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This study determined the extent to which bovine longissimus lumborum muscle (LLM) myofibers are influenced by nutrition for 120 d from weaning and the time-course of recovery after severe postweaning nutritional restriction. After weaning, 3 groups of Belmont Red cattle, a tropically adapted breed, were fed to achieve rapid growth (RG,or =0.6 kg of BW gain/d; n = 16), slow growth (SG, 0.2 kg of BW gain/d; n = 17), or BW loss (WL, 10% loss of weaning weight; n = 17) over 120 d. They were then grazed as 1 group at pasture with forage supplementation for 600 d until slaughter at approximately 500 kg of BW. Samples of LLM were taken from 8 to 12 animals per treatment 6 d before (baseline) and 115, 204, 324, and 476 d after commencement of the study and from all cattle at slaughter (d 721). Myofiber characteristics were determined by immunocytochemical staining of myosin heavy chains. Cross-sectional areas (CSA) of the major myofiber types 1, 2A, and 2X in WL were reduced at d 115 compared with baseline and with the growth groups (all P0.001); however, there was little difference in the percentage of the different myofiber types (all P0.10). Differences in CSA of the major myofiber types between WL and the growth groups at 115 d were smallest for type 1 (slow oxidative) and greatest for type 2X (fast glycolytic). Consequently, the relative area (percentage of total myofiber area) of type 1 myofibers in WL was significantly greater at 115 d than in the growth groups (P0.001). During recovery from postweaning nutritional restriction, significant differences in major myofiber type percentages were not evident (all P0.10), and by 721 d CSA of myofiber types differed little between the treatment groups, although SG had greater CSA of type 1 (P0.05) and type 2A (P0.01) myofibers than WL and RG. At 721 d, the relative area of type 2A myofibers was less in WL compared with SG (P0.01) and RG (P0.05) and of type 2X myofibers greater (P0.05) in WL compared with SG. It is concluded that in the LLM of cattle undergoing severe nutritional restriction immediately postweaning, the size of the more glycolytic fiber types is more adversely affected than the more oxidative types, resulting in an increased relative area of type 1, slow oxidative myofibers. However, given adequate time and nutriment at pasture, LLM myofiber characteristics of cattle recovered to near normal after severe, chronic nutritional restriction immediately postweaning, consistent with earlier findings for beef quality.

The high molecular weight glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) is an essential component of the extracellular matrix (ECM), however, the link between HA regulation and development of the adipocyte ECM, which is essential for differentiation, remains undefined. Hyaluronan synthase gene expression, HA synthetic rate and molecular weight during differentiation of 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were compared to undifferentiated 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes and non-adipogenic NIH/3T3 fibroblasts. In the 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes, the predominant genes associated with HA metabolism were found to be HA synthase-2 (Has-2) and hyaluronidase-2 (Hyal-2) demonstrating a co-regulation of expression which was stimulated by adipogenic induction consequently resulting in increased synthesis of high molecular weight HA (>10 MDa) and its simultaneous degradation. Accumulation of HA correlated positively with cell number, although synthetic rate was inversely related suggesting a regulatory feedback mechanism. Within 24 h post-induction, pre-adipocytes responded with a higher HA synthetic rate and later, accumulated cytoplasmic lipid. In contrast, undifferentiated pre-adipocytes had a reduced HA synthetic rate during clonal expansion and did not accumulate lipid. HA was continuously and rapidly metabolised throughout 3T3-L1 adipogenesis, where terminal differentiation coincided with the increased generation of low molecular weight, angiogenic HA fragments, a likely prerequisite for concurrent neovascularisation of adipose tissue. This study has highlighted a relationship between HA metabolism and adipocyte differentiation, suggesting that the balance between the formation and regulation of the adipocyte extracellular matrix is finely coordinated in a growth phase-specific dependent manner.

Connective tissue has recently been found to play a role in mediating mammalian skeletal muscle atrophy. We investigated connective tissue remodelling in the skeletal muscle of a species of the Australian burrowing frog, Cyclorana alboguttata. Despite being inactive whilst aestivating, the frog shows an inhibition of muscle atrophy. Connective tissue size and distribution was measured in histological sections of the cruralis muscle of control and aestivating C. alboguttata. Using a custom written software application we could detect no significant difference in any connective tissue morphological parameter between the two treatment groups. Biochemical measurements of gelatinase activity showed 2-fold higher activity in aestivating gastrocnemius muscle than in controls (p < 0.001). We measured the messenger RNA transcript levels for C. alboguttata metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP2) in cruralis skeletal muscle using quantitative real-time PCR. The trend of reduced expression of the two genes in the aestivators did not meet statistical significance. This work indicates that aestivation in C. alboguttata leads to subtle and specific changes in some extracellular matrix remodelling factors. Their main impact is to maintain proportional representation of extracellular matrix components of skeletal muscle and therefore preserve the active frog phenotype.

The effect of growth path, as opposed to advancing age, on the biophysical and biochemical properties of muscle connective tissue was investigated. Nine-month old Brahman-cross steers were grown across either an uninterrupted path, or paths that incorporated weight-loss and then weight gain on two different diets: one group was realimented on pasture, whilst the other was realimented on a grain-based diet. Biophysical attributes of connective tissue toughness (Compression and Adhesion) in the semitendinosus muscle, were significantly reduced by treatment (P

A major aim of the research program known as SheepGENOMICS was to deliver DNA markers for commercial breeding programs. To that end, a resource flock was established, comprehensively phenotyped and genotyped with DNA markers. The flock of nearly 5000 sheep, born over two consecutive years, was extensively phenotyped, with more than 100 recorded observations being made on most of the animals. This generated more than 460 000 records over 17 months of gathering information on each animal. Here, we describe the experimental design and sample-collection procedures, and provide a summary of the basic measurements taken. Data from this project are being used to identify collections of genome markers for estimating genomic breeding values for new sheep industry traits.

Based on an association with extracellular matrix remodelling, mitosis, proliferation and adipogenic differentiation, the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) was assessed as a marker for intramuscular fat (IMF) development (marbling) in bovine loin muscle (longissimus dorsi, LD). Loin samples collected from the quartering site of feedlot-finished Wagyu–Angus and Jersey–Limousin steers were assayed for percentage IMF (IMF%) and HA after assignment of AUS-MEAT marbling scores. There was a moderate phenotypic correlation (r2 = 0.69) between IMF% and marbling score but little variance was explained by HA concentration. Breed was not a significant factor in marbling score or IMF% but did influence the HA concentration of the LD, with Wagyu–Angus steers having 2-fold more HA than Jersey–Limousin steers at the same marbling score. The non-linear decline in fat-adjusted HA levels as marbling score increased suggests that HA concentration was associated with lean growth potential of the muscle rather than adipogenesis. Using a different experimental approach, differences in distribution and amount of HA could not be discerned in histological sections of LD from age-matched Wagyu–Hereford heifers allocated to a low (score 1) or medium (score 3) marbling score group. These findings were consistent with the absence of differences between the two groups for other indicators of fatness (IMF% and P8 fat depth), maturity and myofibre characteristics despite an increase in oxidative capacity of the muscle with age. The data support the conclusion that the concentration of HA in the LD alone was not predictive of development of intramuscular fat.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) for which there is ample evidence of human health benefits, and these are also the fatty acids for which there are cut-off points for ‘source’ and ‘good source’ claims. Two consecutive experiments were conducted to determine the effect of finishing systems on the n-3 PUFA content of lamb meat in Western Australia. In experiment I, a 4-week feeding experiment was conducted using 48 Poll Dorset × Merino lambs. The lambs were divided into two lots of 24 (12 males and 12 females) and randomly assigned to either concentrate (C1) finishing on commercial lamb finishing pellets or pasture (P) finishing on kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) pasture. In experiment II, 28 lambs were divided into two groups of 14 lambs (seven males and seven females) and assigned to finishing either on concentrate pellets (C2) or concentrate pellets plus linseed (C2-L). This second experiment was conducted indoors for 10 weeks. The initial liveweight (mean ± s.e.) of the lambs was 43 ± 0.6 and 32.5 ± 0.9 kg for experiments I and II, respectively. At the end of experiment II, three chops each were sampled from the leg, loin, forequarter and neck region of each carcass. The final liveweight (42 ± 0.8 v. 50 ± 1.2 kg), hot carcass weight (19 ± 0.5 v. 24 ± 0.7 kg) and GR depth (5.6 ± 0.6 v. 12.8 ± 0.6 mm) were lower (P < 0.05) for P than C1 lambs. In contrast, C2 and C2-L lambs had similar final liveweight (44 ± 0.7 v. 45 ± 0.9 kg), hot carcass weight (19 ± 0.3 v. 20 ± 0.5 kg) and GR depth (13 ± 1.3 v. 14 ± 1.2 mm). In experiment I, the total n-3 PUFA yields for C1 and P lambs in the M. longissimus lumborum were 67 ± 2.5 and 78 ± 3.2 mg per 100 g muscle, respectively. The EPA plus DHA yields were 17 and 21 mg per 100 g muscle, respectively. The sum of the long-chain (≥C20) n-3 PUFA EPA, docosapentaenoic acid and DHA for C1 and P lambs were 30 and 37 mg per 100 g, respectively. Sex had no effect on any of the n-3 fatty acids. In experiment II, the total n-3 PUFA yields for C2 lambs were 61, 54, 60 and 104 mg per 100 g for leg, loin, forequarter and neck chops, respectively. The respective values for C2-L lambs were 153, 138, 139 and 178 mg per 100 g muscle. The claimable EPA plus DHA yields for C2 lambs were 13, 10, 12 and 15 mg per 100 g of trimmed leg, loin, forequarter and neck chops, respectively. The respective values for C2-L lambs were around 2-fold higher at 27, 21, 25 and 23 mg per 100 g raw meat. All the samples from pasture-finished and linseed-supplemented groups met the 30 mg cut-off point for ‘source’ claim in Australia when the computation was based on 100 g cooked lamb serve (140 g raw). We conclude that pasture-finished lambs have more n-3 PUFA per serve than their counterparts finished indoors on commercial pellets. Further, supplementing indoor-finished lambs with linseed provided equivalent n-3 PUFA per serve to finishing lambs on pasture. Supplementation with an omega-3 source improved omega-3 per serve across the whole carcass irrespective of sex.

The effects of sire genetics and growth path on the fascicular structure (FS) of lamb loin muscle (m. longissimus lumborum; LL) and the consequences for eating quality were studied in progeny (n = 299) of 20 Poll Dorset sires and Merino ewes. Sires were selected on the basis of their Australian sheep breeding values (ASBV) for post-weaning growth (PWWT), loin eye muscle depth (PEMD) and subcutaneous fat (PFAT). Growth of lambs was varied by time of weaning (early or late) and by feeding level within weaning group, where lambs were either fully fed throughout or were feed restricted for 55 days then re-alimented to achieve liveweight of ~45 kg at slaughter. The FS variables were determined in differentially stained histological sections of LL by using automated image segmentation and circle geometry methodology and were defined as percentage connective tissue, perimysial seam thickness and fascicular width. Sire ASBV was not a significant covariate to measures of FS, despite ASBV-related effects on growth, carcass leanness and fatness. Independent of weaning time, faster growth was induced by re-alimentation of feed-restricted lambs, resulting in LL with less connective tissue as a percentage of cross-sectional area and larger fascicles than for fully fed peers. The direction of the perimysial seam thickness response varied with treatment and time of weaning. Rapid growth of re-alimented early weaned restricted lambs resulted in thinner seams than for fully fed peers, whereas the opposite response was observed in the late-weaned lamb contrast. This suggests that the weight and age of the lamb at the time of nutritional compromise and re-alimentation are important factors in determining the thickness of perimysial connective-tissue seams. Whilst the evidence confirms differential accretion of the myofibrillar and connective tissues and despite reports of positive effects on tenderness brought about by such changes, variation in structural measures was not associated with variation in either objective measures (compression) or sensory scores for tenderness of the loin muscle. The data from the present study support the tenet that rapid growth before slaughter, combined with appropriate sire genetics, will not compromise the physical characteristics and sensory qualities of the meat.

The purpose of this study was to determine if estimated breeding value (EBV) of an animal’s sire and or the animal’s nutrition affected the structure of its M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LL) and, hence, the eating quality of meat derived from its carcass. Lambs were chosen based on the EBV of their sires in terms of post-weaning live weight (PWWT), post weaning fat at the C-site (PFAT), and post-weaning eye muscle depth (PEMD). Morphometric techniques were used to characterise muscle structure in terms of the distribution of intramuscular connective tissue; the variables together are called fascicular structure. Perimysial seam thickness and fascicular width were both influenced by sire estimated breeding values for PWWT, PFAT, and PEMD. Variation in fascicular structure was associated with an interaction between PEMD-EBV and PFAT-EBV of the sire. Fascicular width decreased with increased PEMD-EBV and increased with PFAT-EBV, but was not affected by PWWT-EBV. When the total seam thickness was adjusted to a common fascicular width, the lambs on a low plane of nutrition had relatively more intramuscular connective tissue than those on a high plane. The total seam thickness was negatively associated with PFAT-EBV and positively associated with PEMD-EBV. Warner Bratzler shear (WBS) peak force (PF) and initial yield were not associated with differences in sire EBV. The residual WBS shear force, peak force minus initial yield (PFIY), and compression values were negatively associated with nutrition but were positively associated with PWWT-EBV and PEMD-EBV of the sires. These latter 2 effects were moderated by nutrition. The data support the hypothesis that morphological characteristics of perimysium are genetically determined and nutritionally responsive. Variance in morphology accounted for some variance in the biophysical attributes of meat and may help explain why sheep with high muscling potential have tougher meat.

This study investigates pre-weaning growth of cattle and its effect on biochemical and histochemical markers of muscle development and subsequent biophysical attributes of eating quality. Combinations of cow (late pregnancy to mid-lactation) and pre-weaning (varying duration of access to a high-energy ration) supplementation were used to vary calf growth to weaning in 6 treatment groups. After weaning, calves were grazed together on pasture (backgrounding) and then grown rapidly on a feedlot ration (finishing) until slaughter. Biochemical and myofibre characteristics were determined in semitendinosus muscle samples collected just prior to weaning (7 months), at the end of backgrounding (13 months), and at slaughter (17 months). The concentration of sarcoplasmic protein and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase in the muscle at weaning were associated with differences in pre-weaning growth and both variables correlated positively with liveweight at weaning. Isocitrate dehydrogenase activity varied with sex, not treatment, at weaning and at the end of backgrounding. The size of myofibres at weaning related to differences in growth path and correlated positively with liveweight. Pre-weaning growth effects on these characteristics were not evident at slaughter. Biophysical properties of the meat were not affected by earlier growth path treatment, and were not correlated with biochemical characteristics or myofibre type profile. Variation in both shear peak force and adhesion was related to sex. We conclude that the effects of divergent early life growth do not persist 10 months after weaning, at least in meat quality characteristics.