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Drought at flowering and grain filling greatly reduces maize (Zea mays) yield. Climate change is causing earlier and longer-lasting periods of drought, which affect the growth of multiple maize organs throughout development. To study how long periods of water deficit impact the dynamic nature of growth, and to determine how these relate to reproductive drought, we employed a high-throughput phenotyping platform featuring precise irrigation, imaging systems, and image-based biomass estimations. Prolonged drought resulted in a reduction of growth rate of individual organs-though an extension of growth duration partially compensated for this-culminating in lower biomass and delayed flowering. However, long periods of drought did not affect the highly organized succession of maximal growth rates of the distinct organs, i.e. leaves, stems, and ears. Two drought treatments negatively affected distinct seed yield components: Prolonged drought mainly reduced the number of spikelets, and drought during the reproductive period increased the anthesis-silking interval. The identification of these divergent biomass and yield components, which were affected by the shift in duration and intensity of drought, will facilitate trait-specific breeding toward future climate-resilient crops. When affected by drought, the plant responds by adjusting the growth of individual organs but not the coordination between the organs.

Olive fly (Bactrocera oleae R.) is the most harmful insect pest of olive (Olea europaea L.) which strongly affects fruits and oil production. Despite the expanding economic importance of olive cultivation, up to now, only limited information on plant responses to B. oleae is available. Here, we demonstrate that olive fruits respond to B. oleae attack by producing changes in an array of different defensive compounds including phytohormones, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and defense proteins. Bactrocera oleae-infested fruits induced a strong ethylene burst and transcript levels of several putative ethylene-responsive transcription factors became significantly upregulated. Moreover, infested fruits induced significant changes in the levels of 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid and C12 derivatives of the hydroperoxide lyase. The emission of VOCs was also changed quantitatively and qualitatively in insect-damaged fruits, indicating that B. oleae larval feeding can specifically affect the volatile blend of fruits. Finally, we show that larval infestation maintained high levels of trypsin protease inhibitors in ripe fruits, probably by affecting post-transcriptional mechanisms. Our results provide novel and important information to understand the response of the olive fruit to B. oleae attack; information that can shed light onto potential new strategies to combat this pest.

The recognition of phytophagous insects by plants induces a set of very specific responses aimed at deterring tissue consumption and reprogramming metabolism and development of the plant to tolerate the herbivore. The recognition of insects by plants requires the plant's ability to perceive chemical cues generated by the insects and to distinguish a particular pattern of tissue disruption. Relatively little is known about the molecular basis of insect perception by plants and the signalling mechanisms directly associated with this perception. Importantly, the insect feeding behaviour (piercing-sucking versus chewing) is a decisive determinant of the plant's defence response, and the mechanisms used to perceive insects from different feeding guilds may be distinct. During insect feeding, components of the saliva of chewing or piercing-sucking insects come into contact with plant cells, and elicitors or effectors present in this insect-derived fluid are perceived by plant cells to initiate the activation of specific signalling cascades. Although receptor-ligand interactions controlling insect perception have yet not been molecularly described, a significant number of regulatory components acting downstream of receptors and involved in the activation of defence responses against insects has been reported. Some of these regulators mediate changes in the phytohormone network, while others directly control gene expression or the redox state of the cell. These processes are central in the orchestration of plant defence responses against insects.

Jasmonate signalling plays a central role in activating the plethora of responses that are elicited by herbivory. Solanum nigrum plants silenced in the expression of genes involved in jasmonic acid biosynthesis (irlox3),conjugation (irjar4) and perception (ircoi1) were used to study the function of these genes in the field and in the regulation of transcriptional and metabolic responses. In the field, damage from Noctuidea larvae was four- to fivefold higher on irlox3 and ircoi1 than on wild-type (WT) plants, whereas damage to irjar4 plants was similar to WT levels. Damage rates reflected plant survival rates; fewer irlox3 (78%) and ircoi1 (22%) plants survived compared with irjar4 and WT plants of which all plants survived. Gene expression profiling in leaves 3 h after simulated herbivory revealed differential regulation of ~700 genes in irlox3 and ircoi1 plants but of only six genes in irjar4 compared with WT plants. Surprisingly, transcriptional responses were not reflected in metabolomic responses; 48 h after simulated herbivory, irjar4 plants showed a 50% overlap in their metabolic profile with ircoi1 plants. Together, these results reveal that SnJAR4 does not play a direct role in herbivore defence, but suggests that SnJAR4 is involved in responses other than those to herbivory.

The activation of enzymatic oxylipin biosynthesis upon wounding, herbivory and pathogen attack depends on the biochemical activation of lipases that make polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) available to lipoxygenases (LOXs). The identity and number of the lipases involved in this process remain controversial and they probably differ among plant species. Analysis of transgenic Nicotiana attenuata plants (ir-gla1) stably reduced in the expression of the NaGLA1 gene showed that this plastidial glycerolipase is a major supplier of trienoic fatty acids for jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis in leaves and roots after wounding and simulated herbivory, but not during infection with the oomycete Phytophthora parasitica (var. nicotianae). NaGLA1 was not essential for the developmental control of JA biosynthesis in flowers and for the biosynthesis of C(6) volatiles by the hydroperoxide lyase (HPL) pathway; however, it affected the metabolism of divinyl ethers (DVEs) early during infection with P. parasitica (var. nicotianae) and the accumulation of NaDES1 and NaLOX1 mRNAs. Profiling of lysolipids by LC-MS/MS was consistent with a rapid activation of NaGLA1 and indicated that this lipase utilizes different lipid classes as substrates. The results revealed the complexity and specificity of the regulation of lipase-mediated oxylipin biosynthesis, highlighting the existence of pathway- and stimulus-specific lipases.

The recognition of insect and pathogen attack requires the plant's ability to perceive chemical cues generated by the attacker. In contrast to the recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns and effectors, little is known about the molecular recognition of herbivore-associated elicitors (HAEs) and the signaling mechanisms operating in plants after their perception. HAE perception depends strongly on the natural history of both plants and insects and it is therefore expected that many of the responses induced by different HAEs are specific to the species involved in the interaction. The interaction between Nicotiana attenuata and the specialist lepidopteran Manduca sexta presents a relevant biological system to understand HAE perception and signal transduction systems in plants.

In response to diverse stresses, the hydroperoxide lyase (HPL) pathway produces C(6) aldehydes and 12-oxo-(9Z )-dodecenoic acid ((9Z )-traumatin). Since the original characterization of (10E )-traumatin and traumatic acid, little has been added to our knowledge of the metabolism and fluxes associated with the conversion of (9Z )-traumatin into diverse products in response to wounding and herbivory. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed to quantify C(12) derivatives of the HPL pathway and to determine their metabolism after wounding and simulated herbivory in Nicotiana attenuata leaves. Ninety-eight per cent of the (9Z )-traumatin produced was converted to 9-hydroxy-(10E )-traumatin (9-OH-traumatin); two-thirds by product recycling through lipoxygenase-2 (NaLOX2) activity and one-third by nonenzymatic oxidation. Thirty-eight per cent of the de novo produced 9-OH-traumatin was conjugated to glutathione, consistent with this oxylipin being a reactive electrophile species. 12-OH-(9Z )-dodecenoic and dodecenedioic acids also showed rapid increases after wounding and simulated herbivory and a role for C(12) derivatives as signals in these processes was consistent with their ability to elicit substantial changes in gene expression. These results underscore the importance of metabolite reflux through LOX2, an insight which creates new opportunities for a functional understanding of C(12) derivatives of the HPL pathway in the regulation of stress responses.

Summary • Jasmonates are ubiquitous messengers in land plants essential for the activation of defense responses. However, their signaling properties, accumulation and metabolism vary substantially among species. Solanum nigrum is a wild Solanaceous species developed as a model to study defense responses. • Solanum nigrum plants transformed to silence the expression of key genes in jasmonate production (SnLOX3), conjugation (SnJAR4) and perception (SnCOI1) were generated to analyze the function of these genes in jasmonate accumulation and metabolism (studied by a combination of LC-MS ⁄ MS and 13 C-isotope labeling methods) and in signaling [studied by the systemic elicitation of leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) activity]. • In contrast with the early single jasmonic acid (JA) burst induced by wounding in wild-type (WT) plants, elicitation with insect oral secretions induced a later, second burst that was essential for the induction of systemic LAP activity, as demonstrated by ablation experiments. This induction was dependent on SnLOX3 and SnCOI1, but not on SnJAR4. In addition, the local accumulation of JA-glucose and JAisoleucine was dependent on SnCOI1, whereas the accumulation of hydroxylated jasmonates was dependent on both SnCOI1 and SnJAR4. • The results demonstrate that SnLOX3, SnCOI1 and SnJAR4 have overlapping yet distinct roles in jasmonate signaling, differentially controlling jasmonate metabolism and the production of a systemic signal.

Homeodomain-leucine zipper type I (HD-Zip I) proteins are plant-specific transcription factors associated with the regulation of growth and development in response to changes in the environment. Nicotiana attenuata NaHD20 was identified as an HD-Zip I-coding gene whose expression was induced by multiple stress-associated stimuli including drought and wounding. To study the role of NaHD20 in the integration of stress responses with changes in growth and development, its expression was silenced by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), and control and silenced plants were metabolically and developmentally characterized. Phytohormone profiling showed that NaHD20 plays a positive role in abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation in leaves during water stress and in the expression of some dehydration-responsive genes including ABA biosynthetic genes. Moreover, consistent with the high levels of NaHD20 expression in corollas, the emission of benzylacetone from flowers was reduced in NaHD20-silenced plants. Additionally, bolting time and the opening of the inflorescence buds was decelerated in these plants in a specific developmental stage without affecting the total number of flowers produced. Water stress potentiated these effects; however, after plants recovered from this condition, the opening of the inflorescence buds was accelerated in NaHD20-silenced plants. In summary, NaHD20 plays multiple roles in N. attenuata and among these are the coordination of responses to dehydration and its integration with changes in flower transitions. Fil: Ré, Delfina Adela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral; Argentina. Instituto Max Planck Institut für Chemische Okologie; Alemania Fil: Dezar, Carlos Alberto Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral; Argentina Fil: Chan, Raquel Lia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral; Argentina Fil: Baldwin, Ian T.. Instituto Max Planck Institut für Chemische Okologie; Alemania Fil: Bonaventure, Gustavo. Instituto Max Planck Institut für Chemische Okologie; Alemania

† Background and Methods Polyploidy results in genetic turmoil, much of which is associated with new phenotypes that result in speciation. Five independent lines of synthetic allotetraploid N. � obtusiata (No) were created from crosses between the diploid N. attenuata (Na )( F) and N. obtusifolia (No )( C) and the auto- tetraploids of Na (NaT) and No (NoT) were synthesized. Their genetic, genomic and phenotypic changes were then compared with those of the parental diploid species (Na and No) as well as to the natural allotetraploids, N. quadrivalvis (Nq) and N. clevelandii (Nc), which formed 1 million years ago from crosses between ancient Na and No. † Key Results DNA fingerprinting profiles (by UP-PCR) revealed that the five No lines shared similar but not identical profiles. Both synthetic and natural polyploidy showed a dosage effect on genome size (as measured in seeds); however, only Nq was associated with a genome upsizing. Phenotypic analysis revealed that at the cellular level, No lines had phenotypes intermediate of the parental phenotypes. Both allo- and autotetraploidization had a dosage effect on seed and dry biomass (except for NaT), but not on stalk height at first flower. Nc showed paternal (Na) cellular phenotypes but inherited maternal (No) biomass and seed mass, whereas Nq showed maternal (No) cellular phenotypes but inherited paternal (Na) biomass and seed mass patterns. Principal com- ponent analysis grouped Nq with No lines, due to similar seed mass, stalk height and genome size. These traits separated Nc, No and Na from Nq and No lines, whereas biomass distinguished Na from No and Nq lines, and NaT clustered closer to Nq and No lines than to Na. † Conclusions Both allo- and autotetraploidy induce considerable morphological, genetic and genomic changes, many of which are retained by at least one of the natural polyploids. It is proposed that both natural and synthetic polyploids are well suited for studying the evolution of adaptive responses.

The Helianthus annuus (sunflower) HAHB4 transcription factor belongs to the HD-Zip family and its transcript levels are strongly induced when sunflower plants are attacked by herbivores, mechanically damaged or treated with methyl-jasmonic acid (MeJA) or ethylene (ET). Promoter fusion analysis, in Arabidopsis and in sunflower, demonstrated that induction of HAHB4 expression by these treatments is regulated at the transcriptional level. In transiently transformed sunflower plants HAHB4 expression upregulates the transcript levels of several genes involved in JA biosynthesis and defense-related processes such as the production of green leaf volatiles and trypsin protease inhibitors (TPI). In HAHB4 sunflower overexpressing tissue, increased activities of lipoxygenase, hydroperoxide lyase and TPI are detected whereas in HAHB4-silenced tissue these activities are reduced. Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana and Zea mays plants ecotopically expressing HAHB4 also exhibit higher transcript levels of defense-related genes and when Spodoptera littoralis or Spodoptera frugiperda larvae are placed on each species, respectively, larvae consumed less and gain less mass compared with larvae feeding on control plants. Arabidopsis plants ectopically expressing HAHB4 had higher amounts of JA, JA-isoleucine and ET compared with control plants both before and after wounding, but reduced levels of salicylic acid (SA) after wounding and bacterial infection. We conclude that HAHB4 coordinates the production of phytohormones during biotic stress responses and mechanical damage, specifically by positively regulating JA and ET production and negatively regulating ET sensitivity and SA accumulation. Fil: Manavella, Pablo Andrés. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe; Argentina. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas; Argentina Fil: Dezar, Carlos Alberto Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe; Argentina. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas; Argentina Fil: Bonaventure, Gustavo. Instituto Max Planck Institut für Chemische Okologie; Alemania Fil: Baldwin Ian Thomas. Instituto Max Planck Institut für Chemische Okologie; Alemania Fil: Chan, Raquel Lia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral; Argentina

Summary Jasmonates, potent lipid mediators of defense gene expression in plants, are rapidly synthesized in response to wounding. These lipid mediators also stimulate their own production via a positive feedback circuit, which depends on both JA synthesis and JA signaling. To date, molecular components regulating the activation of jasmonate biogenesis and its feedback loop have been poorly characterized. We employed a genetic screen capable of detecting the misregulated activity of 13-lipoxygenase, which operates at the entry point of the jasmonate biosynthesis pathway. Leaf extracts from the Arabidopsis fou2 (fatty acid oxygenation upregulated 2) mutant displayed an increased capacity to catalyze the synthesis of lipoxygenase (LOX) metabolites. Quantitative oxylipin analysis identified less than twofold increased jasmonate levels in healthy fou2 leaves compared to wild-type; however, wounded fou2 leaves strongly increased jasmonate biogenesis compared to wounded wild-type. Furthermore, the plants displayed enhanced resistance to the fungus Botrytis cinerea. Higher than wild-type LOX activity and enhanced resistance in the fou2 mutant depend fully on a functional jasmonate response pathway. The fou2 mutant carries a missense mutation in the putative voltage sensor of the Two Pore Channel 1 gene (TPC1), which encodes a Ca2+-permeant non-selective cation channel. Patch-clamp analysis of fou2 vacuolar membranes showed faster time-dependent conductivity and activation of the mutated channel at lower membrane potentials than wild-type. The results indicate that cation fluxes exert strong control over the positive feedback loop whereby JA stimulates its own synthesis.

Although the surface waxes from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves and stems have been thoroughly characterized, the monomer composition of the polyesters of the cuticular membrane has not been analyzed. Delipidated Arabidopsis leaves or stems, when depolymerized under conditions to cleave polyesters, produced typical omega-hydroxy fatty acid cutin monomers such as 16-hydroxy-palmitate, 10,16-dihydroxy-palmitate and 18-hydroxy-9,10-epoxy-stearate. However, the major monomer was octadeca-cis-6, cis-9-diene-1,18-dioate, with lesser amounts of octadec-cis-9-ene-1,18-dioate and hexadeca-1,16-dioate. These dicarboxylates were found predominantly in epidermal peels from Arabidopsis stems and are therefore likely to be associated with the cuticular membrane. They were also found in analyses of canola leaves but were absent in tomato and apple fruit cutins. In the fad2-1 mutant line of Arabidopsis, which has reduced levels of linoleate and linolenate and elevated oleate in cytosolic phospholipids, the amount of octadeca-cis-6, cis-9-diene-1,18-dioate was 50% reduced, with a concomitant increase in octadec-cis-9-ene-1,18-dioate. In a fatb-ko line of Arabidopsis, where the availability of cytosolic palmitate is impaired, there was an 80% loss of C16 monomers and a compensating increase in C18 monomers. The presence of substantial amounts of dicarboxylates in cuticular membranes is unexpected. High amounts of aliphatic dicarboxylates are usually considered as an indicator of suberin, and are reported only as very minor components of cutin. The high level of polyunsaturation is also unusual in cuticles; saturated fatty acid monomers usually predominate, with lesser amounts of monounsaturates. These novel findings for Arabidopsis demonstrate that a broad range of monomer compositions are possible for polyesters of the epidermis.

Disruption of the FATB gene in Arabidopsis results in a two-thirds reduction in saturated fatty acids, largely palmitate, in the leaf extra-plastidic phospholipids and a reduction in the growth rate of the mutant compared to wild type (Bonaventure G, Salas JJ, Pollard MR, Ohlrogge JB [2003] Plant Cell 15: 1020–1033). In this study, we report that although fatb-ko seedlings grow more slowly than wild type, the rate of fatty acid synthesis in leaves of the mutant increases by 40%. This results in approximately the same amount of palmitate exported from the plastid as in wild type but an increase in oleate export of about 55%. To maintain constant amounts of fatty acids in leaves, thereby counterbalancing their higher rate of production, the mutant also increases its rate of fatty acid degradation. Although fatb-ko leaves have higher rates of fatty acid synthesis and turnover, the relative proportions of membrane lipids are similar to wild type. Thus, homeostatic mechanisms to preserve membrane compositions compensate for substantial changes in rates of fatty acid and glycerolipid metabolism in the mutant. Pulse-chase labeling studies show that in fatb-ko leaves there is a net increase in the synthesis of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic lipids and consequently of their turnover. The net loss of palmitate from phosphatidylcholine plus phosphatidylethanolamine is similar for wild type and mutant, suggesting that mechanisms are not present that can preferentially preserve the saturated fatty acids. In summary, the leaf cell responds to the loss of saturated fatty acid production in the fatb-ko mutant by increasing both fatty acid synthesis and degradation, but in doing so the mechanisms for increased fatty acid turnover contribute to the lowering of the percentage of saturated fatty acids found in eukaryotic lipids.

All higher plants express several different acyl carrier protein (ACP) isoforms in a tissue-specific manner. We provide evidence that expression of mRNA for the most abundant ACP isoform in Arabidopsis leaves (ACP4) is increased severalfold by light, whereas mRNA levels for ACP isoforms 2 and 3 are independent of light. The presence of GATA-like motifs in the upstream region of theAcl1.4 gene (encoding for ACP4) and the similarity in light-mediated induction to ferredoxin-A mRNA suggests a direct role of light in Acl1.4 gene activation. Polyribosomal analysis indicated that light also affects the association of ACP transcripts with polysomes, similarly to mRNAs encoding ferredoxin-A. ACP2, ACP3, and ACP4 mRNA levels were also examined in Arabidopsis cell suspension culture and were found to be differentially controlled by metabolic and/or growth derived signals. Comparison of 5′-untranslated regions (UTRs) of ACP mRNAs of diverse plant species revealed two motifs that have been conserved during evolution, a CTCCGCC box and C-T-rich sequences. Fusions of the 5′-UTR sequences of ACP1 and ACP2 to luciferase and expression in transgenic plants indicated that the ACP1 leader contributes to preferential expression in seeds, whereas the ACP2 5′-UTR favored expression in roots. The deletion of 58 bp containing the conserved motifs of the ACP1 5′-UTR resulted in 10- to 20-fold lower gene expression in leaf and seed tissues of transgenic Arabidopsis plants.

Background: Arabidopsis AtHB7 and AtHB12 transcription factors (TFs) belong to the homeodomain-leucine zipper subfamily I (HD-Zip I) and present 62% amino acid identity. These TFs have been associated with the control of plant development and abiotic stress responses; however, at present it is not completely understood how AtHB7 and AtHB12 regulate these processes. Results: By using different expression analysis approaches, we found that AtHB12 is expressed at higher levels during early Arabidopsis thaliana development whereas AtHB7 during later developmental stages. Moreover, by analysing gene expression in single and double Arabidopsis mutants and in transgenic plants ectopically expressing these TFs, we discovered a complex mechanism dependent on the plant developmental stage and in which AtHB7 and AtHB12 affect the expression of each other. Phenotypic analysis of transgenic plants revealed that AtHB12 induces root elongation and leaf development in young plants under standard growth conditions, and seed production in water-stressed plants. In contrast, AtHB7 promotes leaf development, chlorophyll levels and photosynthesis and reduces stomatal conductance in mature plants. Moreover AtHB7 delays senescence processes in standard growth conditions. Conclusions: We demonstrate that AtHB7 and AtHB12 have overlapping yet specific roles in several processes related to development and water stress responses. The analysis of mutant and transgenic plants indicated that the expression of AtHB7 and AtHB12 is regulated in a coordinated manner, depending on the plant developmental stage and the environmental conditions. The results suggested that AtHB7 and AtHB12 evolved divergently to fine tune processes associated with development and responses to mild water stress. Fil: Ré, Delfina Adela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnologia del Litoral; Argentina Fil: Capella, Matias. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnologia del Litoral; Argentina Fil: Bonaventure, Gustavo. Max Planck Institut Jena; Bélgica Fil: Chan, Raquel Lia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Santa Fe. Instituto de Agrobiotecnologia del Litoral; Argentina

Nicotiana attenuata HSPRO (NaHSPRO) is a negative regulator of seedling growth promoted by the fungus Piriformospora indica. Homologs of NaHSPRO in Arabidopsis thaliana (i.e., AtHSPRO1 and AtHSPRO2) are known to physically interact with the AKINβγ subunit of the SnRK1 complex. To investigate whether NaHSPRO is associated with SnRK1 function during the stimulation of seedling growth by P. indica, we studied N. attenuata plants silenced in the expression of NaGAL83 (as-gal83 plants)--a gene that encodes for the regulatory β-subunit of SnRK1--and plants silenced in the expression of both NaHSPRO and NaGAL83 (ir-hspro/as-gal83 plants). The results showed that P. indica differentially stimulated the growth of both as-gal83 and ir-hspro/as-gal83 seedlings compared with control seedlings, with a magnitude similar to that observed in ir-hspro seedlings. Thus, we showed that, similar to NaHSPRO, NaGAL83 is a negative regulator of seedling growth stimulated by P. indica. We propose that the effect of NaHSPRO on seedling growth is associated with SnRK1 signaling.

Plants employ a large variety of defense strategies to resist herbivores, which require transcriptional reprogramming of cells and profound changes in plant metabolism. Due to the large number of genes involved in defense processes, rapid screening strategies are essential for elucidating the contributions of individual genes in the responses of plants to herbivory. However, databases and seed banks of mutant plants which allow rapid retrieval of mutant genotypes are limited to a few model plant species, namely, Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa (rice). In other plants, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) offers an efficient alternative for screening the functions of individual genes in order to prioritize the allocations of the large time investments required to establish stably transformed RNAi-silenced lines. With VIGS, it is usually possible to achieve strong, specific silencing of target genes in the ecological models Nicotiana attenuata and Solanum nigrum, allowing the rapid assessment of gene silencing effects on phytohormone accumulation, signal transduction and accumulation of defense metabolites. VIGS plants are also useful in bioassays with specialist and generalist herbivores, allowing direct verification of gene function in plant resistance to herbivores.

In a previous study aimed at identifying regulators of Nicotiana attenuata responses against chewing insects, a 26-nucleotide tag matching the HSPRO (ORTHOLOG OF SUGAR BEET Hs1pro - 1) gene was found to be strongly induced after simulated herbivory (Gilardoni et al., 2010). Here we characterized the function of HSPRO during biotic interactions in transgenic N. attenuata plants silenced in its expression (ir-hspro). In wild-type plants, HSPRO expression was not only induced during simulated herbivory but also when leaves were inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 and roots with the growth-promoting fungus Piriformospora indica. Reduced HSPRO expression did not affect the regulation of direct defenses against Manduca sexta herbivory or P. syringae pv tomato DC3000 infection rates. However, reduced HSPRO expression positively influenced early seedling growth during interaction with P. indica; fungus-colonized ir-hspro seedlings increased their fresh biomass by 30% compared with the wild type. Grafting experiments demonstrated that reduced HSPRO expression in roots was sufficient to induce differential growth promotion in both roots and shoots. This effect was accompanied by changes in the expression of 417 genes in colonized roots, most of which were metabolic genes. The lack of major differences in the metabolic profiles of ir-hspro and wild-type colonized roots (as analyzed by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry) suggested that accelerated metabolic rates were involved. We conclude that HSPRO participates in a whole-plant change in growth physiology when seedlings interact with P. indica.

Choice of host plants by phytophagous insects is essential for their survival and reproduction. This choice involves complex behavioral responses to a variety of physical and chemical characteristics of potential plants for feeding. For insects of the order Hemiptera, these behavioral responses involve a series of steps including labial dabbing and probing using their piercing mouthparts. These initial probing and feeding attempts also elicit a rapid accumulation of phytohormones, such as jasmonic acid (JA), and the induced defense metabolites they mediate. When Nicotiana attenuata plants are rendered JA deficient by silencing the initial committed step of the JA biosynthesis pathway, they are severely attacked in nature by hemipteran leafhoppers of the genus Empoasca . By producing N. attenuata plants silenced in multiple steps of JA biosynthesis and perception and in the biosynthesis of the plant’s three major classes of JA-inducible insecticidal defenses, we demonstrate that the choice of plants for feeding by Empoasca leafhoppers in both nature and the glasshouse is independent of the accumulation of major insecticidal molecules. Moreover, this choice is independent of the presence of Candidatus Phytoplasma spp. and is not associated with detectable changes in plant volatiles but instead depends on the plant´s capacity to mediate JA signaling. We exploited this trait and used Empoasca leafhoppers to reveal genetic variation in JA accumulation and signaling hidden in N. attenuata natural populations.

The Nicotiana attenuata LECTIN RECEPTOR KINASE 1 (LecRK1) has been recently identified as a component of the mechanism used by plants to suppress the Manduca sexta-triggered accumulation of salicylic acid (SA). The suppression of the SA burst by LecRK1 allows for the unfettered induction of jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated defense responses against M. sexta herbivory. LecRK1 contains a multi-domain extracellular region composed of a G-type Lectin domain and a PAN-AP domain separated by a variable sequence with low similarity to an EGF domain. The LecRK1 intracellular region is composed of a single domain structure with predicted Ser/Thr protein kinase activity. The multi-domain structure of the extracellular region of LecRK1 adds a level of complexity in terms of the potential ligands that this receptor protein could recognize.

Nicotiana attenuata has the capacity to respond specifically to herbivory by its natural herbivore, Manduca sexta, through the perception of elicitors in larval oral secretions. We demonstrate that Lectin receptor kinase 1 (LecRK1) functions during M. sexta herbivory to suppress the insect-mediated inhibition of jasmonic acid (JA)–induced defense responses. Gene function analysis performed by reducing LecRK1 expression in N. attenuata by both virus-induced gene silencing and inverted repeated RNA interference (ir-lecRK1 plants) revealed that LecRK1 was essential to mount a full defense response against M. sexta folivory; larvae growing on ir-lecRK1 plants were 40 to 100% larger than those growing on wild-type plants. The insect-induced accumulation of nicotine, diterpene-glucosides, and trypsin protease inhibitors, as well as the expression of Thr deaminase, was severalfold reduced in ir-lecRK1 plants compared with the wild type. The accumulation of JA and JA-Ile was unaffected during herbivory in ir-lecRK1 plants; however, salicylic acid (SA) accumulation was increased by twofold. The expression of nahG in ir-lecRK1 plants prevented the increased accumulation of SA and restored the defense response against M. sexta herbivory. The results suggest that LecRK1 inhibits the accumulation of SA during herbivory, although other mechanisms may also be affected.

The transcription factor HAHB10 belongs to the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) HD-Zip II subfamily and it has been previously associated with the induction of flowering. In this study it is shown that HAHB10 is expressed in sunflower leaves throughout the vegetative stage and in stamens during the reproductive stage. In short-day inductive conditions the expression of this gene is induced in shoot apexes together with the expression of the flowering genes HAFT and HAAP1. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing HAHB10 cDNA under regulation either by its own promoter or by cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S exhibited an early flowering phenotype. This phenotype was completely reverted in a non-inductive light regime, indicating a photoperiod-dependent action for this transcription factor. Gene expression profiling of Arabidopsis plants constitutively expressing HAHB10 indicated that specific flowering transition genes such as FT, FUL, and SEP3 were induced several fold, whereas genes related to biotic stress responses, such as PR1, PR2, ICS1, AOC1, EDS5, and PDF1-2a, were repressed. The expression of HAHB10 and of the flowering genes HASEP3 and HAFT was up-regulated by both salicylic acid (SA) treatment and infection with a virulent strain of Pseudomonas syringae. Basal SA and jasmonic acid (JA) levels in Arabidopsis plants ectopically expressing HAHB10 were similar to those of control plants; however, SA levels differentially increased in the transgenic plants after wounding and infection with P. syringae while JA levels differentially decreased. Taken together, the results indicated that HAHB10 participates in two different processes in plants: the transition from the vegetative to the flowering stage via the induction of specific flowering transition genes and the accumulation of phytohormones upon biotic stresses.

Wounding and herbivore attack elicit the rapid (within minutes) accumulation of jasmonic acid (JA) that results from the activation of previously synthesized biosynthetic enzymes. Recently, several regulatory factors that affect JA production have been identified; however, how these regulators affect JA biosynthesis remains at present unknown. Here we demonstrate that Nicotiana attenuata salicylate-induced protein kinase (SIPK), wound-induced protein kinase (WIPK), nonexpressor of PR-1 (NPR1), and the insect elicitor N-linolenoyl-glutamate [corrected] (18:3-Glu) participate in mechanisms affecting early enzymatic steps of the JA biosynthesis pathway. Plants silenced in the expression of SIPK and NPR1 were affected in the initial accumulation of 13-hydroperoxy-linolenic acid (13-OOH-18:3) after wounding and 18:3-Glu elicitation by mechanisms independent of changes in 13-lipoxygenase activity. Moreover, 18:3-Glu elicited an enhanced and rapid accumulation of 13-OOH-18:3 that depended partially on SIPK and NPR1 but was independent of increased 13-lipoxygenase activity. Together, the results suggested that substrate supply for JA production was altered by 18:3-Glu elicitation and SIPK- and NPR1-mediated mechanisms. Consistent with a regulation at the level of substrate supply, we demonstrated by virus-induced gene silencing that a wound-repressed plastidial glycerolipase (NaGLA1) plays an essential role in the induction of de novo JA biosynthesis. In contrast to SIPK and NPR1, mechanisms mediated by WIPK did not affect the production of 13-OOH-18:3 but were critical to control the conversion of this precursor into 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid. These differences could be partially accounted for by reduced allene oxide synthase activity in WIPK-silenced plants.

Plastids are the central orchestrators of the early and late responses to wounding and herbivory in plants. This organelle houses some of the most important enzymes involved in the biogenesis of intra and extracellular signals that mediate defense responses against these stresses. Among these enzymes are the ones initiating the biosynthesis of oxylipins [e.g., jasmonic acid (JA) and C(6) volatiles], terpenoid volatiles and phenolic compounds, including both volatile [e.g., methylsalicylate (MeSA)] and non-volatile compounds [e.g., salicylic acid (SA)]. Plastids also play a major role in orchestrating changes in primary metabolism during herbivory and thereby in the reallocation of carbon and nitrogen to different functions in response to herbivory. How the primary stress signals generated by mechanical damage and herbivory reach the plastid to activate the rapid synthesis of these signal molecules is at present largely unknown.

Wounding and herbivore attack elicit the rapid (within minutes) accumulation of jasmonic acid (JA) that results from the activation of previously synthesized biosynthetic enzymes. Recently, several regulatory factors that affect JA production have been identified; however, how these regulators affect JA biosynthesis remains at present unknown. Here we demonstrate that Nicotiana attenuata salicylate-induced protein kinase (SIPK), wound-induced protein kinase (WIPK), nonexpressor of PR-1 (NPR1), and the insect elicitor N-linolenoyl-glucose (18:3-Glu) participate in mechanisms affecting early enzymatic steps of the JA biosynthesis pathway. Plants silenced in the expression of SIPK and NPR1 were affected in the initial accumulation of 13-hydroperoxy-linolenic acid (13-OOH-18:3) after wounding and 18:3-Glu elicitation by mechanisms independent of changes in 13-lipoxygenase activity. Moreover, 18:3-Glu elicited an enhanced and rapid accumulation of 13-OOH-18:3 that depended partially on SIPK and NPR1 but was independent of increased 13-lipoxygenase activity. Together, the results suggested that substrate supply for JA production was altered by 18:3-Glu elicitation and SIPK- and NPR1-mediated mechanisms. Consistent with a regulation at the level of substrate supply, we demonstrated by virus-induced gene silencing that a wound-repressed plastidial glycerolipase (NaGLA1) plays an essential role in the induction of de novo JA biosynthesis. In contrast to SIPK and NPR1, mechanisms mediated by WIPK did not affect the production of 13-OOH-18:3 but were critical to control the conversion of this precursor into 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid. These differences could be partially accounted for by reduced allene oxide synthase activity in WIPK-silenced plants.

Plants can distinguish mechanical damage from larval folivory through the recognition of specific constituents of larval oral secretions (OS) which are deposited on the surface of leaf wounds during feeding. Fatty acid-amino acid conjugates (FACs) are major constituents of the OS of Lepidopteran larvae and they are strong elicitors of herbivore-induced defense responses in several plant species, including the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata. When OS from Manduca sexta larvae is deposited on N. attenuata wounded leaves, the major FAC N-linolenoyl-glutamic acid (18:3-Glu) is modified within seconds by a heat labile process. Some of the major modified forms are oxygenated products derived from 13-lipoxygenase activity and one of these derivatives, 13-oxo-13:2-Glu, is an active elicitor of enhanced JA biosynthesis and differential monoterpene emission in N. attenuata leaves.

Pectin methylesterases (PMEs) catalyse the demethylation of pectin within plant cell walls, releasing methanol (MeOH) in the process. Thus far, PMEs have been found to be involved in diverse processes such as plant growth and development and defence responses against pathogens. Herbivore attack increases PME expression and activity and MeOH emissions in several plant species. To gain further insights into the role of PMEs in defence responses against herbivores, the expression of a Manduca sexta oral secretion (OS)-inducible PME in Nicotiana attenuata (NaPME1) was silenced by RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated gene silencing. Silenced lines (ir-pme) showed 50% reduced PME activity in leaves and 70% reduced MeOH emissions after OS elicitation compared with the wild type (WT), demonstrating that the herbivore-induced MeOH emissions originate from the demethylation of pectin by PME. In the initial phase of the OS-induced jasmonic acid (JA) burst (first 30 min), ir-pme lines produced WT levels of this hormone and of jasmonyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile); however, these levels were significantly reduced in the later phase (60–120 min) of the burst. Similarly, suppressed levels of the salicylic acid (SA) burst induced by OS elicitation were observed in ir-pme lines even though wounded ir-pme leaves contained slightly increased amounts of SA. This genotype also presented reduced levels of OS-induced trypsin proteinase inhibitor activity in leaves and consistently increased M. sexta larvae performance compared with WT plants. These latter responses could not be recovered by application of exogenous MeOH. Together, these results indicated that PME contributes, probably indirectly by affecting cell wall properties, to the induction of anti-herbivore responses.

CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1 (COI1) is a well-known key player in processes downstream of jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis: silencing COI1 in Nicotiana attenuata (ir-coi1) makes plants insensitive to JA, prevents the up-regulation of JA-mediated defenses and decreases the plant's resistance to herbivores and pathogens. In agreement with previous studies, we observed that regulation of several JA biosynthesis genes elicited by Manduca sexta oral secretions (OS) is COI1 dependent. In response to wounding and application of OS ir-coi1 plants accumulate 75% less JA compared with wild-type plants (WT), resembling JA levels found in plants silenced in the key enzyme in JA biosynthesis LIPOXYGENASE 3 (as-lox). However, while OS-elicited as-lox plants also accumulated lower levels of the JA-conjugate JA-isoleucine (JA-Ile) than did WT plants, JA-Ile accumulation in ir-coi1 was higher, prolonged and peaked with a delay of 30 min. In vivo substrate feeding experiments of N. attenuata demonstrate that the increased and prolonged JA-Ile accumulation pattern in ir-coi1 is not the result of altered substrate availability, i.e. of JA and/or Ile, but is due to an approximately 6-fold decrease in JA-Ile turnover. These results provide the first evidence for a second, novel regulatory feedback function of COI1 in enhancing JA-Ile turnover. Hence, in addition to its control over JA biosynthesis, COI1 might fine-tune the dynamics of the jasmonate response after induction by herbivore elicitors.

Suberin and cutin are fatty acid– and glycerol-based plant polymers that act as pathogen barriers and function in the control of water and solute transport. However, despite important physiological roles, their biosynthetic pathways, including the acyl transfer reactions, remain hypothetical. We report the characterization of two suberin mutants (gpat5-1 and gpat5-2) of Arabidopsis thaliana GPAT5, encoding a protein with acyl-CoA:glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase activity. RT-PCR and β-glucuronidase–promoter fusion analyses demonstrated GPAT5 expression in seed coat, root, hypocotyl, and anther. The gpat5 plants showed a 50% decrease in aliphatic suberin in young roots and produced seed coats with a severalfold reduction in very long chain dicarboxylic acid and ω-hydroxy fatty acids typical of suberin but no change in the composition or content of membrane or storage glycerolipids or surface waxes. Consistent with their altered suberin, seed coats of gpat5 mutants had a steep increase in permeability to tetrazolium salts compared with wild-type seed coats. Furthermore, the germination rate of gpat5 seeds under high salt was reduced, and gpat5 seedlings had lower tolerance to salt stress. These results provide evidence for a critical role of GPAT5 in polyester biogenesis in seed coats and roots and for the importance of lipid polymer structures in the normal function of these organs.

The fatty acid oxygenation up-regulated 2 (fou2) mutant in Arabidopsis thaliana creates a gain-of-function allele in a non-selective cation channel encoded by the Two Pore Channel 1 (TPC1) gene. This mutant genetically implicates cation fluxes in the control of the positive feedback loop whereby jasmonic acid (JA) stimulates its own synthesis. In this study we observed extensive transcriptome reprogramming in healthy fou2 leaves closely resembling that induced by treatment with methyl jasmonate, biotic stresses and the potassium starvation response. Proteomic analysis of fou2 leaves identified increased levels of seven biotic stress- and JA-inducible proteins. In agreement with these analyses, epistasis studies performed by crossing fou2 with aos indicated that elevated levels of JA in fou2 are the major determinant of the mutant phenotype. In addition, generation of fou2 aba1-5, fou2 etr1-1 and fou2 npr1-1 double mutants showed that the fou2 phenotype was only weakly affected by ABA levels and unaffected by mutations in NPR1 and ETR1. The results now suggest possible mechanisms whereby fou2 could induce JA synthesis/signaling early in the wound response. In contrast to fou2, transcriptome analysis of a loss-of-function allele of TPC1, tpc1-2, revealed no differential expression of JA biosynthesis genes in resting leaves. However, the analysis disclosed reduced mRNA levels of the pathogenesis-related genes PDF1.2a and THI2.1 in healthy and diseased tpc1-2 leaves. The results suggest that wild-type TPC1 contributes to their expression by mechanisms somewhat different from those affecting their expression in fou2., Swiss National Science Foundation (3100A0-101711)

Mature seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica napus contain a complex mixture of aliphatic monomers derived from the non-extractable lipid polyesters deposited by various seed tissues. Methods of polyester depolymerization of solvent-extracted seeds and analysis of aliphatic monomers were compared. Sodium methoxide-catalyzed depolymerization, followed by GC analysis of the acetylated monomers, was developed for routine quantitative analysis suitable for 0.5g seed samples. In Arabidopsis seeds, the major C16 and C18 monomers identified included omega-hydroxy fatty acids and alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acids derived from palmitate, oleate and linoleate, and 9,10,18-trihydroxyoctadecenoic acid. Among monomers which can collectively be considered likely to be derived from suberin, docosan-1-ol, docosane-1,22-diol, 22-hydroxydocosanoic acid, 24-hydroxytetracosanoic acid, tetracosane-1,24-dioic acid and ferulic acid were the major species. Compared to Arabidopsis, Brassica seeds showed a roughly similar proportion of monomer classes, with the exception that alkan-1ols were 3-fold higher. Also, there were much less C24 aliphatic species and significant amounts of C14-C16 alkan-1ols, including iso- and anteiso-methyl branched compounds. Dissection and analysis of mature Brassica seeds showed that the trihydroxy C18:1 fatty acid was found mainly in the embryo, while ferulate, fatty alcohols and C22 and C24 species were specific to the seed coat plus endosperm.

Acyl-acyl carrier protein thioesterases determine the amount and type of fatty acids that are exported from the plastids. To better understand the role of the FATB class of acyl-acyl carrier protein thioesterases, we identified an Arabidopsis mutant with a T-DNA insertion in the FATB gene. Palmitate (16:0) content of glycerolipids of the mutant was reduced by 42% in leaves, by 56% in flowers, by 48% in roots, and by 56% in seeds. In addition, stearate (18:0) was reduced by 50% in leaves and by 30% in seeds. The growth rate was reduced in the mutant, resulting in 50% less fresh weight at 4 weeks compared with wild-type plants. Furthermore, mutant plants produced seeds with low viability and altered morphology. Analysis of individual glycerolipids revealed that the fatty acid composition of prokaryotic plastid lipids was largely unaltered, whereas the impact on eukaryotic lipids varied but was particularly severe for phosphatidylcholine, with a >4-fold reduction of 16:0 and a 10-fold reduction of 18:0 levels. The total wax load of fatb-ko plants was reduced by 20% in leaves and by 50% in stems, implicating FATB in the supply of saturated fatty acids for wax biosynthesis. Analysis of C18 sphingoid bases derived from 16:0 indicated that, despite a 50% reduction in exported 16:0, the mutant cells maintained wild-type levels of sphingoid bases, presumably at the expense of other cell components. The growth retardation caused by the fatb mutation was enhanced in a fatb-ko act1 double mutant in which saturated fatty acid content was reduced further. Together, these results demonstrate the in vivo role of FATB as a major determinant of saturated fatty acid synthesis and the essential role of saturates for the biosynthesis and/or regulation of cellular components critical for plant growth and seed development.

Cyclopropane synthase from Sterculia foetida developing seeds catalyzes the addition of a methylene group from S-adenosylmethionine to the cis double bond of oleic acid (Bao, X., Katz, S., Pollard, M., and Ohlrogge, J. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 99, 7172-7177). To understand this enzyme better, differential expression in leaf and seed tissues, protein properties, and substrate preferences of plant cyclopropane synthase were investigated. Immunoblot analysis with antibodies raised to recombinant S. foetida cyclopropane synthase (SfCPA-FAS) revealed that SfCPA-FAS is expressed in S. foetida seeds, but not in leaves, and is a membrane protein localized to microsomal fractions. Transformed tobacco cells expressing SfCPA-FAS were labeled in vivo with L-[methyl-(14)C]methionine and assayed in vitro with S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-(14)C]methionine. These kinetic experiments demonstrated that dihydrosterculate was synthesized from oleic acid esterified at the sn-1 position of phosphatidylcholine (PC). Furthermore, analysis of acyl chains at sn-1 and sn-2 positions that accumulated in PC from S. foetida developing seeds and from tobacco cells expressing SfCPA-FAS also demonstrated that greater than 90% of dihydrosterculate was esterified to the sn-1 position. Thus, we conclude that SfCPA-FAS is a microsomal localized membrane protein that catalyzes the addition of methylene groups derived from S-adenosyl-L-methionine across the double bond of oleic acid esterified to the sn-1 position of PC. A survey of plant and bacterial genomes for sequences related to SfCPA-FAS indicated that a peptide domain with a putative flavin-binding site is either fused to the methyltransferase domain of the plant protein or is often found encoded by a gene adjacent to a bacterial cyclopropane synthase gene.

To investigate the origin of fragile X mutations in the Argentine population, we studied the alleles and haplotypes at DXS548 and FRAXAC1 loci of 42 unrelated fragile X chromosomes and 168 normal ones. Four haplotypes presented in linkage disequilibrium and accounted for 76.2% of fragile X chromosomes, representing the high frequency of haplotype DXS548-FRAXAC1 7-1 (26.2%) characteristic of our population. FRAXAC1 allele 1 was observed on 47.6% of fragile X chromosomes. Thus, we provide evidence for fragile X founder effects in the Argentine population, similar to those observed in Caucasians and in Asians.

The production of free oxylipins in plants is exquisitely controlled by cellular mechanisms that respond to environmental factors such as mechanical damage, insect herbivory and pathogen infection. One of the main targets of these cellular mechanisms are glycerolipases class A (GLA); acyl-hydrolyzing enzymes that upon their biochemical activation release unsaturated fatty acids or esterified oxylipins from glycerolipids. Recent studies performed in the wild tobacco species Nicotiana attenuata have started to unveil the complexity and specificity of GLA-regulated free oxylipin production. I present a model in which individual GLA lipases associate with individual lipoxygenases (LOX) in chloroplast membranes and envelope to define the initial committed steps of distinct oxylipin biosynthesis pathways. The unravelling of the mechanisms that activate GLAs and LOXs at the biochemical level and that control the interaction between these enzymes and their association with membranes will prove to be fundamental to understand how plants control free oxylipin biogenesis.