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Numerous studies have evaluated the composition of gut microbiota in experimental animals fed high-fat or low-fiber diets. However, few reports have focused on the effects of different fatty acid (FA) compositions on the diversity of gut microbiota and its metabolites. Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate the effects of different dietary fats on liver mRNA expression levels of genes related to cholesterol and bile acid (BA) metabolism, as well as to investigate cecal microbiota composition and bacterial metabolites composition in rats. Four-week-old male Wistar/ST rats were fed a 15% fat diet for 30 days, including from different sources (soybean oil, lard, menhaden oil, or tuna oil). Then, the rats' cecal microbiota composition was determined by sequencing the 16S ribosomal RNA gene using next-generation sequencing. Lard diet drastically decreased the expression level of liver ATP-binding cassette subfamily G genes (Abcg5 and Abcg8 genes) compared with other diets. Menhaden oil diet increased the fecal BA excretion compared with soybean oil and lard diets. Fecal BA excretion tended to be positively correlated with the relative abundance of Firmicutes, and negatively correlated with the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes. These results have shown that dietary fats with different FA compositions have a different effect on the relative composition of cecal microbiota, and in particular, menhaden oil may have very different effects compared to other experimental fats. The effects of fish oils on the cecal microbiota may differ greatly depending on the ratio of EPA to DHA and the composition of FA other than n-3 polyunsaturated FA. Our results provided new insights on the way different dietary fat sources affect sterol metabolism and alter cecal microbiota composition in rats.

Vegetable oils such as linseed oil are commonly used in retail trade and artists’ oil and alkyd paints, but examination of historic trade literature from the 19th and 20th centuries suggests that paint manufacturers in the USA also used fish oils, especially from menhaden (Brevoortia sp.). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry of menhaden oil samples provided by Werner G Smith Inc., a modern company that supplies menhaden oil to the coatings industry, reveal a fatty acid profile distinct from that of vegetable oils. Menhaden oil has high levels of myristic acid, low levels of lauric acid and a high palmitic to stearic acid ratio and so is readily distinguished from vegetable oils by either of these methods. Historic paint recipes indicate that menhaden oils were often mixed with vegetable oils, so to establish detection limits we analyzed combinations of menhaden oil and either linseed, safflower or sunflower oils by GC–MS; the high levels of myristic acid remain characteristic in mixtures containing only 20% menhaden oil. A selection of historic artists’ paints pre-dating 1970 and paint samples taken from paintings dating from the 1950s and 1960s were analyzed to determine if fish oils could be detected. Fish oils may be present in historic artists’ paints, including those made by the Bocour Company, and in paintings by American artists Franz Kline, Barnett Newman, David Smith, and Andy Warhol. This is the first positive identification of fish oils in historic artists’ paints and 20th century artworks.

Lifestyle habits, such as the consumption of a healthy diet, may prevent up to 30&ndash, 50% of breast cancer (BC) cases. Dietary fats are of specific interest, as research provides strong evidence regarding the association of dietary fats and BC. However, there is limited research on the role of different types of fats including polyunsaturated (PUFA), monounsaturated (MUFA), and saturated (SFA). The objective of this study was to determine the effects of lifelong exposure to various dietary fats on mammary tumour development over a 20-week period. Female heterozygous MMTV-neu (ndl) YD5 mouse models were fed five maternal diets containing (1) 10% safflower oil (n-6 PUFA, control), (2) 3% menhaden oil + 7% safflower oil (marine n-3 PUFA, control), (3) 3% flaxseed + 7% safflower oil (plant-based n-3 PUFA), (4) 10% olive oil (MUFA), or (5) 10% lard (SFA). The primary measures, tumour latency, volume, and multiplicity differed by diet treatment in the following general order, n-6 PUFA &gt, plant n-3 PUFA, SFA, MUFA &gt, marine n-3 PUFA. Overall, these findings show that the quality of the diet plays a significant role influencing mammary tumour outcomes.

Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus are an abundant member of the family Clupeidae. This fish is essential to the ecology of the Chesapeake Bay and coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean, providing the trophic link between plankton and the menhaden’s predators. These predators include the important sportfish striped bass (Morone saxatilis), other game fish, various piscivorous birds, and dolphins. Native Americans and early European colonists harvested the fish on a small scale to manure agricultural fields and feed pigs and chickens. New Englanders brought the menhaden reduction industry to the Chesapeake Bay in the 1870s. This led to the creation of the largest fishery on the East Coast of the US. The inedible menhaden were harvested en masse and processed to yield the commodities of fish meal and fish oil. In the early twentieth Century, fossil fuels took market share from both products, artificial N-fertilizer replacing fish meal, and kerosene replacing menhaden oil. The fish meal and oil became staples for the newly developed industry of concentrated animal feeding operations for chickens and pigs. The late twentieth and early twentyfirst centuries saw another shift in use of these products. Most of the fish meal and some of the oil went as feed to the lucrative and rapidly expanding global animal aquaculture industry. Most of the fish oil went to the new market of dietary supplements for the prevention of heart disease. Despite new evidence questioning the efficacy of fish oil for this medicinal application, the market remains strong. Mid-twentieth Century advances in mechanized harvesting of menhaden contributed to overharvesting that reduced the population well below historical levels. Political pressure from the industry and its allies restrains management measures. Sport fishers and conservationists advocate for reduced fishing pressure. The menhaden reduction industry provides important economic opportunities to a rural region and African American workers. A shift away from the animal product centered standard American diet may reduce the importance of this industry, returning menhaden to its prominent role in the natural food chain of the Chesapeake Bay.

Lipids requirement of tropical gar Atractosteus tropicus prejuveniles and juveniles was evaluated on growth, survival, chemical composition and apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC). Four semi-purified experimental diets (5, 10, 15 and 20% of lipids) were obtained with a mix of menhaden oil and soybean lecithin (2:1 ratio). Two trials were carried out, first with 600 prejuveniles of 0.5 g (35 days post-hatching, dph) for 56 days, and the second with 160 juveniles of 15 g (two-months-old) for 42 days. In the first trial, 15 (40.8 g) and 20% (40.2 g) lipid diets showed the best weight. Significant differences were obtained in condition factor (CF), daily lipid intake (DLI), hepatosomatic index (HSI), crude protein, ashes, nitrogen-free extract, moisture and ether extract between treatments. In the second trial, fish fed with the 10% lipid diet obtained the highest weight (89.1 g) compared with the other treatments. Significant differences were recorded for weight gain (WG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), specific growth rate (SGR), condition factor (CF), and lipid efficiency rate (LER). Also, significant differences were obtained in crude protein, ether extract, NFE, gross energy, apparent lipid ADC, protein ADC and dry matter ADC. The polynomial models applied to both trials indicated an optimum lipid requirement of 17% for 0.5 g juveniles and of 9% for 15.2 g juveniles.

In sows, n-3 fatty acids increase litter sizes, however, effects on gilt reproductive development have not been adequately studied. Moreover, not determined are effects of feeding n-3 fatty acids to sows on reproduction in offspring. The objective here was to determine effects of 4% dietary menhaden oil on growth and puberty in gilts farrowed by sows fed menhaden oil. Sows (n = 44) were assigned to: (1) control gestation and lactation diets, or (2) diets including menhaden oil. For primiparous sows only, total litter size and born alive were greater (P < 0.05) in females fed menhaden oil. Conversely, pigs from primiparous controls were heavier (P < 0.05) than pigs from primiparous sows fed menhaden oil (parity by diet interactions, P < 0.01). Diet did not affect (P > 0.20) other sow and litter characteristics. At weaning, 84 gilts from control- or menhaden oil sows were placed three gilts per pen and provided control diets or diets containing menhaden oil. Nursery and grow-finish feed intake and feed efficiency were similar (P > 0.21) for gilts from the different sows and weight gain was similar (P > 0.24) for gilts fed control or menhaden diets. Gilts fed menhaden oil tended to eat less in the nursery (1.18±0.08 kg v. 0.98±0.08 kg; P = 0.09) and overall (1.83±0.04 kg v. 1.72±0.04 kg; P = 0.06). Thus, overall feed to gain was greater (2.52±0.03 v. 2.33±0.03; P < 0.01) and nursery (2.12±0.04 v. 1.80±0.04; P = 0.10) and grow-finish (3.07±0.19 v. 2.58±0.19; P = 0.08) feed to gain tended to be greater, for control gilts. Age at puberty was greater (P = 0.02) for gilts from menhaden oil-fed sows (205.1±3.2 days) compared to gilts from controls (193.9±3.2 days) and tended to be greater (P = 0.09), for controls (203.5±3.2 days) compared to gilts fed menhaden oil (195.5±3.2 days). A tendency existed (P = 0.09) for greater follicular fluid in gilts fed menhaden oil, however, ovulation rate and ovarian, luteal and uterine weights were not affected by sow diet, gilt diet or the interaction (P > 0.23). Feeding gilts menhaden oil enhanced feed efficiency and hastened puberty onset. Gilts from sows consuming menhaden oil exhibited delayed puberty and retaining females from sows fed this feedstuff may be ill advised.

Leaching of the internal phase during storage is a concern of microencapsulated products. This research proposes encapsulation of oleogels to reduce leaching and improve oxidative stability of the lipids. Oleogels were produced using a phytosterol blend of β-sitosterol/γ-oryzanol or a blend of sucrose stearate/ascorbyl palmitate (SSAP) as oleogelators, and menhaden oil or structured lipid (SL) prepared from menhaden oil and caprylic and/or stearic acid as the lipid phase. The SL were produced enzymatically using the biocatalyst Lipozyme® 435, a recombinant lipase from Candida antarctica. Menhaden oil, SL, or respective phytosterol or SSAP oleogels, were encapsulated in alginate microparticles using a double emulsion method. Encapsulation efficiency (EE), morphology, oxidative stability, percent leaching, and other physicochemical properties were determined. Encapsulation of phytosterol or SSAP oleogels increased the EE for all lipids, from 89.6 to 91.3% for microcapsules containing only the lipid phases and from 95.7 to 99.2% for microcapsules containing the oleogels. Encapsulation of oleogels significantly reduced leaching, from 16.3-18.5% to 3.3–11.9%. Microencapsulated products had higher Oil Stability Index values (19.75–29.18 h) than the non-microencapsulated lipids (4.37–17.55 h), when measured at 80 °C. These microcapsules may find use as stable nutraceuticals or in fortification of food products with stabilized omega-3 fatty acids.

Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) was used in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at part per billion levels in fish oil samples collected from menhaden fish. The method was initially developed using fish oil from capsules spiked with a standard PAH mixture. The final HS-SPME-GC-MS method presented a linear range from 3 to 1,500 ng/g, with precision for most analytes

Dietary lipids serve as important sources of energy and essential fatty acids for aquatic animals. Sources of animal and plant oils are increasingly limited as well as expensive, and dietary requirements associated with the inclusion of these oils must be carefully evaluated to facilitate sustainable and affordable formulations. In this study, we investigated quantities of menhaden oil (MO) with and without soybean lecithin or soybean oil (SO) to determine appropriate levels for optimal somatic growth for pre-gonadal juvenile Lytechinus variegatus . We prepared semi-purified diets that varied in neutral lipid content (0, 2, 4, or 8% dry matter) and soy lecithin (0 or 2%) and exchanged lipids reciprocally with purified starch while holding constant all other nutrients. We maintained laboratory-reared juvenile L. variegatus (average initial wet weight 82 ± 0.7 mg, mean ± SE, n = 9 treatment − 1 ) in recirculating seawater systems and fed each daily a sub-satiation ration for five weeks. We assessed wet weights and test diameters every two weeks and at the end of the experiment (5 weeks). Level of MO with or without soybean lecithin did not significantly affect wet weight gain; however, increasing levels of SO in the diet reduced wet weight gain and dry matter production efficiency and increased feed conversion ratio. Dry gut weight was positively correlated with level of MO. Lipid level in the gut increased with increasing dietary lipid level, regardless of source. These data suggest the composition of the SO is inhibitory for either nutrient absorption or metabolic processes associated with growth at this life stage. Diets containing total lipid levels of approximately 5 to 6% that include sources of n − 3 fatty acids may support optimal growth for pre-gonadal juvenile L. variegatus . Statement of relevance Soybean oil reduces growth by reducing production efficiency.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of supplementing the diet of a mouse model of type 2 diabetes with menhaden (fish) oil or daily treatment with resolvin D1 on diabetic neuropathy. The end points evaluated included motor and sensory nerve conduction velocity, thermal sensitivity, innervation of sensory nerves in the cornea and skin, and the retinal ganglion cell complex thickness. Menhaden oil is a natural source for n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been shown to have beneficial effects in other diseases. Resolvin D1 is a metabolite of docosahexaenoic acid and is known to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. To model type 2 diabetes, mice were fed a high-fat diet for 8 wk followed by a low dosage of streptozotocin. After 8 wk of hyperglycemia, mice in experimental groups were treated for 6 wk with menhaden oil in the diet or daily injections of 1 ng/g body wt resolvin D1. Our findings show that menhaden oil or resolvin D1 did not improve elevated blood glucose, HbA1C, or glucose utilization. Untreated diabetic mice were thermal hypoalgesic, had reduced motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, had decreased innervation of the cornea and skin, and had thinner retinal ganglion cell complex. These end points were significantly improved with menhaden oil or resolvin D1 treatment. Exogenously, resolvin D1 stimulated neurite outgrowth from primary cultures of dorsal root ganglion neurons from normal mice. These studies suggest that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from fish oil could be an effective treatment for diabetic neuropathy.

Objective: Fish oil is enriched in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids primarily eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acids. Metabolites of these two polyunsaturated fatty acids include the E and D series resolvins. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and resolvins have been reported to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of menhaden oil, a fish oil derived from the menhaden, resolvins D1 and E1 and the methyl esters of resolvins D1 and D2 on diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Hypothesis being examined was that the methyl esters of resolvins D1 and D2 would be move efficacious than resolvins D1 or E1 due to an extended half-life.Methods: A model of type 2 diabetes in C57BL/6J mice was created through a combination of a high fat diet followed 8 weeks later with treatment of low dosage of streptozotocin. After 8 weeks of untreated hyperglycemia type 2 diabetic mice were treated for 8 weeks with menhaden oil in the diet or daily injections of 1 ng/g body weight resolvins D1, E1 or methyl esters of resolvins D1 or D2. Afterwards, multiple neurological endpoints were examined.Results: Menhaden oil or resolvins did not improve hyperglycemia. Untreated diabetic mice were thermal hypoalgesic, had mechanical allodynia, reduced motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities and decreased innervation of the cornea and skin. These endpoints were significantly improved with menhaden oil or resolvin treatment. However, the methyl esters of resolvins D1 or D2, contrary to our hypothesis, were generally less potent than menhaden oil or resolvins D1 or E1.Conclusion: These studies further support omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from fish oil via in part due to their metabolites could be an effective treatment for diabetic neuropathy.

This study investigated the effect of blueberry juice on menhaden oil lipid oxidation during microencapsulation. Oil in water emulsions containing menhaden oil with 0, 5, or 10% blueberry juice were spray dried to produce control-M, 5% BJ-M, and 10% BJ-M microencapsulated powders, respectively. All microencapsulated powders had similar encapsulation efficiencies with low surface oil content. Peroxide value (meq/kg of oil) was 4.50, 4.31, and 3.38 for control-M, 5% BJ-M and 10% BJ-M, respectively. Ten percent BJ-M had lower (P < 0.05) anisidine value, and totox values than 5% BJ-M and control-M. This indicated that 10% blueberry juice reduced lipid oxidation in menhaden oil during microencapsulation to a greater extent than the other formulations.

This study investigated effect of different dietary lipid sources on juvenile Pacific threadfin (Polydactylus sexfilis), a tropical marine fish, based on growth performance, proximate composition of whole fish and muscle fatty acid composition. The objectives were 1) to compare the nutritional value of menhaden oil to pollock oil, a product generated by the Alaskan fish processing industry; and 2) to evaluate the potential of replacing pollock oil with soybean oil in diets for juvenile Pacific threadfin. Six experimental diets were formulated to contain 42% crude protein and 12% crude lipid including 4% lipid from fishmeal and 8% added oil. The 8% added oil was provided by menhaden oil pollock oil (P) or soybean (S) oil mixed with pollock oil. Diets containing the mixed oil were named as P8S0, P6S2, P4S4, P2S6, and P0S8 to denote the level of pollock oil (decreasing from 8 to 0%) and soybean oil (increasing from 0 to 8%). Pacific threadfin (average body weight of 18.6 g) were fed each of the experimental diets for 8 weeks. Growth performance, proximate composition of whole body and muscle were similar among fish fed with different diets. Pollock oil and menhaden oil were shown to have a similar effect on the nutritional composition of fish or tissue. In contrast, the diet containing 8% soybean oil significantly increased liver lipid content compared to the other test diets. The fatty acid composition of muscle reflected the dietary fatty acids. Fish fed the soybean oil diets exhibited significantly lower levels of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LC-PUFA) and higher levels of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 than those fed the fish oil diets. Results of this study suggest that pollock oil can replace menhaden oil without any adverse effect on growth performance or nutritional quality of fish. Total replacement of pollock oil with soybean oil had no detrimental effect on growth performance of juvenile Pacific threadfin but altered the fatty acid composition of fish muscle tissue. These results are useful in formulating practical feeds at reduced cost for Pacific threadfin culture. However, a longer term study will be needed to investigate whether the changes in muscle fatty acid composition will influence the welfare as well as the market value of Pacific threadfin.

Development of a standardized reference diet will facilitate the determination of nutritional requirements for sea urchins. A purified diet, containing only chemically defined ingredients, provides consistency in diet formulations for reproducibility across different laboratories. In the present study, the growth performance of small Lytechinus variegatus (11.9 ± 1.3 g [mean ± SD] wet weight, 28.4 ± 1.1 mm test diameter; 16 per treatment) fed ad libitum daily (16 weeks) one of seven purified diets differing in the level (0, 2.4, or 4.8% as fed) and source of neutral lipid (refined menhaden oil and soy oil) was compared with the growth performance of individuals fed a semipurified diet previously shown to support high growth rates and gonad production. Survival was ≥88% for all dietary treatments, and the growth rates of individuals fed the 1.2% menhaden oil and 1.2% soybean oil purified diet (215% wet weight gain) were approximately 65% of those for individuals fed the semipurified diet (326% wet...

To examine the effects of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 and n-6 PUFAs) in a murine model of herpetic chorioretinitis.BALB/c mice were fed on three high fat diets, which contained: Menhaden oil (rich in n-3 PUFAs); Safflower oil (rich in n-6 PUFAs); or Corn oil (rich in saturated fatty acids) as control group, 14 days previously and until 12 days following anterior chamber (AC) HSV-1 inoculation.Mice fed on Menhaden oil present an early development of contralateral chorioretinitis by day 6 post-AC HSV-1 inoculation and also significant increase of RNA HSV-1 expression compared with Safflower and Corn oil groups. Furthermore, mice fed on Menhaden oil showed a significant decrease secretion of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-10 in splenic cells and both retinas.Our results showed that mice fed on Menhaden oil (n-3 PUFAs) presented an early development of contralateral chorioretinitis by day 6 post-AC HSV-1 inoculation and also a significant increase in RNA HSV-1 expression compared with animals fed on Safflower and Corn oils. This increase of HSV-1 could be associated with the higher development of chorioretinitis.

The United States menhaden oil annual production is sufficient to supply all of the recommended long chain Omega-3s for Americans over 55 with coronary heart disease (CHD) and pregnant and lactating women. According to a recent study, the utilization of preventable intake levels could potentially save up to $1.7 billion annually in hospital costs alone. In addition, the remaining oil could be used to support a culture of enough Atlantic salmon to provide every pregnant and lactating woman in the U.S. with 8-12 ounces of fish per week, as recommended by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), throughout the duration of pregnancy and lactation. Based on the FDA's quantitative assessment, this may result in a net increase of IQ by 5.5 points in children and improve their early age verbal development.

Surimi-based seafood products are widely accepted and enjoyed worldwide. The U.S. consumption increased in 1980s; however, it leveled thereafter. Food products nutrified with ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are in increasing demand due to demonstrated health benefits. Currently, surimi seafood is not nutrified with ω-3 PUFAs. In the present study, surimi seafood was nutritionally-enhanced with ω-3 PUFAs-rich oils (flaxseed, algae, menhaden, krill, and blend). Protein endothermal transitions, heat-induced gelation (elastic modulus, G′), and fundamental texture properties (shear stress) of Alaska pollock surimi nutrified with ω-3 PUFAs-rich oils (flaxseed, algae, menhaden, krill, and blend) were determined and compared to Alaska pollock surimi without oil (control). Differential scanning calorimetry showed that oil addition enhanced thermal transition of actin and did not compromise the transition of myosin. The addition of oil improved heat-induced protein gelation as demonstrated with dynamic rheology. Elastic modulus increased when oil was added. There were no differences ( P > 0.05) in shear stress between surimi gels with and without oil, indicating that nutrification with ω-3 PUFAs-rich oils within the ranges tested did not alter gel strength. This study demonstrates that the nutritional value and gelation of surimi seafood can be enhanced without altering texture properties by addition of ω-3 PUFAs-rich oils.

Ethanolysis of menhaden oil was performed with 1,3-regiospecific lipase to produce diglycerides and monoglycerides containing polyunsaturated fatty acids, and fatty acid ethyl esters. Immobilized lipases like lipozyme TL-IM ( Thermomuces lanuginosa immobilized on silica gel) were used for enzymatic ethanolysis. Ethanolysis was carried out in different processes (solvent free, organic solvent and supercritical fluid system) to compare the reaction rate and yield obtained by menhaden oil ethanolysis. Organic solvent (hexane) and supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO 2 ) were used as reaction medium. The reaction products were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Higher amounts of ethanol as a substrate caused substrate inhibition which dramatically decreased the reaction rate of ethanolysis. To elucidate the effect of pressure, enzymatic ethanolysis was performed in SC-CO 2 at pressures ranging from 75 to 121 bar. Enzymatic ethanolysis of menhaden oil in SC-CO 2 decreased by substrate inhibition. Reaction rate and optimum amount of ethanol used were depended on SC-CO 2 density individually. Kinetic model with substrate inhibition (dead-end inhibition) by excess ethanol was set up to measure the reaction and inhibition rates.

Channel catfish feed intake and growth decline with temperature, but different dietary lipids might sustain performance during cool weather. Catfish at a suboptimal temperature (22°C) were fed 32% protein commercial floating pellets supplemented with 2% soybean oil (SBO), menhaden oil (MFO), or flaxseed oil (FLX). After 12 weeks, fish were counted and weighed, then health assays and proximate and fatty acid analysis of fillets were conducted. Weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and survival were similar among treatments, indicating limited potential of different lipids to improve growth at low temperatures. However, the favorable feed conversion ratios (FCRs; ≤1.6) indicated that feeding at 22°C was worthwhile to maintain good condition of catfish. Across diets, the unsaturated fatty acids in muscle lipids increased. The FLX and MFO both increased the n-3 HUFA in the fillet, but FLX was less effective. Unfortunately, both FLX and MFO reduced sensory properties of the fillet relative to the SBO control.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or menhaden oil may reduce inflammatory eicosanoids (prostaglandin E₂, thromboxane B₂, leukotriene B₄, and 11-dehydro thromboxane B₂), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and blood lactate in dogs with nasal carcinomas receiving radiation therapy. We hypothesized that menhaden oil would reduce inflammation from radiation damage and lower blood lactate levels in dogs with nasal carcinoma. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study, 12 dogs with malignant carcinomas of the nasal cavity were given dietary menhaden oil (DHA and EPA) or soybean oil (control) and then received radiation therapy. Megavoltage radiation was delivered in 18 fractions to a total dose of 56 Gy. Blood levels of DHA, EPA, insulin, glucose, lactic acid, and MMPs 2 and 9; resting energy expenditure; and inflammatory eicosanoids from nasal biopsies were measured throughout radiation therapy. Samples were obtained from each patient 1 week before the start of radiation therapy, at start of radiation, and 7, 18 (end of radiation therapy), and 42 days after radiation was initiated. Dogs that are fed with menhaden oil had significantly (P.05) higher plasma concentration of DHA by 500% and EPA by 200% and had significantly lower tissue inflammatory eicosanoids and decreased resting energy expenditure by 20% when compared with controls. Increased plasma DHA was significantly associated (P.05) with decreased plasma lactic acid and MMPs. These data may suggest that dietary fish oil could reduce some detrimental inflammatory eicosanoids and metabolic consequences of radiation therapy.

BACKGROUND: The health benefits of n-3 fatty acids have led to much research on manipulating the fatty acid composition of animal-derived foods. In this study, two experiments were conducted to investigate the interaction of dietary fatty acids on egg yolk fatty acid concentrations. In experiment I, 32 dietary treatments with three replicates of three birds each were fed for 35 days. Diets were prepared by mixing one type of fish oil with four vegetable oils in different proportions. In experiment II, three different types and two levels of fish oil in combination with two vegetable oils were tested under the same conditions as in experiment I. RESULTS: In experiment I the results showed that the egg yolk saturated (SFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA) fatty acid concentration was determined by the dietary SFA, MUFA and 18:2n-6 content. The egg 18:2n-6 concentration was mainly explained by the dietary inclusion of 18:2n-6 and negatively by the dietary MUFA content. The egg C18:3n-3, C20:5n-3 and C22:6n-3 concentration is almost exclusively determined by their direct supply from the diet. The egg 20:4n-6 concentration was inversely proportional to the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of the diet. The results of experiment II showed that the egg yolk C20:5n-3 and C22:6n-3 concentration was determined by both the level of dietary fish oil (1 or 2%) and the C20:5n-3/C22:6n-3 ratio in the fish oil. CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrated that the direct dietary supply of fatty acids is the most important factor determining the egg yolk fatty acid composition, in particular for the n-3 fatty acids. The interaction effect from other dietary fatty acids was in general small. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry

In an effort to investigate the effect of positional distribution on oxidative stability of menhaden and seal blubber oils, Novozyme 435 was used as a random biocatalyst. Positional distribution of fatty acids was determined using gas chromatography. As some of the α-tocopherol was lost during randomization, its content was adjusted to the level prior to the process to eliminate this effect on oxidative stability of oils tested. Conjugated dienes (CD) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were used as indicators of oxidative stability. The results showed that the polyunsaturated fatty acids were distributed predominantly at terminal positions in randomized menhaden oil, whereas they were distributed more evenly among all positions in enzymatically randomized seal blubber oil, compared to their unrandomized counterparts. Results of CD and TBARS values indicated that randomized menhaden oil was more stable than the original oil, whereas randomized seal blubber oil was more vulnerable to oxidation compared to its counterpart. Changes of oxidative stability after randomization were mainly due to positional redistribution of fatty acids, especially those of the polyunsaturated types.

Purified menhaden oil (PMO) was characterized and microencapsulated. Baby foods containing PMO and microencapsulated purified menhaden oil (MPMO) were evaluated and compared. PMO had higher total omega-3, total saturated, total monounsaturated, DHA, and EPA contents than MPMO. Emulsion containing PMO (EPMO) exhibited viscoelastic characteristic and droplet size of EPMO was around 2–10 μm. The DHA and EPA in the PMO were reduced in MPMO. All baby-food samples with added fish oils had similar FFA values and color. DHA and EPA of baby food were significantly increased by adding PMO and/or MPMO. Total percent values for omega-3 fatty acids of extracted fat from commercial baby food (CB), commercial baby food containing PMO (BPMO), and commercial baby food containing MPMO (BMPMO) were 4.5, 9.8 and 10.1%, respectively.

Effect of ethanolic kiam wood extract (EKWE; 12 0.05% and 0.1%, w/w) on the retardation of haemoglobin-mediated lipid oxidation of washed Asian sea bass mince added without and with menhaden oil stored in ice up to 10 days was investigated. Samples containing haemoglobin had the highest peroxide value (PV) within the first 8 days and possessed the greater amount of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), compared to those added with no haemoglobin (P 0.05). With addition of EKWE, lipid oxidation in washed mince added with haemoglobin and menhaden oil was retarded, especially when the higher level (0.1%; w/w) was used, as evidenced by lowered PV and TBARS. Formation of volatile lipid oxidation compounds was retarded in the sample containing oil and haemoglobin and treated with 0.1% EKWE, compared with that without the addition of EKWE after 10 days of storage in ice (P

The safety of Algal Oil from Schizochytrium sp. was evaluated by testing for gene mutations, clastogenicity and aneugenicity, and in a subchronic 90-day Sprague-Dawley rat dietary study. The results of all genotoxicity tests were negative. The 90-day study involved dietary exposure to 0.5, 1.5, and 5 wt.% of Algal Oil and two control diets: a standard low-fat basal diet and a basal diet supplemented with 5 wt.% menhaden oil (the fish oil control). There were no treatment-related effects of Algal Oil on clinical observations, body weight, food consumption, behavior, hematology, clinical chemistry, coagulation, or urinalysis parameters. Increased mean liver weights and alveolar histiocytosis were observed in both the fish oil control and the high-dose Algal Oil-treated animals and were not considered to be adverse. Algal Oil was bioavailable as demonstrated by the dose-related increase of DHA and EPA levels in tissues and plasma. The no observable adverse effect level (NOAEL) for Algal Oil under the conditions of this study was 5 wt.% in the diet, equivalent to an overall average Algal Oil intake of 3250 mg/kg bw/day for male and female rats. Based on the body surface area, the human equivalent dose is about 30 g Algal Oil/day for a 60 kg adult.

We evaluated production performance, fillet composition, and sensory integrity of sunshine bass (Morone chrysops x M. saxatilis) fed a marine oil-based finishing feed after being raised on a plant oil-based production feed. Two feeds containing either corn oil (CO) or menhaden oil (MO) were fed to sunshine bass according to different feeding regimens at the close of the production cycle: control groups were fed the CO or the MO feeds exclusively; remaining groups were transitioned from the CO feed to the MO feed at 4-, 8- or 12-week intervals. Replacing MO with CO yielded fillets with distinctly different fatty acid profiles; however, finishing with an MO-based feed for 4–8 weeks offered significant compensation for reductions in fillet nutritional quality. Production performance and fillet sensory characteristics were largely unaffected by dietary lipid source, suggesting fillet fatty acid profile can be manipulated to maximize nutritional value of cultured fillets without reducing consumer acceptance.

Rainbow trout (186 g) were fed three test diets where the lipid source (150 g kg−1) was either menhaden oil (MO), pollock oil (PO) or canola oil (CO) for eight weeks to an average weight of 370 g. The CO group was then divided into two groups, one continuing on the CO diet and the other switched to the PO diet (CO–PO). After nine additional weeks of feeding, the average fish weight approximately doubled (719–749 g). No significant differences were found in average final weight or fillet yield among dietary treatment groups. Fatty acid profiles of fillets from trout fed MO, PO or CO-supplemented diets reflected the fatty acid profiles of the added oils, whereas the fatty acid profile of fillet from trout in the CO–PO group exhibited values similar to those of fish fed PO. The ratio of ω3 : ω6 FA was nearly 2.5 times higher in fillets from the CO–PO group compared to the CO group. Sensory analysis showed that panelists preferred CO-fed fillets over those fed MO, PO, or CO–PO. Phase-feeding CO and PO reduced fish oil use and resulted in fillets with double the content of Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) over CO-fed fish, similar to levels in MO-fed fish.

Rainbow trout, average weight 185–187 g, were fed feeds containing menhaden oil, canola oil or fish oils (pollock, pink salmon or rockfish) produced from Alaskan seafood processing waste as the added oil for 8 weeks, at which time the fish weighed 391–411 g (average 404 g, pooled SE = 5.7). The fish were previously fed from 75 g average weight fed commercial feed containing poultry oil as the added oil. No significant differences were measured in final weight or feed conversion ratio among dietary treatment groups. Significant differences were found in fillet ω-3 fatty acid (FA) levels from fish receiving fish oil-supplemented feeds compared to those from fish receiving feeds containing canola oil. Fillet contents of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5ω3) and decosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6ω3) were highest in the pollock oil treatment group, although all fish oils increased highly unsaturated ω-3 FA contents (mg 100 g−1) of fillets. Fish oil used through the production cycle was reduced by 25% by supplementing feeds with poultry oil during the middle phase of production (75–175 g) compared to using feeds containing fish oil throughout the production cycle. Fish oils recovered from Alaskan seafood processing waste were suitable alternatives to conventional fish oil as ingredients in rainbow trout production feeds.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with different fish oils (rich in PUFA) vs. hydrogenated animal fat (SFA) on semen production and quality, fatty acid composition, and preservation properties in boars under controlled and commercial conditions. In Exp. 1 (in a research station), 44 boars, allocated to 4 dietary treatments, received daily 2.5 kg of basal diet with a supplement of 1) 62 g of hydrogenated animal fat (AF, n = 12); 2) 60 g of menhaden oil containing 18% docosahexanoic acid (DHA) and 15% eicosapentanoic acid (EPA; MO, n = 11); 3) 60 g of tuna oil containing 33% DHA and 6.5% EPA (TO, n = 11); and 4) 60 g of menhaden oil and 2 mg/kg of biotin (MO+B, n = 10). Biotin is a critical factor in the elongation of PUFA. Semen was collected according to 3 successive phases: phase 1 (twice per week for 4 wk); phase 2 (daily collection for 2 wk); and phase 3 (twice per week for 10 wk). Experiment 2 was conducted in commercial conditions; 222 boars were randomly allocated to AF, MO, and TO treatments. Semen was collected twice weekly over a 6-mo period. All diets were balanced to be iso-energetic and provided an equivalent of 989 mg of vitamin E per day. Classical measurements of sperm quantity and quality were done for both experiments. Experiment 1 showed, after 28 wk of supplementation, a massive transfer of n-3 PUFA into sperm from boars fed fish oil diets (MO and TO). No differences were observed among dietary treatments for libido (P > 0.30), sperm production (P > 0.20), or percentage of motile cell (P > 0.20). Unexpectedly, MO+B diet reduced the percentage of normal sperm compared with the other treatments (P < 0.03). In conclusion, although it modified the fatty acid composition of sperm, supplementation of boars with dietary fish oils, rich in long chain n-3 fatty acids, did not influence semen production or quality postejaculation.

Unrefined menhaden oil was evaluated for thermal and rheological properties and its temperature-dependent viscosity and lipid oxidation rate were determined. Peroxide value, free fatty acids, density, specific gravity, water activity, moisture content, and enthalpy of the unrefined menhaden oil were 5.70 meq/kg, 3.80%, 0.93 g/mL, 0.93%, 0.52%, 0.15%, and 20.2 kJ/kg, respectively. The melting point range of unrefined menhaden oil was found to be -69.5 to 27.21 degrees C. The menhaden oil exhibited non-Newtonian fluid behavior at lower temperatures (5 to 25 degrees C), while it behaved like a Newtonian fluid at 30 degrees C. The oil apparent viscosity at 5 degrees C (0.22 Pa.s) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that at 30 degrees C (0.033 Pa.s). The average magnitude of activation energy for viscosity of the unrefined menhaden oil was 50.37 kJ/mol. The predicted apparent viscosity agreed (R(2)= 0.9837) satisfactorily with the experimental apparent viscosity. The minimal lipid oxidation rate of the oil was found at 25 and 35 degrees C for 6 h, higher lipid oxidation rates were observed when the oil was heated for 6 h at 45 to 85 degrees C. The rate of lipid oxidation for unrefined menhaden oil was temperature dependent (R(2)= 0.9425). This study showed that the magnitude of the apparent viscosity and oxidation rate of the unrefined menhaden oil was greatly influenced by temperature.

A previous study showed that long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn-3PUFA; .18 carbons n-3) exert an anabolic effect on protein metabolism through the upregulation of insulin sensitivity and activation of the insulin signaling pathway. This study further delineates for the first time whether the anabolic effect of LCn-3PUFA on metabolism is dose responsive. Six steers were used to test three graded amounts of menhaden oil rich in LCn-3PUFA (0%, 2% and 4%; enteral infusions) according to a double 3 3 3 Latin square design. Treatment comparisons were made using iso-energetic substitutions of control oil for menhaden oil and using 6-week experimental periods. The LCn-3PUFA in muscle total membrane phospholipids increased from 8%, 14% to 20% as dietary menhaden oil increased. Feeding graded amounts of menhaden oil linearly decreased plasma insulin concentration (49, 35 and 25 mU/ml, P 5 0.01). The insulin-stimulated amino acid disposal rates as assessed using hyperinsulinemic–euglycemic–euaminoacidemic clamps (20, 40 and 80 mU/kg per h) were linearly increased by the incremental administrations of menhaden oil from 169, 238 to 375 mmol/kg per h ( P 5 0.005) during the 40 mU/kg per h clamp, and from 295, 360 and 590 mmol/kg per h ( P 5 0.02) during the 80 mU/kg per h clamp. Glucose disposal rate responded according to a quadratic relationship with the incremental menhaden oil amounts ( P , 0.05). A regression analysis showed that 47% of the amino acid disposal rates elicited during the hyperinsulinemic clamp was related to muscle membrane LCn-3PUFA content ( P 5 0.003). These results show for the first time that both protein and glucose metabolism respond in a dose-dependent manner to menhaden oil and to muscle membrane LCn-3PUFA.

Menhaden oil-in-water emulsions (20%, v/v) were stabilized by 2 wt% whey protein isolate (WPI) with 0.2 wt% xanthan gum (XG) in the presence of 10 mM CaCl(2) and 200 microM EDTA at pH 7. Droplet size, lipid oxidation, and rheological properties of the emulsions were investigated as a function of heating temperature and time. During heating, droplet size reached a maximum at 70 degrees C and then decreased at 90 degrees C, which can be attributed to both heating effect on increased hydrophobic attractions and the influence of CaCl(2) on decreased electrostatic repulsions. Combination of effects of EDTA and heat treatment contributed to oxidative stability of the heated emulsions. The rheological data indicate that the WPI/XG-stabilized emulsions undergo a state transition from being viscous like to an elastic like upon substantial thermal treatment. Heating below 70 degrees C or for less than 10 min at 70 degrees C favors droplet aggregation while heating at 90 degrees C or for 15 min or longer at 70 degrees C facilitates WPI adsorption and rearrangement. WPI adsorption leads to the formation of protein network around the droplet surface, which promotes oxidative stability of menhaden oil. Heating also aggravates thermodynamic incompatibility between XG and WPI, which contributes to droplet aggregation and the accumulation of more WPI around the droplet surfaces as well.

Antarctic krill, also known as Euphausia superba, is a marine crustacean rich in both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). We tested the hypothesis that krill oil would increase plasma concentrations of EPA and DHA without adversely affecting indicators of safety, tolerability, or selected metabolic parameters. In this randomized, double-blind parallel arm trial, overweight and obese men and women (N = 76) were randomly assigned to receive double-blind capsules containing 2 g/d of krill oil, menhaden oil, or control (olive) oil for 4 weeks. Results showed that plasma EPA and DHA concentrations increased significantly more (P < .001) in the krill oil (178.4 +/- 38.7 and 90.2 +/- 40.3 micromol/L, respectively) and menhaden oil (131.8 +/- 28.0 and 149.9 +/- 30.4 micromol/L, respectively) groups than in the control group (2.9 +/- 13.8 and -1.1 +/- 32.4 micromol/L, respectively). Systolic blood pressure declined significantly more (P < .05) in the menhaden oil (-2.2 +/- 2.0 mm Hg) group than in the control group (3.3 +/- 1.5 mm Hg), and the response in the krill oil group (-0.8 +/- 1.4 mm Hg) did not differ from the other 2 treatments. Blood urea nitrogen declined in the krill oil group as compared with the menhaden oil group (P < .006). No significant differences for other safety variables were noted, including adverse events. In conclusion, 4 weeks of krill oil supplementation increased plasma EPA and DHA and was well tolerated, with no indication of adverse effects on safety parameters.

The objective of this study was to determine the optimum dietary lipid level of white seabass, Atractoscion nobilis , which is one of the most important species in California and Baja California for sport and commercial fisheries. Triplicate groups of fish were fed for 50 days with isonitrogenous experimental diets formulated with increasing lipid levels (2.6, 7.4, 11.6, 15.3 and 19.4% lipid) using menhaden oil as the lipid source. A commercial diet (CD, 49.9% crude protein, 14.7% lipid) was also fed to triplicate groups of fish. Survival throughout the growth trial ranged from 89 to 100% but the survival of fish fed the 2.6% lipid and the commercial diet was significantly less than the rest of the diets. Final mean body weight, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE: N gain/N intake) were significantly greater for diets 15.3 L and 19.4 L compared to the rest of the treatments. Daily feed intake (DFI) was variable (3.5 ± 0.08 to 8.6 ± 0.03) and significantly affected by dietary treatment. Lipid content of whole body, muscle and liver increased with increasing dietary lipid levels. Muscle and liver fatty acid (FA) composition reflected dietary FA profiles. Tissue n −3 and n −6 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) content increased in direct proportion to dietary lipid levels.

Several protein, carbohydrate and lipid sources were incorporated into pelleted diets and evaluated for their effect on growth and survival of shrimp during a 12-week study. Percentages of growth achieved using lipid sources of beef tallow, linseed oil, menhaden oil, corn oil and no lipid supplements were 61.8, 60.0, 52.9, 0, and 46.9, respectively. Percentage survival ranged from 64.7 for animals fed a diet containing beef tallow to for those fed a diet supplemented with corn oil. Among diets in which carbohydrates were tested, percentages of growth were 60.0, 25.0, 21.2, 18.8, and 12.9 among animals fed diets containing 40% starch, 10% glucose, 10% starch, 0% starch, and 40% glucose, respectively. Percentage survival ranged from 66.7 for the 40% starch group to 21.7 for the 40% glucose group. Among the several single protein sources tested, percentages of growth were 119.4, 78.1, 58.8, 48.6 and 29.7 for animals fed diets containing soybean meal, menhaden meal, shrimp meal, casein and corn gluten meal, respectively. Shrimp fed casein had a markedly lower survival rate than animals grown on diets having other protein sources. Freeze-dried Artemia, clam and Tubifix worm added to a diet with menhaden meal as the protein source revealed that only additions of freeze-dried Artemia produced significant growth above the control (percentage growth increases were 89.5, 41.9, 23.5 and 78.1 for Artemia, clam and Tubifix worm and the menhaden meal control, respectively). Survival was not significantly affected by any of the above supplements. Analyses of whole body composition of shrimp fed all of the above mentioned diets illustrated that some diets significantly influenced lipid and protein levels but did not significantly influence cholesterol levels. Shrimp fed a diet having no supplemented lipid had a significantly lower body lipid level (4.93%) than shrimp fed either diets containing corn or linseed oil (7.82% and 8.58%, respectively). Lipid supplements did not significantly influence body composition of protein. A diet supplied with 40% glucose caused a significant reduction in body lipid level (5.78%) compared to 10% glucose (9.03%) or 10% starch (8.67%). Likewise, a 40% glucose diet resulted in a significantly lower body protein level (70.41%) compared to percentages of 75.25, 75.11 for 10% glucose and 40% starch supplemented diets, respectively. Among protein supplemented diets, differences in lipid body composition were not significant but, shrimp fed a diet containing shrimp meal had a significant increase in body protein level (77.13%) in comparison to shrimp fed either menhaden meal or casein protein supplements (74.42% and 72.69%, respectively). Shrimp grown on diets containing menhaden meal supplemented with freeze-dried natural foods did not have significant alterations in body levels of total lipid or protein.

We determined whether canola oil could spare menhaden oil (MO) in diets containing minimal fish meal without affecting sunshine bass, Morone chrysops × Morone saxatilis, production. Seven isonitrogenous, isocaloric (41.7% crude protein and 14.6% crude lipid) diets containing graded levels (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, or 100%) of menhaden to canola oils with 20% menhaden meal (MM) or 100% canola oil with 20% lipid-extracted MM were fed to sunshine bass (initial weight 9.3 ± 0.16 g; mean ± SD) twice daily to apparent satiation for 10 wk. Sunshine bass fed less than 40% of their dietary lipid as MO exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) lower feed intake and growth rates. Increased concentrations of saturated, n-3, and n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (FA) in the fillet were associated with MO-rich diets, while monounsaturated and n-6 FA were most common in fillets from fish fed diets rich in canola oil. Reducing MO to 40% of the dietary lipid in diets containing minimal fish meal allows for efficient utilization of marine resources without negatively impacting juvenile sunshine bass production.

SUMMARY— Three menhaden oil preparations–(1) destearinated, (2) molecularly distilled triglycerides, and (3) ethyl esters of menhaden fatty acids—were fed to broilers at a 5% level to determine their effect on the flavor and fatty acid composition of the flesh. Corn oil and tallow were fed as controls. The flavor-contributing component(s) in the menhaden oil preparations apparently resided in the fatty acids regardless of whether the preparations were fed as the triglyceride or as the ethyl ester. Four marine fatty acids (18:4ω3, 20:4ω3, 20:5ω3, and 22:5ω3),c deposited in the flesh of the broilers, were highly correlated with the occurrence of the unacceptable flavor.

Two experiments addressed the spontaneous spawning of red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, under controlled temperatures and photoperiods and the effect of broodstock diets supplemented with oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. In Experiment 1, broodfish were fed a standard diet (ST1) and one enriched with menhaden oil (ER1) over a 355-d period. ER1-influenced egg fatty acid profile, however, did not positively influence egg production. Both diets produced highly viable eggs and larvae but results varied within treatments. In Experiment 2, broodfish were fed either a standard diet (ST2) or one supplemented with oils (ER2) rich in docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid using a 203-d cycle. Both treatments produced eggs but fertilization rates ranged 0–10%. There was no clear influence of the diets on egg fatty acid profiles. These results indicate that red snapper can spawn spontaneously in tanks under controlled environmental conditions and produce viable eggs and larvae when fed diets based on squid, shrimp, and fish. The fatty acid composition of the diets was reflected in the eggs to some degree, but the oil enrichments did not further enhance the reproductive performance and egg quality under the conditions of this study.

The effects of different dietary lipids (hydrogenated coconut oil, corn oil, linseed oil, and mixtures of corn oil, linseed oil, menhaden oil, and/or soy lecithin) on the fatty acid composition of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis were investigated. Dietary lipid compositions were reflected in the fatty acid profiles of sea urchin guts, gonads and shells. The shells had the highest level of 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3, while the highest levels of monounsaturated fatty acids were seen in the guts. Tissue levels of 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 were influenced by the dietary levels of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3. The addition of soy lecithin to the diet (CLnML) enhanced the production and incorporation of 20:4n-6 in shell and gonad. Sea urchin also synthesized and incorporated 20 and 22 carbon non-methylene-interrupted dienoic fatty acids (NMIDs) in all tissue lipids. The NMID content varied among the different tissues and was influenced by the dietary lipid source. The hydrogenated coconut oil (HCO) diet resulted in the greatest NMID content, while the lowest levels were seen in sea urchins fed diets containing a mixture of corn oil, linseed oil, menhaden oil and lecithin (CLnML). The NMID content was lowest in gut and highest in the shell. Significant levels of mead acid (20:3n-9) were detected in the shells of sea urchins fed the EFA-deficient diet (HCO). The enzymatic capabilities of sea urchins to desaturate and elongate 18:2n-6 to 20:4n-6 and 18:3n-3 to 20:5n-3, as well as the capabilities to de novo synthesize NMID were hypothesized. Possible physiological roles and mechanisms for formation of NMID are discussed.

The effect of using a finishing diet containing menhaden fish oil on the fatty acid composition of fingerling channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, was evaluated in a 12-wk growth trial. Three isocaloric, isonitrogenous practical diets with three different sources of lipids (menhaden oil [MO], catfish oil [CO], or beef tallow [BT]) were formulated (35% crude protein). No differences in eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, or arachidonic acid were observed to occur in catfish fed MO or CO diets; however, these fatty acids were significantly lower in fish fed BT diet. No differences were observed for unsaturated fatty acid content in channel catfish fed a diet containing MO for 8 or 12 wk. In addition, no differences in production characteristics were observed to occur when catfish were fed diets containing CO, MO, or BT as the dietary lipid source, which indicates that BT, CO, and MO are equally effective as sources of energy. It is apparent from these results that CO may be successfully substituted for MO in formulated diets without adversely affecting n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acid content in channel catfish.

Capabilities of methanol extracts from oregano and rosemary in retarding oxidation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid C22:6 (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid C20:5 (EPA), in menhaden oil were investigated. The fish oils after mixing with the extracts at different concentrations were oxidized in an accelerated study by heating at 150 degrees C for 30 min or incubating at 60 degrees C for 5 d. After heating at 150 degrees C, only 15.9% of DHA and 18.5% of EPA remained in the fish oil without extract, while 38.8% to 65.9% of DHA and 44.7% to 69.0% of EPA were retained in the fish oil mixed with 1% to 5% of oregano extract. The highest retained DHA (56.9%) and EPA (58.0%) in the fish oils mixed with rosemary extract were observed at 2.5% addition. Increasing rosemary extract to 5% lowered its capability of inhibiting DHA and EPA oxidation. After incubation at 60 degrees C for 5 d, the highest inhibition capability was also found at 2.5% of added rosemary extract, and the oil retained 88.2% DHA and 88.3% EPA. However, only 18.8% DHA and 23.6% EPA were retained in the fish oil mixed with 5% of oregano extract and no DHA and EPA were detected in the fish oil without extract after 5-d incubation at 60 degrees C. Thus, antioxidant activity of the rosemary extract was greater than that of oregano extract, but was sensitive to heat. The rosemary extract also demonstrated higher DPPH (2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging capability, which was approximately 3 times higher than oregano extract, although there was no significant difference in the total phenolic contents between both extracts.

The responses of phase III sunshine bass Morone chrysops ♀× M. saxatilis ♂ to diets containing reduced levels of menhaden fish meal (30–10%, dry weight) and crude protein (40–36%, dry weight) were evaluated in two separate experiments. Reductions in fish meal were compensated by increase in dietary soybean meal, a meat and blood meal product, and additional amounts of a 1:1 catfish oil:menhaden oil mixture sprayed on as a top dressing. Fish were cultured in earthen ponds and fed commercially manufactured, extruded diets to apparent satiation. In Experiment 1, dietary crude protein was reduced from 40 to 36% and the menhaden fish meal ingredient was reduced from 30 to 15% (dry weight). The mean weight of fish stocked into each pond ranged from 144 to 188 g, the stocking density was 8641/ha, and the duration of the growout was 172 d. In Experiment 2, both dietary treatments contained 40% crude protein (dry weight) and either 30% or 10% menhaden fish meal. The mean weight of fish stocked into each pond ranged from 42 and 77 g, the stocking density was 8,500/ha, and the duration of the growout was 175 d. Simultaneous reductions in dietary menhaden fish meal and crude protein resulted in significant decreases in all production indices except survival and percent weight increase. Weights of filet, carcass, liver and intraperitoneal fat, expressed as a percent of total body weight, were not significantly different. A 66% reduction in dietary menhaden fish meal while the crude protein level was maintained at 40% did not significantly affect growth, production, and weights of filet, carcass, liver and intraperitoneal fat, expressed as a percent of total body weight, and represents a 6% decrease in the cost of feed. In both experiments, levels of protein, lipid, moisture, and ash of the whole body and the filet were not significantly different. Fatty acid composition of the filet and livers from fish fed the control and experimental diets in Experiment 2 were highly comparable. The comparable level of performance of fish fed diets believed to be deficient in HUFA suggests that the dietary levels reported to be required may not be totally applicable to diets formulated for pond culture.

Channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, 88.4 ± 2.6 g/fish, were fed a basal diet amended with 4% of three processed menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, oils. These were compared with basal diets amended with 4% corn oil or 4% canola oil. Three replicate aquaria of nine fish each were fed assigned diets twice daily. At 6 wk, fish were group weighed, fillets were collected for sensory evaluation, fatty acid analysis by gas chromatography (GC). In a second study, catfish, 118.8 ± 3.2 g/fish, were stocked into fifteen 0.04-ha earthen ponds and fed once daily for 16 wk one of four diets containing 2 or 4% of either catfish offal oil or refined (RF) menhaden oil. At harvest, fillets were saved for sensory evaluation and fatty acid analysis. Results showed no significant (P > 0.05) differences among treatments for aquarium study and pond study variables such as weight gain, fillet proximate analysis, or pond production. GC analysis showed that levels of omega-3 (n-3) highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) in fillet lipid were significantly (P < 0.05) elevated for fish fed menhaden oil diets. Sensory evaluation revealed that fillets from fish fed RF menhaden oil had satisfactory flavor and could be a source of n-3 HUFA for humans.

An organic solvent-stable lipase from Proteus vulgaris K80 was used to produce the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ethyl esters (ω-3 PUFA EEs). First, the lyophilized recombinant lipase K80 (LyoK80) was used to perform the transesterification reaction of menhaden oil and ethanol. LyoK80 produced the ω-3 PUFA EEs with a conversion yield of 82 % in the presence of 20 % water content via a three-step ethanol-feeding process; however, in a non-aqueous condition, LyoK80 produced only a slight amount of the ω-3 PUFA EEs. To enhance its reaction properties, the lipase K80 was immobilized on a hydrophobic bead to derive ImmK80; the biochemical properties and substrate specificity of ImmK80 are similar to those of LyoK80. ImmK80 was then used to produce ω-3 PUFA EEs in accordance with the same transesterification reaction. Unlike LyoK80, ImmK80 achieved a high ω-3 PUFA EE conversion yield of 86 % under a non-aqueous system via a one-step ethanol-feeding reaction. The ω-3 PUFA EEs were purified up to 92 % using a urea complexation method.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. Four different omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) sources (flaxseed, Isochrysis galbana, fish oil and DHA Gold) were supplemented to the diet of laying hens in such a way that the same amount of extra n-3 PUFA (120 mg per 100 g feed) was added to the diet and enrichment of egg yolk with n-3 PUFA was monitored. The obtained n-3 long chain (LC)-PUFA enrichment was not as efficient for all n-3 PUFA sources. The lowest enrichment efficiency (≈6%) was observed when flaxseed (α-linolenic acid source) was supplemented. Drastically higher n-3 LC-PUFA enrichment efficiencies were observed with supplementation of the n-3 LC-PUFA sources. However, for the n-3 LC-PUFA sources (fish oil, I. galbana and DHA Gold) differences in enrichment efficiencies were observed (≈55%, ≈30% and ≈45%, respectively), mainly because of different bio-accessibility of the n-3 PUFA and different n-3 PUFA profiles of the three sources. publisher: Elsevier articletitle: Impact of different omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) sources (flaxseed, Isochrysis galbana, fish oil and DHA Gold) on n-3 LC-PUFA enrichment (efficiency) in the egg yolk journaltitle: Journal of Functional Foods articlelink: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.04.021 content_type: article copyright: Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. ispartof: Journal of Functional Foods vol:19 issue:0 pages:821-827 status: published

Fish oil made from menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) can be used as a dietary supplement for the presence of high levels of the long-chained omega-3 fatty acids, viz. epentaenoic and docosahexanoic. In this work, for the first time, two different multidimensional approaches were developed and compared, in terms of peak capacity, for triacylglycerol characterization. In particular, silver ion chromatography with a silver-ion column and non-aqueous reverse-phase liquid chromatography with a C18 column were tested in both comprehensive (stop-flow) and off-line modes. The use of mass spectra attained by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization for both LC approaches, and the fatty acids methyl esters profile of menhaden oil obtained by gas chromatography analysis, greatly supported the elucidation of the triacylglycerol content in menhaden oil. The off-line approach afforded a better separation and, thus, higher peak capacity to allow identifying and semiquantifying more than 250 triacylglycerols. Such a huge number has never been reported for a menhaden oil sample.The main disadvantage of such an approach over the stop-flow one was the longer analysis time, mainly attributable to solvent exchange between the two dimensions.

We evaluated the dietary effects of graded levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) fed to broodstock female white bass Morone chrysops on reproductive performance, egg hatchability, and larval survival of sunshine bass (female white bass × male striped bass M. saxatilis) through the endogenous feeding stage. Dietary treatments consisted of four isocaloric, isonitrogenous diets formulated to contain 45% crude protein and 15% lipid with graded levels of menhaden oil (0, 25, 75, and 100%) or corn oil as the dietary lipid variable. Significant differences existed among the dietary groups in egg fatty acids, which reflected levels in the maternal diet, especially for the neutral lipid component. Similar trends were also found in fatty acids of the polar lipid component and conservation of HUFAs; significantly higher quantities of linoleic acid (18:2[n-6]) were associated with increasing dietary inclusion of corn oil. Eggs with higher hatchability were associated with higher levels of n-3 HUFA...

The immobilized 1,3-regiospecific lipase, Mucor miehei , was employed to catalyze the trans-esterification reaction to enrich n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) content of triglycerides (TG) in Menhaden oil under supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO 2 ). A supercritical reacting system with a syringe pump to pressurize CO 2 to supercritical condition and a high-pressure liquid pump to transfer the substrate into the reactor is applied to carry out experiments. Through the saponification of Menhaden oil followed by urea inclusion, 80.1 wt% of n-3 PUFA can be concentrated with containing 29.4 wt% EPA and 41.8 wt% DHA. The profile of conversion shows a constant increase at beginning 5 h, but after which the conversion levels off. Pressure up to 103.4 bars has a significant positive effect on the conversion of n-3 PUFA onto TG. Further increasing pressure, the conversion rate decreases due to the transformation of the spatial structure of lipase and leads to deactivate. The enzyme exhibits a good performance and stability in the region of 323 K. Ethanol is used as a co-solvent and its maximal addition is 10 wt% of the total substrates. The optimal substrate molar ratio of TG to n-3 PUFA is about 1/4 by considering the TG inhibition. The conversion in SCCO 2 appears 40 wt% higher than in n -hexane at ambient pressure after 5 h. The ping-pong bi-bi mechanism was proposed for the kinetic model of the reaction. The final rate equation can be simplified and expressed by a modified Michaelis–Menten equation. Based on the evaluated kinetic constants, there was 7.3% deviation of the total n-3 PUFA content between the experimental and the predicted data.

Lipase-catalyzed acidolysis of menhaden oil with a pinolenic acid (PLA) concentrate, prepared from pine nut oil, was studied in a solvent-free system. The PLA concentrate was prepared by urea complexation of the FA obtained by saponification of pine nut oil. Eight commercial lipases from different sources were screened for their ability to catalyze the acidolysis reaction. Two different types of structured lipids (SL) were synthesized. The first type, which has PLA residues as a primary FA residue at the sn-1,3 positions of the TAG, was synthesized using a 1,3-regiospecific lipase, namely, Lipozyme RM IM from Rhizomucor miehei. The second type of SL, which has PLA residues as a primary FA residue at both the sn-1,3 and sn-2 positions of the TAG, was synthesized using a nonspecific lipase, namely, Novozym 435 from Candida antarctica. The effects of variations in enzyme loading, temperature, and reaction time on PLA incorporation into the oil were monitored by GC analyses. The optimal temperature and enzyme loading for synthesis of the two types of SL were 50°C and 10% of the total weight of substrates for both enzymes. The optimal reaction time for the synthesis with Lipozyme RM IM was 16h, whereas the optimal reaction time for the synthesis mediated by Novozym 435 was 36 h. Pancreatic lipase-catalyzed sn-2 positional analyses were also carried out on the TAG samples.