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The cocoa (Theobroma cacao) fermentation was carried out using starter consortia of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Acetobacter aceti with 10% inoculum. The fermented beans were soaked with sterile water (1:3 wt/v) for the duration of 1, 3, and 5 h. The treated beans were dried to the moisture content of 7 ± 1%. The samples were then roasted, ground and subjected to steam distillation. The volatiles were extracted and identified using GC-MS. The samples soaked for 1 h scored 100% cut score along with 0.85% fermentation index. The volatile and non-volatiles were associated with beans treated in water after fermentation. Volatile compounds were classified as esters, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, pyrazines, hydroperoxides, and hydrocarbons. Most of the oxygenated aliphatic compounds and aromatics were potentially derived via an acetic acid and shikimic acid pathways, respectively. Untreated cocoa beans contained 12 sesquiterpene hydrocarbons potentially derived through the mevalonic acid pathway and contributed to harsh notes. Also, these metabolites were completely absent in the treated samples indicating depletion while soaking. Thus, the treated samples (1 h) had enhanced quality with high flavor notes with 8.5 rating on sensory evaluation. Thus, these soaking treatments with fermentation lead to improvement of flavor profiles which confers improved cocoa quality.

Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is widely cultivated as a spice for its aromatic and pungent components. The essential oil and oleoresins from ginger are valuable products responsible for the characteristic flavor and pungency. Both are used in several food products such as soft beverages and also in many types of pharmaceutical formulations. More than 100 compounds have been reported from ginger, some of which are isolated and characterized, others are tentatively identified by GC-MS and / or LC-MS. [6]-Gingerol, the major gingerol in ginger rhizomes, has been found to possess many interesting pharmacological and physiological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and cardiotonic effects. Ginger is considered as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) by Food and Drug Administration (FDA), USA. Due to all these properties, ginger has gained considerable attention in developed countries in recent years, especially for its use in the treatment of inflammatory conditions. The present review is a persuasive presentation of the current information on processing, chemistry, biological activities, and medicinal uses of ginger. Further studies are required for the validation of the beneficial uses. Formulation for novel products and new usages may emerge in the years to come, based on the revealed results of various studies.

The antioxidant and cytoprotective properties of 4-hydroxyisophthalic acid (4-HIPA) isolated from the Decalepis hamiltonii roots was examined. 4-HIPA is a potent scavenger of superoxide (O 2 − ), hydroxyl ( OH), nitric oxide ( NO), and lipid peroxide (LOO ) physiologically relevant free radicals with IC 50 values in the nanomolar (2–187) range. 4-HIPA also exhibits a concentration dependent secondary antioxidant activities like reducing power, metal chelating activity, and inhibition of protein carbonylation. Further, 4-HIPA at nanomolar concentration prevented CuSO 4 -induced human LDL oxidation. 4-HIPA demonstrated cytoprotective activity in primary hepatocytes and Ehrlich Ascites tumour (EAT) cells against oxidative stress inducing xenobiotics apart from the in vitro free radical scavenging activity. The mechanism of cytoprotective action involved maintaining the intracellular glutathione (GSH), scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and inhibition of lipid peroxidation (LPO). Thus, 4-HIPA is a novel bioactive molecule with potential health implications.

Tea is the most widely used ancient beverage in the world and black tea possesses many biological effects on the organisms. It acts as an effective antioxidant because of its free radical-scavenging and metal-chelating ability. Due to this, it is active against inflammation, clastogenesis, and several types of cancer. Tea reduces DNA damage and mutagenesis due to oxidative stress or the presence of pro-mutagens through antioxidant function, blocking activation pathways of mutagens, suppressing transcription of enzymes involved etc. Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) peroxidation, suppression of fatty acid synthase etc., suggest that tea may have a role in preventing cardiovascular diseases. Some epidemiological studies support the protective role of black tea against cardiovascular diseases but some do not. Besides, black tea has beneficial effects on the gastrointestinal tract; it affects motility, absorption, microflora etc., by influencing the hormonal balance and antioxidant function black tea improves bone mineral density. It is also antiviral due to its enzyme-inhibiting and receptor-blocking properties. Although its role in cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and prostate is confirmed, its effect against urinary tract cancer is uncertain and further studies are required. Apart from these, excess consumption may lead to the formation of a stained pellicle layer on teeth, which is difficult to eliminate, inhibits trypsin, influences mineral absorption, causes convulsions etc. Excess caffeine intake may have adverse effects on selected organs as reported in studies on some organisms. These reports indicate that there is a wide scope of further research for the efficient use of black tea active conserves/isolates to reap health benefits.

Low-grade coffee beans (triage) are widely known to adversely affect the beverage quality. These represent about 15–20% of coffee production on weight basis and attempts are being explored for their utilization. These beans were evaluated for the physico-chemical characteristics and subjected to soxhlet extraction using the solvents (viz., hexane, chloroform, acetone and methanol successively). The extracts were evaluated for antioxidant potential through in vitro models such as radical scavenging activity (α,α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl radical), antioxidant activity (β-carotene-linoleate model system), reducing power (iron reducing activity) and antioxidant capacity (phosphomolybdenum complex). Highest yield of extract (12%) was obtained with methanol followed by hexane (8%) and chloroform (1.5%). Lowest was obtained with acetone ( chlorogenic acid > BHA > methanol extract. The methanol extract was found to contain total phenolics (21.90 ± 0.50%), chlorogenic acid (34.16 ± 0.27%) and caffeine (8.25 ± 0.36%). The high antioxidant potential of the methanol extract of low-grade coffee beans is due to the presence of phenolic compounds including chlorogenic acids, which make them more suitable as a source of natural antioxidant and their utility can be explored in food industry.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, the cinnamon of commerce, provides various types of oils depending on the part of the plant distilled. At present, cinnamon fruits are not being used for the production of volatile oils, also no report is available on its biological activities. Cinnamon fruits were powdered and extracted with benzene, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), methanol and water for 8 h each. The extracts were filtered, concentrated and dried under vacuum. Antibacterial activity of the above extracts were evaluated using pour plate method at 250, 500 and 1000 ppm concentrations against Bacillus cereus, B. coagulans, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. All the crude extracts showed a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. EtOAc and benzene extract showed higher antibacterial activity than methanol and water extracts.

Green teas were made by inactivating the enzymes present in fresh leaves of coarse/pruned (unused) and normal (used for tea) grades using different sources of thermal energies. Green teas were extracted in a Soxhlet using different solvents. The obtained miscella was subjected to concentration to give the extract. The extract was subjected to solvent-solvent extraction. Solvent extract was concentrated to obtain conserve. The yields of conserves are 17 +/- 0.8 and 15 +/- 0.8% from green teas of normal and coarse tea leaves, respectively. The radical scavenging activity of these extracts was evaluated using a DPPH in vitro model system. The total polyphenol content was also determined and found to be higher in conserves from normal tea leaves. However, radical scavenging activity of conserves from coarse and normal green tea leaves was found to be >90% at 15 ppm concentration. The HPLC profiles of these conserves were used to quantify the total catechin content with the help of calibration curves prepared using authentic samples at known concentrations. The total catechin content is found to be in the range of 55-85%. Results indicated that the extracts from coarse leaves also possess potential biological activity and could be used as nutraceuticals as well as for preservation purposes in food formulations.

Coffee is one of the most popular beverages in the world. It is consumed for its refreshing and stimulating properties. Carbohydrates are the major constituents of coffee beans and serve various functions like binding of aroma, stabilization of foam, formation of sedimentation, and increased viscosity of the extract. The principal low molecular weight carbohydrate is sucrose and no evidence of other simple oligosaccharides has been found. Polysaccharide fraction from green coffee is dominated by arabinogalactan, galactomannan, and cellulose. The polysaccharide content is reduced during roasting due to degradation to low molecular weight carbohydrates (viz., mono and oligosaccharide) and become more extractable. Various methods that can be employed to extract the carbohydrate from roasted coffee are sequential extraction, acid hydroloysis, hot water extraction, enzymatic extraction etc. Carbohydrates from coffee can be quantitatively determined by liquid chromatography, high performance anion exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, and high performance liquid chromatography. Besides improving the organoleptic quality of the coffee beverage, carbohydrates also possess various biological activities such as lowering colon cancer risk. Besides their sheer mass, a variety of evidences testify to the important contribution that the polysaccharide content makes to the character of the final brew. Although a number of chemical and enzymatic methods have been devised to isolate and quantify the carbohydrates of R&G coffee, till date hot water extraction is the only method which can be accepted as a most feasible process and hence, there is wide scope of further research for the efficient and economically viable technology for extraction of carbohydrates from coffee.

Roots of Decalepis hamiltonii are consumed as pickles and as a beverage and are believed to possess health-promoting properties. Roots of D. hamiltonii exhibit antioxidant properties. We have isolated an antioxidant compound from the aqueous extract of the roots of D. hamiltonii and identified it as ellagic acid (EA), based on NMR and MS. EA exhibited free radical-scavenging activity, inhibited LDL oxidation and showed cytoprotective effect against xenobiotic-induced oxidative stress in Ehrlich Ascites tumor cells. EA is a new addition to the list of antioxidant compounds in the roots of D. hamiltonii.

Oleoresin of curry leaves (Murraya koenigii Spreng.), obtained using acetone, was evaluated for its antioxidant activity using a β-carotene–linoleic acid model system along with the other extracts obtained using methanol, water and volatile oil. The oleoresin showed maximum activity of 83.2% at 100 ppm among all other extractives in comparison to a synthetic antioxidant, namely, butylated hydroxy anisole which exhibited 90.2% activity at the same concentration. The methanol and water extracts showed activities of 16.7% and 11.3%, respectively, at the same concentration. The volatile oil showed negligible (

Composition and physical properties were investigated of volatile oil from the pericarp of the large cardamom (Amomum subulatum). The volatile oil was obtained by Clevenger hydrodistillation, which resulted in a 0.18% yield. The oil was found to have a specific gravity of 0.9148, a refractive index of 1.4733 and an optical rotation of -7.700. GC MS analysis of the oil led to the identification of 37 compounds, which represented >98% of the total oil. The predominant constituents of the oil were found to be 1,8-cineole (38.7%), germacrene D (3.0%), alpha-pinene (2.8%) and beta-selinene (2.7%). Compared with oil obtained from the seeds, oil from the pericarp contained

Microwave processing and cooking of foods is a recent development, which is gaining momentum in household as well as large-scale food applications. Processing of spices using microwaves is a newer dimension. This alternative methodology is preferred, due to the convenience and ease of handling. In Indian tradition, most of the spices are subjected to roasting before addition to food preparations. In the present study, cumin seeds are subjected to heating by microwaves, using various power levels, and conventional roasting at different temperatures. The conditions were standardized in both methods. The volatile oils distilled from these samples were analysed by GC and GC–MS. The results indicated that the microwave-heated samples showed better retention of characteristic flavour compounds, such as aldehydes, than did the conventionally roasted samples. Comparative data on yield, chemical composition, flavour quality and physicochemical parameters of the volatile oils are presented.

Saps (latex) from seven Indian mango varieties were collected immediately after destalking the mature fruit. The amount of sap so collected varied from variety to variety. Sap was separable into two phases, aqueous and nonaqueous, and their ratio was different for each variety. GC-MS analysis of the nonaqueous phase of saps revealed that they mainly consisted of mono-terpenes viz, β-myrcene, trans-/cis-ocimene and limonene being major. There were however, differences in the composition and concentrations of these terpenoid compounds.

Volatile oil from Nigerian cardamom (Aframomum daniellii (Hook. f.) K. Schum.) was analysed by GC and GC MS and its physicochemical and sensory properties were compared to those of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) from India. 41 constituents were identified in A. daniellii essential oil; 1,8-cineole was the predominant constituent (59.8%), followed by beta-pinene, alpha-terpineol, alpha-pinene and alpha-terpinyl acetate (13.2, 9.3, 4.3 and 3.2%, respectively). Oil composition was similar to that of large cardamom, particularly with respect to the presence of monoterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives. However, only Nigerian cardamom oil contained alpha-terpinyl acetate, which is believed to improve the flavour quality of cardamom oils.

Phenolics are widespread dietary antioxidants. Among these, chlorogenic acids (CGAs) received considerable attention for their wide distribution and part of human diet with potential biological effects. CGAs (71 compounds), being esters of derivatives of cinnamic acids with quinic acid are widely distributed in plant materials. Coffee is among the highest found in plants, ranging from 4 to 14%. Besides, these are reported in plant foods such as apples, pears, carrot, tomato, sweet potato, Phyllostachys edulis, oilseeds, Prunus domestica L, cherries, and eggplant. The traditional Chinese medicinal plants such as flowers and buds of Lonicera japonica Thunb and the leaves of Eucommia ulmodies contained CGAs as bioactive compound. These play an important role in the formation of roasted coffee flavor and have a marked influence on coffee cup quality. CGAs are considered as main precursors of coffee flavor and pigments. Recent technological advancements in the separation and purification of CGAs such as molecular-imprinted polymer technique; microwave-assisted extraction; pH gradient counter current chromatography has also been described. The consumption of coffee correlated to several health benefits such as reducing the risk of human chronic diseases such as inflammation, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease owing to its antioxidant potential.

The efficacy of Dehydrozingerone (DZ; dehydroderivative of zingerone) as an antifungal agent and its mode of action against food spoilage fungal pathogens was studied and presented. DZ is a constituent of ginger (Zingiber officinale rhizomes) and structural half analogue of curcumin. Its efficacy against Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Fusarium oxysporum and Penicillium chrysogenum was evaluated. Effect of DZ on the growth and sporulation of A. ochraceus was also studied. The fungal species were susceptible to DZ and the minimum inhibitory concentration and fungicidal concentration ranged from 755 to 911 μM and 880 to 1041 μM respectively. The mycelial and spore germination was significantly inhibited; reduction in the weight of the cell mass, carbohydrate, protein, DNA and RNA constituents in the cells isolated from cultures of A. ochraceus grown with DZ were observed. Scanning electron microscopy studies revealed morphological observations such as cell lysis, inhibition and morphological alterations in hyphae and sporulation in A. ochraceus on treatment with DZ. Practical application: Current investigations revealed that DZ is a potential antifungal agent and can find application as an additive or adjuvant in food and pharmaceutical industries after appropriate toxicological studies.

Currently, there is a great deal of interest in the study of natural compounds with free-radical-scavenging activity because of their potential role in maintaining human health and preventing diseases. In this paper, we report the antioxidant and cytoprotective properties of 2,4,8-trihydroxybicyclo [3.2.1]octan-3-one (TBO) isolated from the aqueous extract of Decalepis hamiltonii roots. Our results show that TBO is a potent scavenger of superoxide (O 2 · - ), hydroxyl ( · OH), nitric oxide ( · NO) and lipid peroxide (LOO · ) ‐ physiologically relevant free radicals with IC 50 values in nmolar (42 ‐ 281) range. TBO also exhibited concentration-dependent secondary antioxidant activities such as reducing power, metal-chelating activity and inhibition of protein carbonylation. Further, TBO at nmolar concentration prevented CuSO 4 -induced human LDL oxidation. Apart from the in vitro free-radical-scavenging activity, TBO demonstrated cytoprotective activity in primary hepatocytes and Ehrlich ascites tumour (EAT) cells against oxidative-stress-inducing xenobiotics. The mechanism of cytoprotective action involved maintaining the intracellular glutathione (GSH), scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inhibiting lipid peroxidation (LPO). Based on the results, it is suggested that TBO is a novel bioactive molecule with implications in both prevention and amelioration of diseases involving oxidative stress as well as in the general well-being.

Natural compounds with free-radical scavenging activity have potential role in maintaining human health and preventing diseases. In this study, we report the antioxidant and cytoprotective properties of 14-aminotetradecanoic acid (ATDA) isolated from the Decalepis hamiltonii roots. ATDA is a potent scavenger of superoxide (O2 •−), hydroxyl (•OH), nitric oxide (•NO), and lipid peroxide (LOO•) physiologically relevant free radicals with IC50 values in nM (36–323) range. ATDA also exhibits concentration-dependent secondary antioxidant activities like reducing power, metal-chelating activity, and inhibition of protein carbonylation. Further, ATDA at nM concentration prevented CuSO4-induced human LDL oxidation. ATDA demonstrated cytoprotective activity in primary hepatocytes and Ehrlich ascites tumor cells against oxidative stress inducing xenobiotics apart from the in vitro free-radical scavenging activity. The mechanism of cytoprotective action involved maintaining the intracellular glutathione, scavenging of reactive oxygen species, and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. It is suggested that ATDA is a novel bioactive molecule with potential health implications.

The genus Cinnamomum comprises of several hundreds of species, which are distributed in Asia and Australia. Cinnamomum zeylanicum, the source of cinnamon bark and leaf oils, is an indigenous tree of Sri Lanka, although most oil now comes from cultivated areas. C. zeylanicum is an important spice and aromatic crop having wide applications in flavoring, perfumery, beverages, and medicines. Volatile oils from different parts of cinnamon such as leaves, bark, fruits, root bark, flowers, and buds have been isolated by hydro distillation/steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction. The chemical compositions of the volatile oils have been identified by GC and GC-MS. More than 80 compounds were identified from different parts of cinnamon. The leaf oil has a major component called eugenol. Cinnamaldehyde and camphor have been reported to be the major components of volatile oils from stem bark and root bark, respectively. Trans-cinnamyl acetate was found to be the major compound in fruits, flowers, and fruit stalks. These volatile oils were found to exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic activities. C. zeylanicum bark and fruits were found to contain proanthocyandins with doubly linked bis-flavan-3-ol units in the molecule. The present review provides a coherent presentation of scattered literature on the chemistry, biogenesis, and biological activities of cinnamon.

Roots of Decalepis hamiltonii have a strong aromatic aroma and sweet taste. They are used as food in India (frequently pickled with lime) and also have antimicrobial and insecticidal properties. In this study a volatile oil was obtained from the roots of D. hamiltonii by steam distillation. GC-MS showed that around 96% of the oil was comprised of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde. Other compounds were also identified which may contribute to the aroma and biological properties of the root. These included benzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, methyl salicylate, 2-phenylethyl alcohol, ethyl salicylate, p-anisaldehyde and vanillin.

Volatile compounds were isolated from the fragrant roots of Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus) by steam distillation and identified. 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde accounted for approx. 91% of the extract. The remainder consisted of >40 compounds, among which ledol and nerolidol predominated (4.5 and 1.2%, respectively). Other minor constituents included borneol, linalyl acetate, dihydrocarvyl acetate, salicylaldehyde, alpha-terpinyl acetate and 1,8- cineol.

Volatile compounds were determined in jamun (Syzygium cumini L.), an underutilized tropical fruit with a delicate flavour, and medicinal and therapeutic properties. 29 compounds were identified by GC-MS; 1 compound could not be identified. Predominant consituents were trans- and cis-ocimene, beta-myrcene and alpha-terpineol. The characteristic flavour of jamun was attributed to the presence of 3 esters (dihydrocarvyl acetate, geranyl butyrate and terpinyl valerate).

A convenient semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for separating a mixture of triterpenoids (alpha-amyrin, beta-amyrin, and lupeol) and their corresponding acetates from the swallow roots (Decalepis hamiltonii Wight and Arn), which are known to have potential bioactive properties, is described. The swallow roots are found to be one of the richest natural sources for these compounds. The hexane extract of the dried spent root on column chromatography yields mixtures (i.e., triterpenoids and their acetates) containing at least three compounds in each. These could not be further separated using the routine chromatographic techniques, such as classical column chromatography and preparative thin-layer chromatography using various solvent systems. Therefore, the optimal conditions are determined on reversed-phase HPLC for their separation and are characterized using spectral data, particularly by nuclear magnetic resonance with physical and chemical properties.

Aldose reductase, the first key enzyme in the polyol pathway, is involved in complications of diabetes. Sclerotiorin, isolated and purified from the fermented broth of Penicillium frequentans, inhibited aldose reductase with an IC(50 )0.4 microM. The inhibitor also showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus spp.

Structures of insect growth inhibitive and antifeedant neo-clerodane diterpenes, clerodendrin B and C, isolated from the leaves of Clerodendron inerme, were established mainly by NMR spectral analysis.

The steam-distilled oil of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) flowers was analyzed by GC and GC-MS. It consists of 23% hydrocarbons and 74% oxygenated compounds. A total of 26 compounds constituting approximately 97% of the oil were characterized. (E)-Cinnamyl acetate (41.98%), trans-alpha-bergamotene (7.97%), and caryophyllene oxide (7.2%) are found to be major compounds. This is the first report on the chemical composition of the flower oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum.

Curcumin, the yellow color pigment of turmeric, is produced industrially from turmeric oleoresin. The mother liquor after isolation of curcumin from oleoresin contains approximately 40% oil. The oil was extracted from the mother liquor using hexane at 60 degrees C, and the hexane extract was separated into three fractions using silica gel column chromatography. These fractions were tested for antibacterial activity by pour plate method against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Fraction II eluted with 5% ethyl acetate in hexane was found to be most active fraction. The turmeric oil, fraction I, and fraction II were analyzed by GC and GC-MS. ar-Turmerone, turmerone, and curlone were found to be the major compounds present in these fractions along with other oxygenated compounds.

The structures of two new acylated apigenin glucosides are reported from the aerial parts of Anisomeles ovata . They were separated as their acetates and identified as apigenin 7- O -β- d -(2″,6″-di- O - p -coumaroyl)glucoside and apigenin 7- O -β- d -(4″,6′-di- O - p -coumaroyl)glucoside by 1 H NMR study of the acetates and by chemical degradative methods. The allocation of the p -coumaroyl moieties is also supported by a study of the 13 C NMR spectrum of the inseparable mixture of glucosides.

The structure of ochrolide, 2,6-dihydroxy 7,8-dimethoxyphenanthro(4,5- bcd )pyran-5-one, isolated from the orchid Coelogyne ochracea has been established from spectroscopic evidence.

3,7,3′,5′-Tetramethoxy-5,4′-dihydroxyflavone and a novel flavonol 3,7,3′-trimethoxy-5,4′,5′-trihydroxyflavone were isolated from the leaves of Solanum pubescens and characterized by both physical and chemical methods.

5,6-Dimethoxy-7,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavone was isolated from the aerial parts of Anisomeles ovata and characterized by both physical and chemical methods.