observed in February at Vaikkalpattarai. The population of coccinellids was high in December (1.02 and 0.84/100 plants), but the spider population was even higher in February and January (1.04 and 1.81/100 plants). Population of pests had a significant positive correlation with relative humidity. The population of coccinellids and spiders have positive correlation with temperature and mulberry pests infestation. The natural enemies observed in the study were mostly the ladybird beetles, Psyllobora bisoctonotata and unidentified species of spiders.

Jatropha cultivation is gaining importance as potential source of biofuel. Recently Paracoccus marginatus has been found to cause serious damage on Jatropha. Studies on the biology and management of P. marginatus at GKVK, Bangalore revealed that the females had three nymphal instars without any pupal stage, while the male had three nymphal instars besides, pre-pupal and pupal stages. The total nymphal period for female ranged from 14 to 21 days, (mean- 17.32±1.6 days) while for male the range was 16 to 23 days, (mean- 18.9±1.3 days). Bisexual and parthenogenetic modes of reproduction were observed. The fecundity of the female mealybug ranged from 248 to 967, with an average of 618.9±19 eggs. Evaluation of insecticides revealed that during first spray and second spray, mean per cent reduction of mealy bug population was highest in profenophos 0.05% (68.05 and 79.35) followed by buprofezin 0.025% (63.61 and 72.69). Least per cent reduction of mealy bug was observed in the NSKE 5% (17.94 and 25.77) treatment.

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), highly polyphagous and now widespread, was discovered in Mengla County, Yunnan Province, China. The present study is aimed at confirming the identity of P. marginatus in mainland China based on its morphology and using molecular methods. Mitochondrial genes for cytochrome oxidase I (CO-I) were sequenced from 2 samples of P. marginatus. Homologous DNA sequences of P. marginatus, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley and Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) - as an outgroup -were downloaded from Gen Bank. The morphology of putative P. marginatus specimens was examined using the same specimens as were subsequently used for the molecular study. Key morphological traits are described and illustrated. A 746 bp fragment of the CO-I was analyzed for the identification of P. marginatus. A phylogenetic tree was generated with the DNA sequences of all the mealybug species used in this study. The tree inclu...