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The demonstration that the “dedifferentiation” of cells commonly observed in the early days of tissue culture was due to selective overgrowth of fibroblasts led to enrichment culture techniques (alternate animal and culture passage) designed to give a selective advantage to functionally differentiated tumor cells. These experiments resulted in the derivation of a large number of functionally differentiated clonal strains of a range of cell types. These results gave rise to the hypothesis that cells in culture accurately represent cells in vivo but without the complex in vivo environment. This concept has been strengthened with the development of hormonally defined culture media in combination with functionally differentiated clonal cell lines, which have augmented the potential of tissue culture studies. The use of hormonally defined media in place of serum-supplemented media demonstrates that hormonal responses and dependencies can be discovered in culture. Discoveries of hormonal dependencies of cancer cells has led to therapies targeting intracellular signaling pathways while discoveries of hormonal responses of pluripotent cells are helping to identify the potential application of stem cells. In these and other ways tissue culture technology will continue to contribute to solving problems of human health.

It has been known for some time that mangroves grow in the intertidal areas of desert countries where fresh water flows into the sea, but this phenomenon has not been understood. In Eritrea we observed that mangroves grow where infrequent rains flow into the Red Sea. We theorized that the fresh water must bring elements needed for plant growth that are absent in seawater. We compared the composition of seawater to that of Zarrouk’s algae medium. All the elements in algae medium are in sufficient quantity in seawater except for nitrogen, phosphorous and iron. If we supply these elements we can grow any plant that can grow in seawater. We have also begun planting plants that can grow in sea water in the Sahara desert with sea water irrigation and fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. We believe this will be major step in reducing hunger and poverty in the world.

Lack of tissue-specific differentiated functions of cells in tissue culture, once thought to be due to "dedifferentiation", was shown to be due to selective overgrowth of fibroblasts by a series of simple experiments that challenged the prevailing dogma. Following this insight, enrichment culture techniques (alternate animal and culture passage) were designed to give functionally differentiated tumor cells selective advantage over the fibroblasts. These experiments resulted in the derivation of a large number of functionally differentiated clonal strains of a range of cell types, providing the final point of destruction of the dogma of "dedifferentiation." Instead, the hypothesis was proposed that cells in culture accurately represent cells in vivo, but without the complex in vivo environment. With the development of hormonally defined media and its combination with functionally differentiated clonal cell lines, this concept has been strengthened and the potential of tissue culture studies has been greatly augmented. Hormonally defined media allow the culture of cell types that cannot be grown in conventional, serum-supplemented media. These approaches demonstrate that hormonal responses and dependencies can be discovered in culture. Following this thinking and the discovery of hormonal dependencies of cancer cells has led to a new rationale for therapy. Tissue culture and cell technology continue to play an important role in solving human health problems.

Dr. Gordon Sato is a former Editor-in-Chief of In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology, President of the Tissue Culture Association (now Society for In Vitro Biology), and Director of the W. Alton Jones Cell Science Center (now Adirondack Biomedical Center). He began pilot experiments on the Manzanar Project at test sites in the Salton Sea while a Professor of Biology at the University of California, San Diego and continued the project in the laboratory at the Cell Center in Lake Placid, NY and at Eritrean test sites during their war of independence. Since 1994, he spends up to 10 mo. per yr in Eritrea where he directs the Manzanar Project and trains young Eritrean scientists in the field in the area of what he refers to as “low-tech biotech.” The name of the Manzanar Project was inspired by the camp in California where Dr. Sato and his family were interned during World War II.—The Editor

About 700,000 mangroves, chiefly Avicennia marina, were grown in the tree-less mud flats of Eritrea by a newly developed technology that provides required nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron. A method of fertilization was devised that eliminates the possibility of fertilizer runoff. Novel methods have been developed for planting seeds at the final site and protecting seedlings from uprooting by wave action and encircling wrasse. Methods were developed for preserving mangrove seeds by sun-drying, which results in a stable grain-like product. However, dried mangrove seeds and foliage are insufficient for supporting good growth of sheep, which was a desired outcome. Supplementation of mangrove material with small quantities of a stress food for sheep, consisting of fat-soluble vitamins and minerals renders the mangroves an adequate food. Together, these findings are capable of forming a profitable sea water agriculture and relieving hunger and poverty in many regions of the world.

Growth and function of primary cultures of granulosa cells obtained from immature, hypophysectomized, estrogen-treated rats were compared in serum-containing and serum-free media. In serum-free medium (1:1 mixture of DMEM:F-12) supplemented with insulin, hydrocortisone, transferrin and fibronectin (4F medium), the cells remained healthy and steroidogenically responsive for at least 60 days in culture. The growth profile of the granulosa cells in 4F medium was similar to that obtained in serum-containing medium. In both media cell proliferation did not exceed more than one cell doubling. DMEM:F-12 alone did not support the cell viability. Upon FSH stimulation, the cells produced 25 fold more progestin and estrogen per cell in 4F medium than in medium supplemented with 5% serum. This effect was not directly related to serum proteins which mediate cell adhesion since cells cultured in dishes precoated with serum remained steroidogenically responsive to FSH. Cholera toxin and Bt2-cAMP readily stimulated progestin production in the presence of serum. The inhibitory effect of serum was not reversed by adding the four factors to serum-containing medium. The factors were essential for the FSH-induced steroidogenesis in serum-free medium. After four days of incubation in 4F medium, the cells showed a transient loss of their ability to produce progestin in response to FSH. In both 4F medium as well as in serum-containing medium, the cells regained their hormonal responsiveness after 35 days in culture. Since the loss of hormonal responsiveness occurred at the same time as growth was initiated in the cultures, it is suggested that the FSH-induced steroidogenesis is negatively controlled by growth-related processes.

In this study, the growth of rat follicular (RF-1) cells was severely depressed when the cells were subcultured by trypsinization directly into serum-free medium supplemented with insulin, transferrin and hydrocortisone, which are required for growth of these cells in vitro. Within 24 hr after plating, 50-65% of the cells became binucleated, indicating lack of cytokinesis. However, the addition of human plasma fibronectin (8 microgram/ml) to the serum-free medium eliminated cell binucleation and enhanced cell growth considerably. Fibronectin had the same effect when RF-1 cells were plated into tissue culture dishes on which fibronectin had been absorbed, and cells were inoculated into fibronectin-free medium. Cell binucleation and poor growth in serum-free medium occurred when the cells were subcultured by trypsinization, EGTA treatment or detachment of mitotic cells. Under some conditions, cells could be "rescued" if fibronectin was added soon after inoculation, indicating that fibronectin was needed mainly during a limited time when the subcultured cells were attaching to the tissue culture substratum. Our findings describe an adhesive activity for fibronectin which circumvents the serum preincubation usually needed after RF-1 cells are subcultured for growth in serum-free medium. They also indicate the importance of fibronectin-mediated adhesion for cytokinesis processes of these cells.

A heat-sensitive, trypsin-sensitive factor that promoted growth and spreading of cells in serum-free, hormone-supplemented medium was partially purified from human serum. The major portion of the proteins in these preparations migrated upon SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with a mobility consistent with molecular weights between 60,000 and 90,000. The spreading activity, which we have termed serum spreading factor, stimulated growth and spreading of a wide variety of cell types. The serum spreading factor was similar to fibronectin in that it showed an affinity for the plastic cell culture substrate but was shown to be distinct from fibronectin by several criteria. This factor may prove useful in studies of cell attachment and spreading and in studies of the relationship of cell shape and cell proliferation.

The growth requirements of SV40 transformed Balb/c-3T3 cells have been studied in the absence of serum. For growth in serum-free medium, the cells require (i) insulin, (ii) transferrin, and (iii) cis-unsaturated fatty acids added in combination with fatty acid free bovine serum albumin. The growth rate, saturation density, and morphology of cells grown in this serum-free medium are the same as those of cells grown in serum supplemented medium. This mixture also supports the growth of SV40 transformed Swiss-3T3 cells and SV40 transformed primary mouse embryo cells, but does not support the growth of untransformed Balb/c-3T3 cells. The addition of fibronectin to this mixture allows routine subculture, repeated passage, and indefinite propagation of SV40 transformed Balb/c-3T3 cells. Cells grown in this medium for a period of two months retain their ability to induce tumors when injected into athymic nude mice.

We cultured single cell suspensions derived from enzymatically digested rat and mouse brains in the serum-free, hormone-supplemented media originally established for culturing glioma (C6) and neuroblastoma cell lines (B104). We succeeded in selecting different cell types by varying the hormones added to the culture medium. In addition to the medium the attachment factors used for coating the culture dishes proved important for the establishment of a selective culture system. In a comparative morphological study we show that different particular microenvironmental conditions determine the growth and/or survival of different cell types of dissociated brain cells.

The relation between the concentration of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor/kinase and effects of EGF on cell proliferation has been studied using variant A431 cells and antagonist anti-EGF receptor monoclonal antibodies. Clonal A431 cell variants selected for escape from the EGF-mediated growth inhibition of parental A431 cells all have reduced concentrations of EGF receptor/kinase; Harvey sarcoma virus-transformed A431 cells, which have escaped from EGF-mediated growth inhibition, also have reduced EGF receptors. Three clonal variants which have reacquired EGF-mediated growth inhibition have 2- to 4-fold more EGF receptor than their respective parent variant. A biphasic response with stimulation at low and inhibition at high concentrations of EGF was especially evident in revertants of clone 29. Three separate antagonist monoclonal anti-EGF receptor antibodies block the growth inhibitory effects of EGF and uncover EGF-mediated growth stimulation. These studies indicate that in A431 cell variants a continuum of ligand-activated EGF receptors determines proliferative responses from low concentrations of active receptors under basal conditions to intermediate concentrations causing growth stimulation to high concentrations, causing inhibition of cell proliferation.

A simple three-enzyme treatment of collagenase, dispase and hyaluronidase on finely minced chick oviduct yields clumps of 50–150 cells. These cells attach to collagen-treated dishes and survive in culture for at least 2 weeks without subculturing. Oviduct cell cultures can also be induced to grow. Estradiol or epidermal growth factor (EGF) induce a 40% increase in cells in 4 days when cultures are grown in serum levels that do not support growth. Serum from estrogen-stimulated chicks promotes rapid cellular proliferation (doubling times of 1–2 days). Sera from estrogen withdrawn chicks, laying hen or horse do not support as rapid proliferation. The oviduct growth-promoting factors in serum from estrogen-stimulated chicks are not steroids or fibroblast growth factors (FGF). Removal of steroids from these sera by charcoal treatment or delipidization does not decrease the rate of growth. The addition of 1–100 nM estradiol does not increase a serum's ability to promote growth. Purified FGF or platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) do not induce oviduct proliferation. These results were reproduced in oviduct cell cultures started from estrogen-stimulated and withdrawn chicks as well as laying hens. Thus the factors in serum from estrogen-stimulated chicks that promote rapid oviduct growth are induced by estrogen treatments in vivo, but do not seem to be only steroids.

Hydrocortisone modulates the binding capacity of HeLa cells for 125I-labeled epidermal growth factor (EGF). A twofold increase in 125I-labeled EGF binding is observed within 24 hours after the addition of pharmacological concentration of hydrocortisone (5 X 10(-8) - 1 X 10(-6) M). This enhancement of binding is reversible, and occurs when the cells are cultured in either serum-supplemented or completely defined, serum-free, hormone-supplemented medium. Scatchard analysis of the binding data indicates that the number of 125I-EGF binding sites is increased, and that no appreciable change in the affinity of the EGF receptor for labeled EGF occurs. In the serum-free condition hydrocortisone stimulates the growth of HeLa cells, but we have observed no connection between this growth stimulation and the enhancement of EGF binding. The growth response to hydrocortisone is independent of EGF, and the concentration dependency of the growth response to EGF is unaltered by the addition of hydrocortisone to the medium. Hydrocortisone elicits the growth response at a concentration as low as 5 X 10(-9) M, while a concentration higher than 5 X 10(-6) M is required to affect the binding capacity for 125-EGF. These effects are specific for glucocorticoid steroids. Similar concentrations of progesterone, testosterone, or estradiol produce no measurable response. Although the elevation of EGF receptor levels in the serum-supplemented medium is similar to that observed in the serum-free cultures, hydrocortisone is growth-inhibitory under these conditions. This growth inhibition occurs at pharmacological concentrations of hydrocortisone with a concentration dependency that is similar to that of the EGF receptor modulation.

Experimental approaches for selecting hormone-dependent cells, hybrid cells, and haploid cells are discussed. Experiments are described for isolating mammary tumour cells which are dependent on the presence of prolactin and insulin for growth.

Three clonal strains of epithelial cells were established from a transplantable rat pituitary tumor. These strains have been serially propagated for 14–25 months. They were subcultured every 2–3 weeks. Cells of the original strain have increased by a factor of more than 1040. The generation times of the 3 lines were similar and ranged between 30 and 40 hr. Cells of all 3 strains synthesize growth hormone and secrete it into the culture medium. Growth hormone synthesized in vitro is indistinguishable from normal rat pituitary growth hormone as measured by micro-complement fixation and radioimmunoassay. The specific activity of growth hormone production was estimated to be 20–40 figμng cell nitrogen/24 hr for the most vigorous strain. There has been no decrease in the rate of cell division nor decline in growth hormone secretion since the cells were established in culture. (Endocrinology 82: 342, 1968)

Rat glial cells were grown in tissue culture in vitamin B12-deficient medium. As the intracellular level of coenzyme B12 decreased, the cells made increasing amounts of two unusual fatty acids. The fatty acids were unbranched acids with 15 and 17 carbon atoms and arose as the cells progressively lost the ability to metabolize propionic acid through the B12-requiring methylmalonyl-CoA mutase reaction. The levels of the 15- and 17-carbon acids returned to normal when the cultures were supplemented with vitamin B12. The possible importance of similar fatty acid changes in human vitamin B12 deficiency and in disorders of 3- and 4- carbon acid metabolism is speculated.

Selection techniques are described for the isolation of differentiated mammalian cell lines in culture. Use of the techniques in isolating auxotrophic mutant cell lines and functionally dependent endocrine tumor cell lines is discussed.

Lack of differentiated functions of the tissue of origin in tissue culture thought to be due to dedifferentiation was shown to be due to selective overgrowth of fibroblasts. Enrichment culture techniques, (alternate animal and culture passage), designed to give the functionally differentiated cells selective advantage over the fibroblasts resulted in a large number of functionally differentiated clonal strains. Thus the dogma of dedifferentiation was destroyed. It is proposed to substitute the dedifferentiation hypothesis with the hypothesis that cells in culture accurately represent cells in vivo without the complex in vivo environment. With the development of hormonally defined media, combined with functionally differentiated clonal cell lines, the potential of tissue culture studies is greatly augmented. Hormonal responses and dependencies can be discovered in culture and the discovery of dependencies of cancer cells has led to a new rationale for therapy.

Dissociated embryonic chick dorsal root ganglionic cells were plated on collagen-coated tissue culture dishes in Eagle's basal medium containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). After 48 h, which allowed adequate cell attachment, the cultures were washed with serum-free medium and then received fresh medium supplemented with 10% FCS or serum-free defined medium (N1), which was supplemented with insulin, transferrin, progesterone, putrescine and selenium. In addition, both media required the addition of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF). N1 medium selectively maintained the neurons and did not support proliferation or even survival of almost all non-neuronal elements (fibroblasts and Schwann cells). Survival of neurons in N1 was initially as good and eventually better than in serum-containing medium. After 6 days in N1 the cultures consisted almost entirely of neurons (>95%), which had smaller cell bodies but more extensive process formation than in serum-supplemented medium. The omission of any one of the supplements resulted in a reduction of neuron survival. The ability to generate cultures of pure neurons in a serum-free defined medium may be useful for studying (i) the role of specific hormones and growth factors normally supplied by serum in the maintenance of neurons and (ii) biochemical parameters of neurons in the absence of the substantial background due to non-neuronal elements.

The possibility has been investigated that 1) the supplements required for the growth of the Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell line in serum-free Medium K-1 are indeed requirements for the growth of normal kidney cells in vitro, and 2) that alterations in these growth requirements are associated with malignant transformation. Consistent with the hypothesis that MDCK cells resemble normal kidney cells in culture, primary cultures of baby mouse kidney epithelial cells grow in Medium K-1 and respond to the 5 components in the medium. The growth properties of Moloney sarcoma virus (MSV)-transformed MDCK cells in defined media have been examined. Unlike MDCK cells, MSV-transformed MDCK cells form tumors in adult nude mice. Although they still respond to the 5 factors in Medium K1, the optimal dosage for insulin is lower for the MSV transformants than for MDCK cells. The MSV transformants also have an additional requirement for growth in Medium K-1-fibronectin. Variants of MDCK cells have been isolated that have lost the PGE1 requirement for growth in defined medium. These variant cells have acquired 1) the ability to form tumors in adult nude mice and 2) an alteration affecting cAMP metabolism, in addition to PGE1 independence.

Recent advances in tissue culture and endocrinology have made possible the growth of established cell lines in hormone-supplemented serum-free media. The hormone requirements differ for different cell types but are similar or identical for the same cell types. The hormone supplements derived for four different cell types, a melanoma, GH3 pituitary tumor, and testicular cell lines TM3 and TM4 are used in preparing primary cultures for organs to detect melanoma metastasis, and grow normal pituitary and normal Leydig and Sertoli cells, respectively. This hormone supplementation and the concomitant elimination or reduction of the serum requirement is shown to have several advantages in the preparation of primary cultures including prolonged viability and function, partial or total selection of the desired cell type and inhibition of fibroblast overgrowth. It is felt that such culture systems will significantly expand the range of problems which can be approached using primary culture systems.

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) at 3 nM maximally inhibits the proliferation of A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells. We show that at lower concentrations, in the range of 3-100 pM, EGF has a mitogenic effect on A431 cells. In the presence of 100 nM anti-EGF-receptor monoclonal IgG (designated 528), which inhibits A431 cell proliferation and blocks greater than 95% of EGF binding, EGF becomes mitogenic for A431 cells at concentrations up to 3 nM. These results suggest that a minor population of high-affinity EGF receptors may be involved in stimulation of A431 cell proliferation. Saturation binding assays with 125I-labeled EGF indicate that approximately equal to 0.1-0.2% of receptors for EGF are high-affinity receptors that bind EGF with an estimated Kd of 7 X 10(-11) M. This affinity is nearly 2 orders of magnitude higher than that of the remaining EGF receptors. Although A431 cell proliferation is maximally inhibited by nonsaturating amounts of EGF (3 nM), maximal inhibition by 528 IgG (approximately equal to 70% of maximal inhibition by EGF) requires saturating concentrations of antibody (approximately equal to 15 nM). Unlike EGF, rapid down-regulation is not observed with 528 IgG. These results indicate different mechanisms of growth inhibition of A431 cells by EGF and 528 IgG.

The effect of rat submaxillary extract on the growth of rat C6 glioma cells in serum-free culture has been examined. Extracts (10-15 microgram/ml) of submaxillary glands from both male and female rats markedly enhanced the growth of serum-deprived C6 cells and, in combination with insulin, transferrin, and NIH-LH (a source of fibroblast growth factor), were able to stimulate C6 cell growth to an extent comparable to that achieved with an optimal amount of fetal calf serum. The mitogenic activity of rat submaxillary extracts was found to be heat-labile, acid-stable, and partially inactivated by protease and 2-mercaptoethanol. Under our assay conditions, biologically active preparations of purified mouse submaxillary gland epidermal growth factor (EGF) or nerve growth factor (NGF) were not mitogenic for C6 cells, nor was the mitogenic activity of rat submaxillary extracts inhibited by antiserum to these mouse submaxillary gland growth factors. These results suggest that the active component(s) of rat submaxillary extracts is unrelated to either EGF or NGF. The growth-enhancing effect also appears unrelated to esteropeptidase activity present in these extracts since the mitogenic activity was unaffected by several protease inhibitors. Moreover, two purified mouse submaxillary gland arginylesteropeptidases, EGF-binding protein and gamma-subunit of 7 S NGF, were unable to elicit a comparable growth response even when added to cell culture medium at unreasonably high concentrations. The C6 cell mitogenic activity of crude submaxillary extracts could be separated into two biologically similar components by either gel filtration on Sephadex G-100, preparative isoelectric focusing in a pH gradient of 3-10, or adsorption to DEAE-cellulose followed by elution with a sodium chloride gradient. One of the active components was acidic in nature and had an apparent molecular weight of 40,000, while the other was near neutral in charge and possessed a molecular weight of approximately 20,000. The relationship between these two C6 cell mitogenic components and the rat submaxillary gland component responsible for stimulating Balb/c-3T3 cell growth in serum-free, factor supplemented medium (McClure et al., 1979, J. Cell Biol. 83:96a) is also discussed.

The purification of a growth factor from bovine pituitary glands that controls the division of an ovarian cell line maintained in tissue culture is reported. Extraction of bovine pituitary glands at pH 4.5 followed by ammonium sulfate precipitation, chromatography on carboxymethylcellulose, and gel filtration on Sephadex G-50 gives yields of ovarian growth factor of about 7 mg/kg of glands. Contamination by other pituitary hormones was not detected. The preparation obtained has been characterized with respect to biological activity, molecular weight, and amino-acid composition. The implication of this growth factor in the development of ovarian tumors is discussed.

The rat neuroblastoma B104 cell line, which originated in the central nervous system, was able to proliferate in the absence of serum in synthetic medium supplemented with insulin, transferrin, progesterone, selenium, and putrescine. When added individually, each supplement had little or no effect; however, in combination there was a marked synergistic effect on cell number. The cells attained the same saturation density in this medium as in medium with 10% fetal calf serum added. More extensive process formation was observed in the supplemented medium, and other differentiated properties were retained as well.

The embryonal carcinoma line C17-S1 clone 1003 is multipotential in vivo. When the cells are grown in vitro in serum-containing medium most of them remain undifferentiated, while a few differentiate into a unique morphologic type of epithelioid cell. If 1003 cells are passaged into a defined medium containing insulin, transferrin, selenium, and fibronectin they grow for six to eight generations at the same rate as in serum-containing medium. During this time, all the cells of the culture differentiate into a limited number of phenotypes with neuroepithelial and neuronal cells predominating. Differentiation could be obtained in the defined medium at relatively low cell densities. Exogenous fibronectin is required for cell attachment to the substratum, and when absent the cells form aggregates in which differentiation still occurs. Low amounts of serum added to the defined medium allow multiplication and maintenance of cells of undifferentiated phenotype and prevent differentiation into neuronal cells.

A serum-free medium for serial culture of baby hamster kidney cell line 21 (BHK-21) as container-adherent cells was developed. The medium is a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and Ham's F-12 medium supplemented with fibroblast growth factor, fibronectin, insulin, oleic acid (preincubated with fatty-acid-free bovine serum albumin as carrier), and transferrin. The fibronectin was required for cell adherence, the other factors for optimal cell multiplication. When cell input was greater than about 1,900 cells/cm2, this serum-free medium supported cell multiplication at a rate approximately equal to the rate in medium with 10% serum. At lower cell input, growth in the serum-free medium was poor unless it was supplemented with serum-free medium which had been conditioned by BHK-21 cells. The conditioned medium contained a factor(s) which enabled or stimulated cell multiplication.

Publisher Summary This chapter establishes the principle that it is indeed possible to achieve cell cultures that are dependent on the tropic hormones active on the parental tissue and to make some preliminary observations on the control of the hormonal environment in culture. Because of the primitive state of this field, little detail is presented on technical procedures and more attention is devoted to theoretical considerations that generate the experimental approach. While many of the cell types found in the intact animal are undoubtedly dependent on tropic hormones for maintenance and/or growth, this trait has been conspicuously absent in established cell culture lines. In part this is because of a lack of sufficient optimism necessary to support a strenuous effort to establish such cell lines, and to long neglect of the problem of growth factors and hormones found in the serum component of tissue culture media.

Two mouse embryonal carcinoma cell lines, PCC.4 aza-1 and F9, have been grown in serum-free F-12 medium supplemented with Pedersen fetuin, insulin, transferrin, and 2-mercaptoethanol. This medium supports long-term growth of both cell lines. When these cells are transferred from medium containing serum to this serum-free medium, growth continues without any detectable lag. PCC.4 aza-1 grown in this medium for over 20 generations retains the capacity to differentiate in vivo. This medium appears to be a general serum-free medium for the growth of embryonal carcinoma cells.

HeLa cells grow in a nutritionally complete synthetic medium (Ham's F12) supplemented with insulin, transferrin, hydrocortisone (aldosterone), fibroblast growth factor, and epidermal growth factor. This hormone-supplemented medium supports clonal growth, long-term cultivation, and a growth rate equal to that of serum-supplemented medium. The omission of any one of the five components results in less than maximal cell growth.

In this study, we have devised a hormone-supplemented, lipid-enriched serum-free medium, designated KSLM, that supports the growth of NS-1 mouse myeloma cells and have studied its applicability to the efficient isolation of antibody-producing hybridomas formed from the fusion of NS-1 myeloma cells and spleen cells from immunized mice. Our results show that KSLM medium, when used in conjunction with our hybridization protocol, allowed for the isolation, in a reproducible manner, of antibody-secreting hybridomas. Moreover, the yield of antibody-producing hybridomas was similar in KSLM medium and serum-supplemented medium. Here, we also report on the adaptation of NS-1 myeloma cells to growth in lipid-deficient KSLM medium. The use of the adapted myeloma cells (NS-1-503), instead of NS-1 myeloma cells, in fusion experiments not only permitted the isolation of antibody-secreting hybridomas in lipid-free KSLM medium but also resulted in a higher yield of antibody-producing hybridomas in both complete KSLM medium and serum-supplemented medium.

Four individual lines and one subline of human cells, permanently established in tissue culture after infection with simian virus 40, failed to form tumors when inoculated into athymic nude mice. Under identical conditions, three established human cell lines of neoplastic origin and a spontaneously established human lymphocyte line formed tumors. Nude mice that failed to grow tumors from inocula of simian virus 40-transformed human cells, grew tumors from subsequent injections of authentic human cancer cells. Further efforts to demonstrate an immunologic basis for the growth suppression of human simian virus 40 transformants were also negative. The data suggest that the changes in morphology and in vitro growth behavior induced by the viral information are not sufficient for, or are only coincidentally related to, the neoplastic state.

An ovarian cell line was developed that requires hormonal conditioning of the host for growth in vivo and that requires special factors for growth in vitro. It is necessary to prepare special culture media to demonstrate the effects of growth factors in vitro. To this end, methods were developed for removing from serum those essential factors required for the growth of ovarian cells in culture. Minimal growth occurred in medium containing fetal calf serum that had been passed through a porcelain filter. This method of depleting serum was replaced by a procedure involving passage through a carboxymethylcellulose column. Either pituitary extract or the eluate from the column restored growth in these depleted media. The eluate was more active than pituitary extract with regard to maximal growth enhancement. When the cells were incubated in the depleted media, viability, as measured by plating efficiency, decreased with incubation time. Either pituitary extract or the eluate from the column prevented such death of cells. Based on these findings, we postulate that the eluate contains both a survival factor and a growth-promoting factor for these ovarian cells, while pituitary extract contains only the survival factor.

C17-S1-D-T984 (to be referred to as T984) is a myogenic clonal cell line isolated from a mouse teratocarcinoma. T984 exhibits phenotypic instability since it gives rise not only to myogenic but also to fibro-adipogenic and fibroblastic clones. A cell line of each clone type has been established and studied with respect to (1) phenotypic expression and stability; and (2) growth and differentiation in serum-free and serum-supplemented media. In both respects, marked differences between the three cell lines were observed. All three cell lines respond by increased growth in serum-free media to insulin, transferrin, fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and the serum-spreading factor of Holmes. The fibroblastic and the fibro-adipogenic cell lines can both be grown indefinitely in a serum-free medium which contains the above factors. The fibro-adipogenic cell line, which differentiates in serum-supplemented medium, exhibits very limited differentiation in the absence of serum; the serum factor(s) required for adipogenic differentiation is (are) probably proteins of molecular weight superior to 10 000. In direct contrast, the myogenic cell line exhibits limited growth in serum-free medium but readily differentiates under these conditions. Moreover, myogenic differentiation could be obtained in the defined medium at very low densities and was not influenced by the addition of medium conditioned by cells seeded at high densities. Thus, in this system, muscular differentiation is apparently independent of diffusible endogenous or exogenous factors and is probably triggered by the arrest of growth. While our results do not explain the reason why T984 exhibits phenotypic instability, they do indicate that this clonal cell line and its clonal derivatives could be used to identify the factors that influence the growth and the differentiation of cells of different mesenchymal phenotypes. The possible relationship of phenotypic instability to muscular dystrophies is also discussed.

Cultures of a halophilic strain of Synechococcus elongatus Naegeli var. vestitus Copeland were grown at various temperatures. Maximum growth rates (K value 0.363) occurred in cultures kept at a constant 45°C, while cultures moved from 45°C to 35°C for a period of 5 months and returned to 45°C did not attain growth rates as high as the growth rate at the original temperature of 45°C. Availability and ratios of sources of nitrogen and phosphorus for the culture were investigated using potassium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, urea and potassium dihydrogen phosphate. Optimal nitrogen:phosphate (N:P) ratios obtained were 10.19:1 in culture with potassium nitrate or 18.7:1 with urea and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses cell culture and physiology. If tissue cultures are to be useful tools for studying animal physiology, they should exhibit growth responses to trophic hormones as do the parental tissues in vivo. Cells, whose proliferation is driven by hormones, require them at concentrations greater than those normally found in 100% serum. In addition, there are many specialized areas of the body where certain hormone concentrations are much higher than that found in the general circulation. For these reasons, dilute serum cannot be expected to provide the ideal, specialized environment required by many kinds of cells and this probably explains why such cells have never been established in culture using serum-based medium. The use of hormone-based media would make it possible to establish cells in culture that have not been cultured before.

Clonally derived cell lines have been established from the mouse mammary tumor Shionogi carcinoma 115. Physiological concentrations of androgens markedly increase the growth rate and saturation density of these clones. The cells fall to grow in 1% fetal bovine serum-supplemented medium, but addition of 10–50 nM androstanolone or testosterone results in resumption of exponential growth. Some other androgens, but not estrogens or progesterone, stimulate growth of these cells. Steroid receptors can be isolated from the cells. In addition to their effect on growth, androgens also cause a marked alteration in the cell and colony morphology of the clones.

Summary In this chapter we describe methods for growth in serum-free medium of several types of human tumors. Our laboratory and others have reported formulations of serum-free medium that will support the growth of other, additional types of human cells in culture that are not described in this chapter but are reviewed elsewhere.2,27 The serum-free medium HC described for the human colon tumors was originally devised to support the serum-free growth of a line of human colon tumor cells (HC84S) established in serum-containing medium and derived from a human colon tumor line (T84) transplantable in nude mice. Subsequently, it was found that this medium will support the serum-free growth of several (but not all) other transplantable human colon tumor lines in primary culture as well as primary culture of at least one tumor directly from a patient. The serum-free medium HA described for the human astrocytoma was devised to support the serum-free growth of a line of human astrocytoma cells (HA24) established in serum-containing medium and derived from a human astrocytoma line (T24) transplantable in nude mice. Both tumorigenic and nontumorigenic clones have been isolated from the HA24 cell line, and both will grow serum-free in the HA medium, although quantitative differences in responses of the different clones to omission of the individual components of the HA medium are seen. The serum-free medium LA described for the human lung adenocarcinoma was devised to support the serum-free growth of primary cultures of the T291 lung adenocarcinoma transplantable in nude mice. This medium will support the continuous serum-free growth of a line of lung adenocarcinoma cells originally established from cultures of the T291 tumor in serum-containing medium. The serum-free medium LE described for the human lung epidermoid carcinoma was devised to support the serum-free growth of primary cultures of the T222 lung epidermoid carcinoma transplantable in nude mice. Neither the LA nor the LE medium will support continuous, multipassage serum-free growth of cell cultures obtained from the T291 or T222 tumors. MCF-7 is an established cell line, derived in serum-containing medium from a metastatic pleural effusion of a human breast cancer.14 The medium developed for the continuous serum-free growth of the MCF-7 line will support growth in primary culture to some extent of some human breast tumors, but not all we have tested. In addition, we report in this section procedures for the partial purification of a factor from serum that stimulates the spreading of these cells, as well as others, in serum-free medium. We also describe in this chapter methods for the isolation of human tumor cells of epithelial origin for primary culture and methods for the quantitation of cells in such cultures. These methods, which are likely to be generally applicable in the isolation of most cell types for primary culture, allow us to obtain cultures with an acceptable plating efficiency while avoiding the ubiquitous problem of fibroblastic overgrowth of the epithelial population. Furthermore, the use of medium in which serum has been replaced by cell type-specific combinations of nutrients, hormones, binding proteins, and attachment factors allows us to reproduce more accurately in vitro the nutritional, hormonal and stromal influences to which the cells are subject in vivo.28 In this way we should minimize the genetic or epigenetic alteration and selection of an aberrant population of cells from those of the original culture. It is interesting to note that in several instances presented in this chapter both the growth and the differential properties of the cell types in their respective serum-free, hormone-supplemented media are closer to what we wish to attain in culture than what which we see in cultures of these cells in serum-supplemented medium. Human colon tumor cells, as well as human lung adenocarcinoma and epidermoid carcinoma, grow better in their serum-free media than in serum-containing medium. Furthermore, the keratinization of the epidermoid carcinoma cells is more marked in serum-free medium, as is the formation of villi-like, mucin-secreting structures in serum-free cultures of the colon tumor cells.3 It is our view that this is further evidence that, by the use of serum-free medium specifically designed for each cell type, we are more accurately reproducing the in vivo environment of the cells.

125I-Labeled epidermal growth factor (EGF) binds to HeLa cells in culture under completely defined conditions in a specific and saturable manner. When the cultures are maintained in serum, all the reported phenomena of down-regulation occur. In contrast, in cultures maintained in serum-free hormone-supplemented medium, binding is maximal after 50 min and remains constant for at least 18 hr. EGF retains its mitogenic activity in this defined system; as little as 4 pM EGF elicits a 2-fold increase in cell number in 5 days. EGF appears to be in reversible equilibrium with a constant number of surface receptors, and gel filtration analysis indicates a decrease in the rate of degradation and release of bound 125I-labeled EGF. These results indicate that EGF can retain its mitogenic activity in the absence of concomitant down-regulation.

A hormonally defined medium consisting of a 1:1 mixture of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and nutrient mixture F12 supplemented with 50 micrograms/ml each of insulin and transferrin was found to grow late passage malignantly transformed cells of the RL-PR-C rat liver cell culture. The same medium formulation would not grow the early passage, normal, diploid counterpart of the RL-PR-C cell culture. When mixtures of the early and late passage cells were made, only the late passage cells would grow, thus providing a selection system for the late passage cells.

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells can grow in synthetic medium supplemented with five factors--insulin, transferrin, prostaglandin E1, hydrocortisone, and triiodothyronine--as a serum substitute. These five factors permit growth for 1 month in the absence of serum and a growth rate equivalent to that observed in serum-supplemented medium. Dibutyryl adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate substitutes for prostaglandin E1 in the medium. Potential applications of the serum-free medium are discussed. The medium permits a defined analysis of the mechanisms regulating hemicyst formation by hormones and permits the growth of primary kidney epithelial cell cultures in the absence of fibroblast overgrowth.

We have demonstrated in this study that we could eliminate the requirement of a serum preincubation for proliferation of B104 neuroblastoma cells in defined medium. When cells were plated directly into serum-free defined medium after trypsin or EGTA detachment, they had no difficulty in adhering or remaining attached to the plastic substratum but were incapable of cell division. However, the addition of human plasma fibronectin to serum-free defined medium and precoating the tissue culture dishes with polylysine at each subculture permitted cell division to occur. Fibronectin was only required at the time of subculture and did not need to be replenished at each medium change. In addition, we have shown that clonal growth and serial subculture are possible in serum-free defined medium provided that the cell inoculum encounters the appropriate substratum. These findings are consistent with a role for fibronectin and a positively charged substratum in the growth regulation of B104 neuroblastoma cells. This completely defined culture system will be of great benefit in studying the growth regulation and differentiation of these neuronal cells.

Primary cultures of differentiated liver cells from fetal rats respond to serum from partially hepatectomized rats by an increased uptake of [ 3 H]thymidine and [ 3 H]leucine as compared with cultures incubated with normal rat serum. These findings are discussed in relation to the mechanism of induction of DNA synthesis and growth in liver cells during liver regeneration.