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Beef cattle grazing patterns are influenced by topography in that cattle generally select grazing sites near water while avoiding steep, rugged terrain; therefore, forage is often left ungrazed in the mountainous uplands whereas lowland riparian zones can be heavily grazed. Improving uniformity in beef cattle terrain-use provides opportunities to increase forage harvest and sustain sensitive ecosystems. Studies suggest that terrain-use by cattle may be improved using genomic selection as combinations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) explained approximately 35% of the phenotypic variation in terrain-use indices that combined slope, elevation, and distance traveled from water. The objective of this study was to perform genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for six terrain-use traits (slope, elevation, vertical climb, distance traveled from water, rolling index, and rough index) in which we explored single-SNP associations, surveyed the genome in consecutive, one mega-base windows and examined quantitative trait loci (QTL) and underlying positional and functional candidate genes using bioinformatic tools to identify possible pleiotropic effects with other traits. Global positioning system (GPS) collars were used to track terrain-use patterns for 330 beef cows across 14 rangeland operations located in the western U.S. and Illumina BovineHD and BovineSNP50 SNP arrays were used to collect genomic data. Genotype quality control was conducted using PLINK software and association analyses were performed using BOLT, implementing a BayesC model. Quantitative trait loci detection was based upon the posterior inclusion probability (PIP) for individual loci and the proportion of total genetic variance explained by individual genomic windows. Analyses revealed 19 QTL that have been previously associated with health and production traits in dairy and beef cattle as well as 8 positional putative candidate genes that function in oxygen homeostasis, feed efficiency, and growth. These results suggest that beef cattle terrain-use traits are polygenic and may be pleiotropic with other production traits.

I t is not uncommon to hear statements such as these in the western United States. Dietary overlap between cattle and wild herbivores such as elk or deer has been 1 reported in various regions, seasons, and ecosystems. Competition between two species occurs when a shared resource is in limited supply or when the presence of one species disturbs the other. The simple fact that space and forage resources are shared might or might not, however, constitute a negative interaction between cattle and elk. 1 Studies in central Arizona 2 found that although diet similarity was high in certain years and seasons, there was actually little inter-specific competition between cattle and elk overall. Factors such as scale, season, and forage availability influ- ence the likelihood and degree of competition. Overgrazing isdetrimentaltosustainedlivestockandwildlifeproductivity. Livestock grazing can, however, be applied to positively manipulate habitat for wildlife. A review by Krausman et al. 3 cites a Montana case study in which a rotational cattle graz- ing system “maintained productive cover and forage for elk while enhancing native vegetation condition on all of the managed areas.” DOI: 10.2458/azu_rangelands_v34i1_t olleson

Radiotelemetry is an important tool for wildlife management and research, but in some cases attachment of neck collars can be problematic. An alternative in large mammals is to attach transmitters to the ear, though little is published about ear-tag radiotransmitter integrity (i.e., how long a transmitter emits a useful signal) and retention (i.e., how long a transmitter remains attached to an animal). Here we report ear- tag transmitter integrity and retention from 2 studies monitoring free-ranging calves (Bos taurus) in eastern Arizona, USA, and feral horse (Equus ferus) foals in northwestern Spain. Transmitter integrity and retention was lower for transmitters attached to foals then calves. The primary cause for reduced integrity was antennas breaking off, whereas the primary retention problem involved transmitters ripping out of the ear. When data were pooled across study sites, mean integrity and retention loss was 111 days and 180 days, respectively. Transmitters attached to the interior of the outer ears had retention rates >2 times higher than transmitters attached to the exterior of the outer ear (88% vs. 43%). We recommend that researchers intending to utilize ear-tag transmitters for studies on large domestic or wild animals attach transmitters to the interior of the outer ear, reinforce transmitter antennas in order to improve integrity, and report integrity and retention rates. 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Conserving large carnivores throughout the world will often require that they share the landscape with livestock. Minimizing depredations and increasing tolerance by livestock producers will be critical for conservation efforts. To investigate factors influencing calf mortality and producer detection rates (i.e., number of livestock killed by predators, found by producers, and correctly classified as to cause of death), we monitored radio-tagged domestic calves at two sites in the Mexican wolf recovery area (East Eagle [EE] and Adobe Ranch [AR]). Study areas differed in grazing practices, density of predators (mountain lions, black bears, coyotes, and Mexican wolves), and amount of effort spent monitoring cattle. We radiotagged 618 calves over 3.5 years, and 312 calves over 2 years on the EE and AR, respectively. The overall proportion of radioed calves that died was higher on the EE (6.5%) than on the AR (1.9%). Predators (especially mountain lions) accounted for 85% of mortality on the EE and 0% on the AR. Calves selected by predators were on average 25 days younger than the surviving cohort. Our results indicate that year-round calving, especially in areas with high predator densities, are subject to higher losses primarily because calves are exposed to mortality agents for longer periods of time rather than having higher natural rates of mortality. We found a significant difference in producer detection rates between study sites, likely due to differences in the intensity of monitoring cattle between sites. On the EE, the producer detected 77.5% of mortalities and on the AR, the producer detected 33% of mortalities. Our results support changing husbandry practices to limit calving to a seasonal endeavor and that performance payment may be a better compensation strategy than ex post compensation schemes. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Vigilant behavior in wild ungulates is critical to guard against predation. However, few studies have examined vigilant behavior in domesticated ungulates. Considering the expansion of large predator populations, understanding vigilant behavior and factors that influence it will help with the management of livestock. We observed adult female cattle (Bos taurus L.) in open-range conditions where large predators (wolves [Canis lupus L.] and mountain lions [Puma concolor (L.).]) were common threats during summers of 2005 and 2006 in eastern Arizona. This study was designed to determine 1) to what extent cattle exhibit vigilant behavior compared to published data on wild ungulates, 2) whether predation events influence vigilance rates of cattle, and 3) whether social and environmental factors affect vigilance of cattle. Cattle exhibited vigilant behavior (3% ± 0.19%) during peak foraging periods, but at a lower rate than wild ungulates. Cows with calves were more than twice as vigilant (4.5% ± 0.46%)...

Free-grazing ruminants forage in environments containing multiple levels of complexity; the forage selection process operates at the landscape scale, when selecting feeding sites, and at the plant part level when selecting actual bites. Pen trials have shown that livestock associate visual cues with feeding sites, however, no field study has shown that animals generalise from training with visual cues in pens in order to choose feeding sites in the field. Our study tested nine beef heifers’ ability to generalise a learned visual cue association to select feeding sites in a rangeland setting offering a novel forage, Lehmann lovegrass (LL). Initially, animals were trained to associate high quality feed with a visual cue during pen trials. We then tested animal response to the cue before and after they gained 14-day grazing experience with LL. Two identical field experiments (i.e., novel, before animals had experienced foraging LL versus familiar, after the animals had 14-day grazing experience with LL) were conducted over 3-day periods. Each experiment consisted of 27, 10-min trials. Animals were tested in plots containing high quality (HQ) and low quality (LQ) LL patches. For each trial, one of three randomly selected scenarios was presented: (1) the visual cue was placed in the HQ patch, (2) the visual cue was placed in the LQ patch, or (3) no visual cue was placed in either patch. Dependent variables were first patch-type chosen, bite rate in each patch, and number of observations of grazing in each patch. Cue presence influenced initial patch choice, bite rate, and grazing tallies within patch type. Heifers took 212 more HQ bites than LQ bites when the cue was placed in the HQ patch ( P P P

Social learning can be of critical importance to cattle grazing rangeland environments with high variability of food resources across space and time. Experienced individuals can greatly facilitate foraging decisions (what to eat and where to eat) of naïve peers in such settings. We conducted an experiment with cattle to investigate strength and persistence of socially induced food and feeding site avoidance behaviours. Sixteen naïve yearling steers were paired with 16 social models that had either not been trained (control) or been trained with an emetic (LiCl), electrical shock or both to avoid: (a) an unsafe high-quality food (LiCl); (b) an unsafe high-quality feeding site (shock); or (c) both the unsafe high-quality food and the unsafe high-quality feeding site (LiCl + shock). Ten-minute trials were conducted in an experimental arena containing three artificial feeding sites each consisting of groups of bowls with either high- (HQ) or moderate-quality (MQ) foods (HQ = barley and oat grain; MQ = Bermuda grass hay). Unsafe high-quality (UHQ, surrounded by traffic cones) and safe moderate-quality (SMQ) feeding sites consisted of nine rubber bowls containing either HQ or MQ foods. The safe high-quality (SHQ) feeding site consisted of two groups of eight bowls containing HQ food, which surrounded the UHQ and SMQ feeding sites. Social models did not induce diet and feeding site avoidance behaviours in naïve steers; they exerted small and transient changes in the feeding behaviour of their naïve counterparts. Consequences to the individual outweighed social influences; when naïve animals experienced the same punishment contingencies as their social models, their behavioural patterns closely resembled those of their social model. Conditioned food and location aversions via LiCl were apparently influenced by prior exposure to target foods and the experimental arena. Conversely, conditioned feeding site avoidance via shock was apparently not influenced by prior exposure to target foods or the experimental arena.

Many grazing-management challenges stem from poor livestock distribution resulting in overuse of some areas and low utilization of others. Managing livestock-distribution patterns requires knowledge of pasture characteristics and animal behavior patterns. Behavioral patterns result from recognizable processes that include inherited attributes, individual and social learning systems, cue-consequence specificity, predispositions toward novel stimuli, and spatial memory. Through these behavioral mechanisms, animals form and revise preferences and aversions for specific locations in their foraging landscape. To accomplish habitat selection, domestic herbivores use sight and sound cues to seek and return to high-quality foraging locations. Nested within habitat selection are learned diet preferences and aversions by which ungulate herbivores associate taste with positive or negative postingestive feedback. The deliberate and careful modification of animal attributes and habitat characteristics could yield options for adaptive rangeland management. In this article, we describe the basic principles that underlie how animals make decisions about where to forage and how long to stay in a particular habitat. We also suggest management practices designed to modify animal behavior and alter habitat-use patterns.

Animals possess an external or skin-defense system that protects them from aggressions inflicted by predators, and an internal or gut-defense system that deters them from over-ingesting toxins. We conducted a study with cattle to investigate the relation between skin- and gut-defense systems and their influence on diet and habitat selection. Sixteen yearling steers were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups and were exposed individually to an experimental arena during multiple 10 min trials during which they were allowed to select between an unsafe high quality habitat (UHQ) surrounded by traffic cones (visual cues), a safe, uncued high quality habitat (SHQ), or a safe, uncued moderate quality habitat (SMQ). Experimental habitats were made up of groups of bowls containing barley and oat grain (UHQ and SHQ habitats) or Bermuda grass hay (SMQ habitat). Treatments consisted of no aversions (control group), or of averted groups using: (a) electric shock; (b) lithium chloride (LiCl); or (c) both LiCl and electric shock. Steers in the shock group avoided UHQ almost completely, spending significantly less time there than control steers ( P< 0.05), but consumed as much HQ forage from SHQ habitat as control steers. Thus, steers in this group did not become averted to the HQ food in uncued locations. Moreover, location avoidance of steers in this group did not extinguish after shock collars were removed or when location of the UHQ habitat was switched. Steers in the LiCl group consumed significantly less HQ forage than control steers, both in UHQ habitat and SHQ habitat, and spent significantly less time than control steers in UHQ and SHQ habitats. Whereas food aversion remained unchanged during experimentation and extinction trials, location avoidance of steers in the LiCl group rapidly extinguished when location of habitats was switched. Thus, steers averted with LiCl avoided HQ food irrespective of its location or association with visual cues. Steers in the LiCl + shock group almost completely avoided HQ forage in UHQ and SHQ habitats and spent less time than the control steers in both of these

Numerous studies suggest some cows use certain areas (e.g. riparian habitats) more than others (e.g. uplands), but the research generally has been based on observations of small numbers of animals or on general inspections of entire herds. Consequently, it is not known if individual animals differ in home range (HR) and habitat use (HU) or if behavioral characteristics are a valid selection tool to decrease cattle use of riparian habitats. We conducted field observations of the differences in HR and HU among adult cows on summer range in Idaho. We located 116 cows on 4970 occasions during 1990, and 87 cows on 3995 occasions during 1991. Individual cows occupied one of four HR areas, and the majority (78%) showed high consistency in HR, despite drought, ad hoc management procedures and occasional herding. Thirty-three percent (n = 29) of the 87 animals monitored during 1990 and 1991 exhibited total HR fidelity between years, whereas 45% (n = 39), 18% (n = 16) and 3% (n = 3) of the animals differed slightly, moderately and substantially in HR use. All cows tended to shift their activities (i.e., centroid) to the south, apparently in response to decreasing water availability between 1990 and 1991. Cows in the four HR groups differed in the degree to which they foraged and rested in riparian and upland habitats, largely depending on the physical characteristics of the HR area. Given the high degree of home range fidelity in our study and those of others, we submit that selective culling may effectively change cattle distribution and decrease the use of riparian areas.

A three-year study was conducted in the Chihuahuan Desert in Southwestern New Mexico to evaluate the effectiveness of revegetating a dryland pasture that was heavily infested with yellow starthistle within the context of the successional weed management model. A prescribed burn treatment of the entire study site (designed disturbance) was followed by single-entry revegetation (controlled colonization) and weed suppression (controlled species performance) treatments. Four native perennial grass species were paired with 4 yellow starthistle suppression treatments. We conclude that an integrated, single-entry approach failed to effectively revegetate yellow starthistle-infested dryland pasture in the Chihuahuan Desert, primarily due to a historic severe drought that occurred soon after grasses were seeded. Different strategies and tactics will be required to manage yellow starthistle in the Southwestern USA than have been previously applied in other areas.

Wild and domestic ungulates modify their behaviour in the presence of olfactory and visual cues of predators but investigations have not exposed a domestic species to a series of cues representing various predators and other ungulate herbivores. We used wolf (Canis lupus), mountain lion (Puma concolor), and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) stimuli (olfactory and visual), and a control (no stimuli) to experimentally test for differences in behaviour of cattle (Bos taurus) raised in Arizona. We measured (1) vigilance, (2) foraging rates, (3) giving up density (GUD) of high quality foods and (4) time spent in high quality forage locations in response to location of stimuli treatments. In general, we found a consistent pattern in that wolf and deer treatments caused disparate results in all 4 response variables. Wolf stimuli significantly increased cattle vigilance and decreased cattle foraging rates; conversely, deer stimuli significantly increased cattle foraging rate and increased cattle use of high quality forage areas containing stimuli. Mountain lion stimuli did not significantly impact any of the 4 response variables. Our findings suggest that domestic herbivores react to predatory stimuli, can differentiate between stimuli representing two predatory species, and suggest that cattle may reduce antipredatory behaviour when near heterospecifics.

A study was conducted in an eight-arm radial maze to determine if cattle with various foraging experiences could facilitate location of feeding sites by other cattle. Heifers assigned as “followers” (n=24) were initially trained to expect straw at the end of each arm. Initial training of heifers assigned as “leaders” (n=12) differed based on the three following treatments:(1) no-experience, (2) barley in the same two arms, and (3) barley in two arms but locations changed daily. During training, leaders with barley in fixed locations foraged more efficiently by traveling to fewer (P

We tested the hypothesis that cattle aided by visual cues would be more efficient than uncued animals in locating and consuming foods placed in either fixed or variable locations within a 0.64-ha experimental pasture. Eight yearling steers were randomly selected and trained to associate traffic barricades and traffic cones with high- (oat–barley mixture) and low- (straw) quality foods, respectively. Initially steers were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 food location/visual cue treatments: fixed locations/with cues (F/C), variable locations/with cues (V/C), fixed locations/no cues (F/NC), or variable locations/no cues (V/NC). High- and low-quality foods and their respective cue (or no cue) were placed in the experimental pasture. Individual animals were allowed to explore the pasture for 10 min twice per day every other day for 1 week. Minutes until feeding, first feed type consumed (i.e., high-quality, low-quality, or no food consumed), animal location and activity (i.e., feeding, standing, or moving), and total intake of high- and low-quality feed were recorded during each 10-min trial. At the end of each week, location/visual cue treatments were randomly assigned to another 2 steers, which permitted an independent test of each animal in each treatment over a 4-week period. Animals in the F/C and V/C treatments took about 2 min to initially locate and consume a food, compared to F/NC and V/NC animals who took nearly 4 and 6 min, respectively. The high-quality food was the first food located and consumed by F/C, V/C, F/NC, and V/NC animals during 79, 77, 67, and 54% of sampling occasions, respectively. Cued animals typically spent more time feeding (P=0.0004) and less time standing (P=0.005) than uncued animals. Cued animals had a higher mean intake than uncued animals of high- (P=0.001) and low- (P=0.04) quality food. Mean high-quality intake for F/C, V/C, F/NC, and V/NC treatments was 266, 245, 214, and 126 (±22) g, respectively; mean low-quality intake for the same treatments was 36, 32, 12, and 10 (±10) g. Cued animals also consumed more food per distance traveled than uncued animals (P=0.005). Animals located food quicker (P=0.03) and consumed more high-quality food (P=0.02) when food locations were constant than when they were variable. Our data strongly indicate that cattle can learn to associate visual cues with disparate food qualities and use this information to forage more efficiently in both fixed and variable foraging environments.

The Walker Basin Allotment grazing system in central Arizona is designed to allocate resource use under elk (Cervus elaphus L.) and cattle (Bos taurus L.) grazing. The grazing system was designed to promote biologically acceptable levels of forage use on the half of the allotment scheduled for cattle grazing and to rest the other half by attracting elk to pastures recently grazed by cattle. The objectives of our 2-year study were to determine whether the grazing system facilitated proper forage use as defined by recent forage use and residual stubble height guidelines (i.e., 30 to 40% use and an 8- to 10-cm stubble height) and whether the system rested one half of the allotment from elk and cattle grazing. Mean (+/- SEM) total elk and cattle forage use for western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii Rydb.), the key forage species, was 32 and 61% +/- 7 in 1997 and 1998, respectively; corresponding mean (+/- SEM) stubble heights were 11 and 10 cm +/- 0.6. Mean total cattle and elk forage use in 1998 (61%) exceeded the 30 to 40% use guidelines. However, mean end-of-year stubble height was never below 10 cm. The grazing system did not provide half the allotment with complete rest; elk used all study pastures. Elk use was higher in pastures with heavier tree cover and steeper terrain in both years, regardless of where cattle grazing occurred. Elk grazing patterns were apparently more dependent on tree cover and topography than any changes in forage caused by the grazing system. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v55i4_halstead

Forage use data can help rangeland and wildlife managers make informed decisions. However, managers need to know if forage use techniques that are commonly used to estimate ungulate herbivory under field conditions produce comparable results. The objective of this 2-year study was to directly compare forage use measurements obtained via the paired-plot method and 2 height-weight methods (using on-site height-weight curves and the pre-established United States Forest Service height-weight gauge). In June, July, and October of 1997 and 1998, we measured forage use of western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii Rydb.) by cattle (Bos taurus L.) and wild ungulates, mainly elk (Cervus elaphus L.). On-site height-weight curves and the USFS gauge consistently produced lower estimates (overall means = 8 and 7%, respectively) than the paired-plot method (overall mean = 31%). Height-weight estimates did not differ (P > 0.05) when calculated with either on-site curves or the USFS gauge. Within sampling areas, paired-plot estimates were relatively more precise (mean CV = 63%) than on-site curves (mean CV = 238%) or the USFS gauge (mean CV = 271%). Selective grazing likely contributed to higher CVs for height-weight techniques. Our findings are important for rangeland and wildlife managers because the forage monitoring technique they use may influence the results obtained and, consequently, grazing management and wildlife harvest decisions. Managers should ensure that chosen monitoring techniques provide an appropriate evaluation of management goals and objectives. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v53i5_halstead

We evaluated fecal nitrogen (FN) and fecal phosphorus (FP) concentrations as indicators of different dietary nitrogen (DN) and dietary phosphorus (DP) levels fed to 11 penned, white-tailed deer does (Odocoileus virginianus) during summer 1985. We fed deer pelleted rations containing 2 levels of DN (2.64 and 1.18%) or DP (0.49 and 0.30%) during 2 consecutive, 16-day trials. We collected fecal pellets from each animal during the last 6 days of each trial. Pooled mean FN concentrations for corresponding high and low DN levels were as follows: total FN = 2.26 and 1.45% (P = 0.003), neutral detergent FN = 0.60 and 0.39% (P = 0.019), and metabolic FN = 1.67 and 1.06% (P = 0.001). Pooled mean FP concentrations for corresponding high and medium DP levels were as follows: total FP = 1.23 and 0.44% (P = 0.002), neutral detergent FP = 0.12 and 0.10% (P = 0.022), and endogenous FP = 1.11 and 0.33% (P = 0.002). Under controlled conditions FN and FP concentrations can be used to discern relatively large differences in DN and DP levels of whitetailed deer. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 54(3):383-389 Nutrient levels of hand-collected forages have been used as indicators of dietary quality (Cook 1964), but this is generally an unreliable method for determining diet quality of free-ranging ungulates (Theurer et al. 1976) due to the apparent ability of ungulates to select the most nutritious forage available (Swift 1948). Esophageal fistulization is usually impractical for studying diet quality of free-ranging wild ungulates (Leslie and Starkey 1985) and, moreover, is unsuitable for DP assessment due to salivary phosphorus (P) contamination (Holechek et al. 1985). Blood samples require manual restraint or death of animals and, given the complex effects of homeostatic regulation of mineral metabolism, blood P concentrations may not be sufficiently sensitive to assess P status (Underwood 1981). The use of fecal nutrient levels to study diet quality may be a feasible noninvasive alternative to other techniques that require disturbance, stress, or death of wild ungulates (Leslie and Starkey 1985). Researchers have used fecal nutrient levels to predict dietary nutrient levels in elk (Cervus elaphus) (Mould and Robbins 1981, Leslie and Starkey 1985), black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) (Leslie and Starkey 1985, Mubanga et al. 1985), white-tailed deer (Jenks et al. 1989, Leslie et al. 1989), moose (Alces alces) (Leslie et al. 1989), and domestic livestock (Belonje and Van den Berg 1980a,b; Holechek et al. 1982, 1985). The advantages (Leslie and Starkey 1987) and disadvantages (Hobbs 1987) of FN as an indicator of DN in free-ranging deer diets have been discussed, but little controlled research has been conducted to determine the utility of using fecal indices for nutrient assessment of wild ungulate diets, particularly for white-tailed deer. Leslie and Starkey (1987) argued for continued research toward refining the use of fecal indices to measure the quality of wild ungulate diets. We conducted a controlled study involving 2 consecutive feeding trials to determine whether FN and FP concentrations could be used to detect differences in DN and DP levels fed to penned, white-tailed deer does. We thank C. Schreiner IV and the Y. O. Ranch employees of Mountain Home, Texas, for their kindness, cooperation, and generous use of study pens and other facilities. Critically constructive comments on the manuscript were provided by T. J. DeLiberto, S. Demarais, and F. C. Bryant. We are grateful to E. A. Howery for assistance with data collection and tabulation and to G. R. Scott and N. C. Jordan for lab assistance. Financial support was provided by the Caesar Kleberg Foundation for Wildlife Conservation and Texas Tech University. This is publication T-9577 of The College of Agricultural Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. 'Present address: Range Science Department, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5230.