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This study was used to lift nets and trap net fishing at intertidal zone of lagoon and estuarine regions of southern Taiwan. From July 2013 to July 2018, a total 420 specimens of Pisodonophis were analyzed, the average total body length (TL) and average body weight (W) of P. boro eels are 68.4 ± 11.9 cm and 140.4 ± 86.1 g (N = 194), respectively. Typically, P. cancrivorus eels are smaller (TL = 52.8 ± 9.2 cm) and lighter (W = 107.9 ± 73.7 g [N = 119]) than P. boro eels. The natural logarithmic linear relationships between the TL and W of P. boro and P. cancrivorus are respectively expressed as ln(W)b = 2.4405 ln(TL) − 5.4448 (R2 = 0.796, N = 194) and ln(W)c = 3.2168 ln(TL) − 8.2027, (R2 = 0.934, N= 119). P. cancrivorus typically preys on shrimp, crab, and fish; lab assessment revealed that the frequencies of occurrence of these foods in their guts were 49%, 21%, and 15%, respectively (N = 100). The main catch months of P. boro were during the rainy season, and that of P. cancrivorus were the winter season in Taiwan. The average W values of P. boro from Jhuoshuei and Puzih estuaries were 343.2 ± 218.8 g (N = 91) and 140.4 ± 86.1 g (N = 194), respectively. Furthermore, the results of the study revealed that the Puzih estuary is overfished. We suggest that fishery management units should develop some protection measures for the conservation of aquatic ecosystems in estuarine regions. For example, the P. boro weighing less than 113 g will be released back to the estuary.

The northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) once supported a significant winter fishery in the Gulf of Maine (GOM). However, the population collapsed in 2012 and a fishery moratorium has been in effect since 2014 due to record low levels of spawning stock biomass and persistent recruitment failure. An important parameter in determining population dynamics, fecundity, has not been evaluated for more than 30 years, during which time the GOM has warmed significantly. In this study, we quantified three reproductive characteristics related to fecundity: potential fecundity (PF, number of viable eggs), relative fecundity (RF, number of viable eggs per gram of body weight), and egg size (ES) for GOM northern shrimp. The results showed that PF was strongly related to body size, while RF was independent of body size. Egg size declined with increasing body size for larger females. Egg size is related to size at larval hatch, suggesting that although larger females produced more eggs, those eggs may produce smaller larvae. In contrast with previous studies, PF and RF were positively correlated with bottom temperature in the relatively warm years of our study. We hypothesize that the positive temperature-fecundity relationship we observed may not reflect a direct effect, but possibly a compensatory response relating to decreased population density during the time period of our study. In addition, the environmental effects we observed may to some extent reflect progression of the inshore migration of females. The information derived in this study can help us have a better understanding of environmental effects on reproductive potential for climatically vulnerable species such as the GOM northern shrimp.

The Gulf of Maine northern shrimp Pandalus borealis population once supported a significant commercial winter fishery for the New England states. However, the fishery has been on moratorium since 2014 due to consecutive recruitment failures. The issue of parasite-infected eggs, so-called ‘white eggs,’ has long been identified for the Gulf of Maine northern shrimp, which makes shrimp eggs nonviable and subsequently hampers the recruitment potential. Furthermore, the proportion of infected females was observed to increase with water temperature. As Gulf of Maine temperatures have been increasing for decades, it is important to re-visit issues related to white eggs to evaluate possible impacts of climate-induced environmental changes on the white egg infection rates. We used biological samples collected by the Northeast Fisheries Science Center in 2012-2016 to evaluate the probability that a female shrimp was infected (Pinf) and the proportion of white eggs in an infected female shrimp (pwe). Although Pinf was high, with an average of 73.81% over the Gulf of Maine, pwe was mostly inf and pwe examined in this study was not well explained by environmental factors or female body size. However, the average rates of both Pinf and pwe observed in this study were higher than those observed in the 1960s when the bottom temperatures were cooler. The results can be used to account for egg mortality and provide information on potential impacts of possible climate-induced variability on shrimp population dynamics.

Length and mass data for 1260 (536 females, 683 males, 41 sex unknown) striped marlin Kajikia audax were collected at the fish markets of Tungkang, Singkang and Nanfangao from July 2004 to September 2010. Of these samples, 534 gonads (236 females and 298 males) ranging from 95 to 206 cm in eye-to-fork length (LEF ) and 8 to 88 kg in round mass (MR ), were collected. Chi-square tests indicated sex ratios were homogeneous among months in 2004 and 2006-2008, but not in 2005, 2009 and 2010; and there were significant differences in sex ratio by size. The overall sex ratio (RS ) differed significantly from the expected 0·5. Kajikia audax are sexually dimorphic and the proportions of females increased with size between 140 and 210 cm LEF . Reproductive activity was assessed using a gonado-somatic index (IG ), external appearance of the gonads and histological examination and results indicated that the spawning season occurred from April to August with a peak in June to July. Based on histological observations and the distribution of oocyte diameters, K. audax are multiple spawners and their oocytes develop asynchronously. The estimated length-at-50% maturity (LEF50 ) was c. 181 cm (c. 4·8 years of age) for females. The proportion of reproductively active females in the spawning season with ovaries containing postovulatory follicles (0·27) indicated that they spawned every 3·7 days on average. The hydrated oocyte method estimated mean ± S.D. batch fecundity (FB ) to be 4·4 ± 2·02 million eggs; average relative fecundity was 53·6 ± 13·9 oocytes g-1 MR ; and the average annual fecundity was 181·3 ± 48·3 million eggs. The parameters estimated in this study are key information for stock assessments of K. audax in the north-western and central Pacific and will contribute to the conservation, management and sustainable yield of this species.

This study used the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b and control region sequences to examine the population genetic structure of Microphysogobio brevirostris, an endemic cyprinid species in northern Taiwan. In total, 90 specimens were collected from six populations belonging to four major rivers. All haplotypes were identified as two major clades (Clades N and S), exhibiting a southern and a northern distribution. The results of statistical dispersal-vicariance analysis (S-DIVA) revealed that two vicariance events and one dispersal event shaped the phylogeographic pattern of M. brevirostris. These results suggest that the ancestral populations of M. brevirostris are widely distributed throughout northern Taiwan, north of the Miaoli Plateau. The ancestral populations then diverged into two clades (N and S) by the raising of the Taoyuan Plateau. Finally, two major rivers of the S clade diverged and dispersed into adjacent rivers. Besides, our results revealed that Microphysogobio alticorpus and M. brevirostris colonized Taiwan during the same ice age through different colonization routes.

Supplementing chicken feed with antibiotics can improve survival and prevent disease outbreaks. However, overuse of antibiotics may promote the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Recently, antimicrobial peptides have been proposed as alternatives to antibiotics in animal husbandry. Here, we evaluate the effects of antimicrobial peptide, Epinephelus lanceolatus piscidin (EP), in Gallus gallus domesticus. The gene encoding EP was isolated, sequenced, codon-optimized and cloned into a Pichia pastoris recombinant protein expression system. The expressed recombinant EP (rEP) was then used as a dietary supplement for G. g. domesticus; overall health, growth performance and immunity were assessed. Supernatant from rEP-expressing yeast showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, according to an inhibition-zone diameter (mm) assay. Moreover, the antimicrobial peptide function of rEP was temperature independent. The fermentation broth yielded a spray-dried powder formulation containing 262.9 μg EP/g powder, and LC-MS/MS (tandem MS) analysis confirmed that rEP had a molecular weight of 4279 Da, as expected for the 34-amino acid peptide; the DNA sequence of the expression vector was also validated. We then evaluated rEP as a feed additive for G. g. domesticus. Treatment groups included control, basal diet and rEP at different doses (0.75, 1.5, 3.0, 6.0 and 12%). Compared to control, rEP supplementation increased G. g. domesticus weight gain, feed efficiency, IL-10 and IFN-γ production. Our results suggest that crude rEP could provide an alternative to traditional antibiotic feed additives for G. g. domesticus, serving to enhance growth and health of the animals.

The reproductive biology of the black marlin, Istiompax indica, was assessed by examining 4762 fish (458 ovary samples) caught by offshore longliners off southwestern and eastern Taiwan during 2004–2007. The overall sex ratio (0.67 off southwestern and 0.86 off eastern Taiwan) was significantly different from 0.5 (p

Interactions between transcriptional inducers of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and pharmacological agents might decrease drug efficacy and induce side effects. Such interactions could be prevented using an antagonist of the pregnane X receptor (PXR) and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR). Here, we aimed to determine the antagonistic effect of oleanolic acid (OA) on PXR and CAR. OA attenuated the promoter activities, expressions, and enzyme catalytic activities of CYP3A4 and CYP2B6 mediated by rifampin (RIF) and CITCO. Moreover, OA displayed species specificity for rodent PXR. Interaction of coregulators with PXR and transcriptional complexes on the CYP3A4 promoter was disrupted by OA. Additionally, OA reversed the cytotoxic effects of isoniazid induced by RIF. These data demonstrate that OA inhibited the transactivation of PXR and CAR, reduced the expression and function of CYP3A4 and CYP2B6, and may therefore serve as an effective agent for reducing probability adverse interactions between transcriptional inducers of CYP450 and therapeutic drugs.

Phellinus linteus and its constituent hispolon induce potent anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages. Efficient production of the effective constituent and the biological function of P. linteus in the regulation of innate sensing have rarely been investigated. The aim of this study was to efficiently manufacture P. linteus -fermented broth containing the effective constituent, hispolon, and evaluate its immunoregulatory functions in macrophages. Four distinct fermented broths (PL1–4) and the medium dialyzate (MD) were prepared to screen suitable culture conditions for the mycelial growth of P. linteus . The P. linteus -fermented broth exhibited a dose-responsive inhibition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production by murine macrophages. In addition, the P. linteus -fermented broths suppressed macrophage LPS-mediated nuclear factor (NF)-κB activity and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Among the tested samples from P. linteus , PL4 contained vast amounts of hispolon and showed the greatest anti-inflammatory activity in both the RAW264.7 cells and murine primary peritoneal exudate macrophages (PEMs). This study demonstrates that the purification of the effective constituent from P. linteus -fermented broth may enable the production of a potent therapeutic agent for anti-inflammation in macrophages.

The reproductive biology of female bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus was assessed by examining 888 fish (ranging from 84·9 to 174·4 cm fork length, LF ) caught by Taiwanese offshore longliners in the western Pacific Ocean from November 1997 to November 1998 and November to December 1999 and 258 gonad samples from these fish. The overall sex ratio of the catch during the sampling differed significantly from 0·5, but males were predominant in sizes >140 cm LF . Reproductive activity (assessed by histology), a gonado-somatic index, and the size-frequency distributions of whole oocytes indicated that spawning occurred throughout the year and the major spawning season appeared to be from February to September. The estimated sizes at 50% maturity (LF50 ) of females was 102·85 cm (95% c.i.: 90·79-110·21 cm) and the smallest mature female was 99·7 cm LF . They are multiple spawners and oocytes develop asynchronously. The proportion of mature (0·63) and reproductively active (0·70) females with ovaries containing postovulatory follicles indicated that they spawn almost daily. Batch fecundity for 15 females with the most advanced oocytes (>730 µm) ranged from 0·84 to 8·56 million eggs (mean ± s.d. = 3·06 ± 2·09). The relationships between batch fecundity (FB , in millions of eggs) and LF (cm) and round mass (MR , kg) were FB=9·91×10-14LF6·38 (r(2) = 0·84) and FB=8·89×10-4MR2·05 (r(2) = 0·80), respectively. The parameters estimated in this study are key information for stock assessments of T. obesus in the western Pacific Ocean and will contribute to the conservation and sustainable yield of this species.

Blue marlin are sexually dimorphic in size-at-age and other biological characteristics. However, few studies have examined the possible impact of sexual dimorphism on the population parameters and the ratios of fishing to total mortality (the exploitation ratios) for this species. We analyzed sex-specific catch-at-length data for blue marlin collected from the Taiwanese tuna longline fishery in the northwest Pacific Ocean, ranging between 100–311 cm in eye to fork length (EFL) for females and 100–236 cm EFL for males, and show that the proportion of females in the catch (the sex ratio) increases with length, with females reaching larger body sizes than males. Minor differences in fishery sex ratios among months were observed. Growth parameters, length structures, and natural mortality rates were estimated to differ between males and females, while fishing mortality rates were found to be similar. Nevertheless, the exploitation ratio for females was higher than that for males. We suggest that growth parameters and natural mortality rates should be sex-specific when assessments for sexually-dimorphic species such as blue marlin are conducted, and that management of blue marlin fisheries could be developed based on size limit regulations for large individuals.

It was previously reported that the oral administration of lactoferrin (LF) provides antimicrobial activity in animals against bacterial and viral infections and is involved in immunomodulatory properties. In this report, a hybrid strain of Oreochromis nilotica (male) × O. mossambicus (female) was fed homemade diets with or without supplementation with 10, 50, 100, and 150 mg bovine LF g−1 feed for 60 days. After dietary treatment, the experimental fish were infected with Streptococcus agalactiae. LF supplementation resulted in a significantly higher survival rate and suppression of bacterial growth at 24–96 h in the liver, spleen, kidneys, eyes, and gills. A reduction in peroxidase activity was followed by a similar reduction in the peroxidase content of leukocytes at 24 h as analyzed by spectrophotometry. Respiratory burst (RB) activity was detected regardless of the time at which LF was administered to fish in relation to the bacterial infection. A beneficial effect of LF on RBs was also detected before bacterial challenge (with 100 mg LF/g) and 24 h after bacterial challenge with 150 mg/g. The results obtained validate LF’s beneficial effects on RBs by phagocytes in tilapia, which was only shown at 48 h after supplementation with 100 mg bovine LF g−1 feed after the bacterial infection. Moreover, after oral administration of LF, it was detected in the mucosa of the small intestines of tilapia. In conclusion, we demonstrate a reduction in fish mortality after the oral administration of LF, and we examined its immunomodulatory properties in tilapia.

Objectives To determine the immediate effects of applied forearm Kinesio taping on maximal grip strength and force sense of healthy collegiate athletes. Design Single group, repeated measures study. Setting Clinical sports medicine laboratory at a university hospital. Participants Twenty-one healthy collegiate athletes voluntarily participated in this study. All subjects were male (average height: 181.24 ± 7.60 cm; average body weight: 72.86 ± 7.03 kg; average age: 20.86 ± 2.59 years). Main Outcome Measures First, maximal grip strength of the dominant hand was assessed by hand-held dynamometer. Then, 50% of maximal grip strength was established as the reference value of force sense. Absolute and related force sense errors and maximal grip strength were measured under three conditions: (1) without taping; (2) with placebo taping; and (3) with Kinesio taping. Results Results revealed no significant differences in maximal grip strength between the three conditions ( p = 0.936). Both related and absolute force sense errors in grip strength measurements significantly increased the accuracy of the results under the three conditions (related force sense errors: p p Conclusion Forearm Kinesio taping may enhance either related or absolute force sense in healthy collegiate athletes. However, Kinesio taping did not result in changes in maximal grip strength in healthy subjects.

Tilapia piscidin 3 (TP3) and tilapia piscidin 4 (TP4) are antimicrobial peptides recently isolated from Oreochromis niloticus. We previously showed that synthetic TP3 and TP4 possessed antimicrobial activities. Here, we analyzed the bactericidal abilities and immunomodulatory properties of these AMPs following the electroporation of pCMV-GFP-TP3 or pCMV-GFP-TP4 plasmid into tilapia (O. niloticus) muscle and subsequent infection with Vibrio vulnificus or Streptococcus agalactiae. Prior overexpression of TP3 or TP4 in tilapia muscle tissues efficiently reduced bacterial numbers at 24 and 48 h after V. vulnificus infection and reduced bacterial numbers at 24 h after S. agalactiae infection compared to numbers in controls expressing pCMV-GFP (EGFP). Electroporation of pCMV-EGFP-TP3 (TP3) or pCMV-EGFP-TP4 (TP4) significantly increased expression of several immune-related genes in muscle (IL-1β (12 h, TP3), IL-8 (12 h, TP3), TGFβ (3 h, TP4), and IκB (48 h, TP3, TP4)) and decreased the expression of TLR5 (12 h and 24 h, TP3) after V. vulnificus infection. Following S. agalactiae infection, expression of the following genes was significantly decreased in muscle: IL-1β (12 h, TP3), IL-8 (12 h, TP3, TP4), TLR5 (3 h-24 h, TP3, TP4), TGFβ (3 h, TP4; 24 h, TP3, TP4), and IκB (3 h, TP3). These data suggest that TP3 and TP4 exert antimicrobial effects after overexpression in the O. niloticus muscle, and also play important roles in the regulation of immune-related gene expression.

Phellinus linteus, a species of mushroom, has been shown to contribute to health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory activity and immunomodulatory efficacy. The aim of this study was to analyze the most effective constituents of P. linteus fermented broths, polysaccharides, and to evaluate their immunoregulatory effects on T cells. Four fermented broths (PL1–4) and the dialyzate medium (MD) were prepared from P. linteus mycelia, and the polysaccharide contents of each were analyzed. The P. linteus samples were tested for biological activity in the regulation of T cell activation. In T cells, the production of mitogen-induced interleukin (IL)-2 and cell cycle progression were dose-responsively inhibited by PL3 and MD, primarily through cell-cycle arrest in S phase. PL3 broth, which contained large quantities of polysaccharides, significantly decreased the ratio of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) to interleukin 4 (IL-4) in T cells. Thus, P. linteus fermented broths produced additive effects on the regulation of the Th1/Th2 balance and show promise for the development of immunomodulatory therapeutics.

OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that recreational tennis players transmit more shock impact from the racket to the elbow joint than experienced tennis players during the backhand stroke. Also, to test whether recreational tennis players used higher electromyographic (EMG) activities in common wrist extensor and flexor around epicondylar region at follow-through phase. DESIGN A repeated-measure, cross-sectional study. SETTING National College of Physical Education and Sports at Taipei, Taiwan. PARTICIPANTS Twenty-four male tennis players with no abnormal forearm musculoskeletal injury participated in the study. According to performance level, subjects were categorized into 2 groups: experienced and recreational. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS Impact transmission and wrist extensor-flexor EMG for backhand acceleration, impact, and follow-through phases were recorded for each player. An independent t test with a significance level of 0.05 was used to examine mean differences of shock impact and EMG between the 2 test groups. One-way ANOVA associated with Tukey multiple comparisons was used to identify differences among different impact locations and EMG phases. RESULTS Experienced athletes reduced the racket impact to the elbow joint by 89.2%, but recreational players reduced it by only 61.8%. The largest EMG differences were found in the follow-through phase (P

A nosocomial outbreak of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-A. baumannii (MDR-ACB) complex infection occurred in a newly constructed building at a 2,500-bed tertiary medical center in Taiwan.An investigation was carried out by molecular approaches to trace the bacteria. Antimicrobial susceptibilities, risk factors, and the occurrence of nosocomial MDR-ACB infections were investigated. From January to December 2009, 53 patients were infected with MDR-ACB, and 23 environmental surveys were performed in two surgical intensive care units (ICUs) within the new building. Forty-two clinical isolates were obtained from patients and 22 samples from nine environmental surveys.Forty clinical isolates (95.2%) and 18 environmental samples (81.8%) were positive for MDR-ACB of type A, the predominant outbreak strain. This strain was identical to that isolated in an outbreak in the old hospital in 2006, as proved by repetitive extragenic palindromic-based polymerase chain reaction and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Although the outbreak isolates contained blaOXA-23-like and blaOXA-51-like genes, analysis of the antimicrobial susceptibilities demonstrated increases in resistance to cefepime and imipenem-cilastatin in MDR-ACB isolated in the later outbreak.Not only patients or healthcare workers, but also medical equipment, might have carried the predominant outbreak strain from the old district to the new building. Therefore, even in a new environment, infection control programs must be enforced continually, and healthcare providers must be educated repeatedly to prevent recurrent outbreaks of MDR-ACB infection in the hospital setting.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Helicobacter pylori is associated with the majority of gastric disorders and the antibiotic resistant rates have increased annually worldwide. Anisomeles indica and its constituent, ovatodiolide (OVT), were shown to have bactericide activity against Helicobacter pylori. The aim of this study was to manufacture extracts containing the effective constituent, OVT, and evaluate their bactericidal function and the inhibition of inflammatory responses to Helicobacter pylori infection. Materials and methods Various concentrations of ethanol for extraction of Anisomeles indica were performed and the content of OVT was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The anti-bacterial activity of Anisomeles indica ethanol extracts and the constituent OVT were determined. Additional experiments were performed to investigate the Anisomeles indica ethanol extracts and OVT to inhibit the Helicobacter pylori-induced inflammation of both gastric epithelial cells and macrophages. Results Amongst the extracts tested, 50% and 95% ethanol extracts contained large amount of OVT and showed potent anti-Helicobacter pylori activity. An in vitro Helicobacter pylori-infection model revealed that 95% ethanol extract attenuated Helicobacter pylori-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activity and interleukin (IL)-8 secretion of gastric epithelial cells. In addition, 95% ethanol extract significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), as well as production of nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) by macrophages. Conclusions This study reveals that Anisomeles indica ethanol extracts containing OVT may be a potent and economic therapeutic agent for Helicobacter pylori infection and attenuation of Helicobacter pylori-mediated inflammation.

A Gram-negative, heterotrophic, aerobic, marine bacterium, designated AIT1T, was isolated from a seawater sample collected in the shallow coastal region of Bitou Harbour, New Taipei City, Taiwan. Cells grown in broth cultures were straight or slightly curved rods that were motile by means of a single polar flagellum. Strain AIT1T required NaCl for growth, grew optimally at 30–40 °C and with 1.5–5.0 % NaCl, and was incapable of anaerobic growth by fermentation of glucose or other carbohydrates. The isoprenoid quinones consisted of Q-8 (95.2 %) and Q-9 (4.8 %). The major polar lipids comprised diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine. The cellular fatty acids were predominantly iso-branched and included iso-C17 : 0 (26.5 %), summed feature 9 (comprising iso-C17 : 1ω9c and/or 10-methyl C16 : 0; 25.9 %) and iso-C15 : 0 (20.5 %). The DNA G+C content was 51.5 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strain AIT1T formed a distinct lineage within the class Gammaproteobacteria and was most closely related to members of the genus Idiomarina in the family Idiomarinaceae (91.5–93.9 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity). The phylogenetic data, together with chemotaxonomic, physiological and morphological data, revealed that the isolate should be classified as a representative of a novel species in a new genus in the family Idiomarinaceae, for which the name Aliidiomarina taiwanensis gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AIT1T ( = JCM 16052T = BCRC 80035T = NCCB 100321T).

In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of Parazacco spilurus (Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae). This mitochondrial genome, consisting of 16,612 base pairs (bp), encoded 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs, 22 transfer RNAs, and a noncoding control region as those found in other vertebrates, with the gene synteny identical to that of typical vertebrates. Control region (D-Loop), of 926 bp in length, is located between tRNA(Pro) and tRNA(Phe). The overall base composition of the heavy strand shows T 26.91%, C 26.01%, A 30.45% and G 16.63%, with an AT bias of 57.36%.

In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of Metzia mesembrinum (Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae), an Endangered pelagic primary freshwater fish distributed in South China. This mitochondrial genome, consisting of 16,611 base pairs (bp), encoded 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs, 22 transfer RNAs, and a noncoding control region as those found in other vertebrates, with the gene synteny identical to that of typical vertebrates. Control region (D-Loop), of 936 bp long, was located between tRNAPro and tRNAPhe. The overall base composition of the heavy strand shows T 26.83%, C 25.48%, A 32.01% and G 15.68%, with a slight AT bias of 58.84%.