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The Himalayan Birch (Betula utilis D. Don) an essential tree species due to its ecological and social importance in the himalayan region. The study assessed the effect of environmental factors on habitat, growth, and regeneration patterns of the Himalayan Birch at the Royal Botanical Park, Lampelri, Bhutan . Two vertical transects with a spacing of 75 m were laid across the altitudinal gradient. A total of 10 circular sample plots were laid on each transect with a plot size of 12.62 m for trees, 3.57 m for regeneration, and 0.57 m for ground cover vegetation. A total of 119 vascular plant species under 45 families were recorded in 20 survey plots. The Spearman rho’s correlation showed strong negative correlation between the species abundance and temperature (rs=- .83) and positive correlation with the species count and altitude (rs = .83). The species richness in the study area showed an initial increase up to certain with elevation and then decreased with further increase in elevation. The importance value index (IVI) of tree species showed Tsuga dumosa as the most dominant species. Betula utilis indicated an increasing density with an increase in elevation. The regeneration of Betula utilis was poor as it was mostly found in a sapling stage. From a total of 43 tree species regenerating, 13.95% showed good regeneration, 34.88% fair, 23.25% poor, and 4.65% without regeneration. The remaining 23.25% seems to be either reappearing or immigrating.

Betula utilis is a native tree and important tree line species in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). Due to various natural and anthropogenic factors, the population of the species has become dwindling. Therefore, study was conducted to; assess population, regeneration, habitat suitability model, size class distribution and physico-chemical properties of the soil in sub-alpine ecosystem of Great Himalayan National Park. Total 64 populations assessed to determine the density, Total Basal Area, Species diversity index, Concentration of dominance and regeneration pattern of seedlings and saplings. Amongst the identified populations, total trees density ranged from 10–730 Ind ha−1; total basal area 0.00–43.32 m2 ha−1; total shrubs density 340–3490 Ind ha−1; total herbs density 8.54–152.77 Ind m−2; total saplings density 9–3050 Ind ha−1 and total seedlings density 10–1840 Ind ha−1. Species diversity of trees was ranged from 0.00 to 0.37; Concentration of dominance ranged from 0.00 to 1.00. Size class distribution revealed that maximum number of individuals was fallen in the range of 52.6–73.5 cm whereas lowest numbers of individuals were fallen in the range of 136.6–157.5 cm and ≥ 220.6 cm. The model calibration test for B.utilis yielded satisfactory results (AUC Mean = 0.91 ± 0.02) indicated that MaxEnt could be used to predict the potentially suitable habitats for in-situ or ex-situ conservation. The model predicted 268 km2 area suitable for reintroduction. Frequent monitoring of populations for understanding the dynamics and identifying natural habitats for the in-situ conservation of the species are suggested.

The present study aimed to analyse the population structure, forest composition and regeneration dynamics of Betula utilis D.Don in two core zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. A total of 346 plants species belonging to 198 genera and 82 families were recorded dominated by Asteraceae (24) followed by Rosaceae (21 species) and Ranunculaceae (19 species), respectively. The total tree stand density was ranged between 1133 ind.ha−1 and 2137 ind.ha−1 in the south and north aspect of the each sites. Among tree species B. utilis was showed the dominant tree species with highest density ranged between 663 ind.ha−1 and 1525 ind.ha−1 at north and south aspects of both sites. Highest seedling density (1033 saplings ha−1 and 1783 seedlings ha−1) and sapling density (1033 saplings ha−1 and 1470 saplings ha−1) was recorded for B. utilis in north and south aspects. The density-diameter curve of B. utilis forest resembled a reverse J-shape which exhibits good regeneration with higher number of individuals in seedling and sapling stages, followed by a sharp decline in tree classes. This study suggests urgent need of long term ecological monitoring of timberline zone to assess the significant change in timberline vegetation and development of sustainable management plans.

The use of time-lapse camera setups for characterizing phenology is fast emerging because of their advantages in offering continuous unbiased data. We therefore installed a camera setup in the Western Himalaya to monitor temporal patterns of Betula utilis phenology and also to document snow cover patterns. Digital images (N = 653) of two growing seasons (2017 and 2018) captured through the setup were used for the same. Images hold information in the red, green and blue channels (RGB) and relative changes in RGB indicate canopy colouration. We categorized the phenophases into greenup, leaf maturity, senescence and dormancy. The RGB analyses revealed that during both the years, greenup in B. utilis started during early May [128th and 124th day of the year (DOY) in 2017 and 2018, respectively] and continued till mid-June when the canopy attained maturity. On the other hand, senescence started in early September and by mid-October, the trees became leafless (288th and 289th DOY in 2017 and 2018, respectively). A four-day earlier greenup and dormancy delayed by one day were noted in 2018 when compared to 2017. Thus, the length of the growing season was five days longer in 2018. The snow cover ratio revealed that snowmelt occurred eigth days earlier in 2018 than in 2017. Though this is preliminary, seasonal phenological patterns are evident and call for continued monitoring of B. utilis. The installed setup will provide continuous long-term data from the Himalayan region which had been lacking until now. The present setup for phenological monitoring is pioneering in the Indian Himalaya and needs to be replicated.

Present study is an attempt to understand the plant species abundance and habitat preferences using multivariate method in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), in western Himalaya. Soil, altitude, slope and differences are reported to be the most important parameters shaping the plant community in the mountains. Two representative areas i.e., Pindari–Sunderdhunga–Kafni site (PSK) of Kumaun region and Lata–Tolma–Phagti site (LTP) of Garhwal region with nineteen forest communities in buffer zone of NDBR have been investigated. All the forest communities were analyzed for assessing community composition and species density in relation to environmental variables. Out of 451 plant species recorded from the study sites, there was a dominance of herbs (70.5%) followed by shrubs (17.7%) and trees (11.8%). Maximum tree density in PSK and LTP sites was recorded in Betula utilis (535 ind ha−1) and mixed T. wallichiana–A. pindrow (1211 ind ha−1) communities respectively. The disturbed habitats in low to mid elevation areas are represented by low canopy cover and high seedling density in PSK site and high non-native species density in LTP site. Both the study sites are dominated by Betula utilis, Taxus wallichiana, Abies pindrow in high elevation areas securing high density of native and endemic species. Habitat preferences of different important species indicate their range of distribution and choice of association with other species.

Betula utilis D. Don (Betulaceae), commonly known as Himalayan Birch or Bhojpatra especially in Indian Himalayan Region is socio-culturally and ecologically valued and considered a keystone species which plays a significant role in the functioning of the timberline ecosystem. It forms an integral part of day-to-day life of the Himalayan people, as it is deeply associated with the culture of the locals. The historical uses of Betula utilis and its subsequent over exploitation to meet-out day-to-day requirements, market forces coupled with global warming put pressure on its natural population and have caused loss of habitat in many of its native grooves in the entire Himalayan Region. The decline in the size of population of Betula utilis is due to its area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, potential level of exploitation, effects of introduced taxa and attack of pathogens. Further, it grows in high altitude tree line zone which is almost inaccessible and most vulnerable region due to global warming or climatic shift. In this backdrop, keeping in view the multiple uses of the species, the present study aims to review and document the ecological parameters, traditional uses, commercial aspects and conservation and management concerns of this valuable species.

Stand structure dynamics are considered as major happenings in any forest as a response to environmental changes. However, this important topic is underrepresented in the treeline studies in the Nepal Himalayas. We aimed to investigate site- as well as species-specific changes in morphometric features (basal diameter, crown cover, density, and height) along the elevational gradient across treeline ecotones in response to recent environmental changes. The stand structure characteristics of Abies spectabilis, Pinus wallichiana, and Betula utilis across the treeline ecotone of three study sites in Eastern (Barun), Central (Manang), and Western (Dhorpatan) Nepal were analyzed to elucidate structural heterogeneities. Altogether, eight transects (20 m × (60–250 m)) across the treeline ecotone were established. Trees of all life forms, trees (> 2 m), saplings (0.5–2 m), and seedlings (< 0.5 m), within each transect were enumerated and sampled for the morphometric features and age. Site-specific and species-specific stand structure dynamics were found. The rate of basal area increment was higher in Barun, but the Manang treeline, despite profound regeneration in recent years, had a low annual basal area increment. Moreover, the altitudinal distribution of age and morphometry were not consistent among those ecotones. Furthermore, intra-specific competition was not significant. The site-specific stand structure dynamics explain why treelines do not respond uniformly to increasing temperature. It invokes, in further studies, the incorporation of the tree’s morphometric adaptation traits, phenotypic plasticity, and interactions between species genotype and the environment.

Fuel-wood burning is a major part of fulfilling energy requirement in rural Uttarakhand India. To analyze CO2 emission from fuel wood burning /consumption rate at the household level at different altitude villages we surveyed seventy-two (N=72) villages in five (N=5) districts in Uttarakhand. The villages were categorized into three categories based on their altitudes (I) 1000-2000mts., (II) 2001-2300 Mtr., (III) 2301- 3200 Mtr. Fuel-wood consumption was estimated by closely calculating the daily actual wood consumed at the household level in villages categorized according to altitude. In the study 351 households were surveyed, of this 28 %, were between 1000-2000mts., 55.8%, of households were sampled in villages between 2001-2300 Mtr., and 16% of households were sampled between 2301 - 3200 Mtr. respectively. The average fuel-wood consumption at households’ level in categories (I) was 11 kg/ day, in category (II) was 14.6 kg/day and in category (III) it was 17.2 kg/day. The overall average value of fuel-wood consumption in all three categories was 14.26 kg/day/ household at the state level. Twenty-nine (N=29) species are primarily being used as fuel-wood in which Litcea monopetela, Bahunia varigata, Grewia, optiva, Pirus pashia, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotricophora and Myrica sapadia, Betula Utilis has a major share. Annual carbon emission from fuel-wood burning in rural areas was also estimated using the formula provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 1996). The annual carbon emission values for sampled villages in five districts of Uttarakhand (rural) are (I) Almora 1081.4 MtCO2, (II) Bageshwer 479.1 Mt CO2, (III) Champawat 405.6M t CO2(IV) Pithoragarh 829.8 Mt CO2(V) Tehri Garhwal 1025.7 MtCO 2. The total CO2 emission value for all five districts was 3821.6 MtCO2 annually through fuel-wood burning.

The study was conducted to determine the optimum medium for in vitro pollen germination for B. utilis based on germination percentages and length of the pollen tube. Studies about pollen germination and tube growth of B. utilis are limited. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of sucrose (1, 3, 5, 10 and 15%), boric acid (25, 50, 100 and 200 ppm), calcium nitrate (50, 100, 200, 300 and 400 ppm), magnesium sulfate (50, 100, 200 and 300 ppm) and potassium nitrate (50, 100 and 200 ppm) and time of incubation on pollen germination and tube growth. Pollen germination rates and tube growth were recorded periodically at 2, 4, 6, and 10 h. The length varied significantly with different concentrations and incubation time. The germination rate and pollen tube length varied significantly with different concentrations and incubation time. Pollen germination was maximal (98 ± 6.1%) when the germination medium contained 10% sucrose solution supplemented with 100 ppm H3BO3, 300 ppm Ca(NO3)2, 200 ppm MgSO4 and 100 ppm KNO3, after 6 h of incubation. In addition, results revealed that pollen grains collected immediately after anther dehiscence showed the best germination ability but gradually decreased with time.

Changes in population structure and plant functional traits across environmental gradient in the near natural treeline is a critical determinant of environmental changes in treelines. In this study we analyzed population characteristics and leaf traits of Rhododendron campanulatum across treeline ecotone in a trans-Himalayan region of Mustang district in central Nepal. Along 4 vertical transects, a total of 72 quadrats (5 m 5 m) - 34 above Betula utilis treeline and 38 below treeline - were sampled to analyze the population structure, regeneration, specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf-stem relationship of R. campanulatum. Our results showed that the regeneration of R. campanulatum was fairly good in both habitats, as evident from density-diameter curve. The species showed type III survivorship curve in both habitats with the highest mortality during early stage of life. However, the seedling density and mortality was higher below treeline than above treeline. Canopy cover and basal cover were found to be the major factors affecting regeneration, as indicated by higher number of juveniles in relatively open areas above treeline. The total leaf area increased (p 0.001); it also increased with the canopy cover of trees (R = 0.59, p

Kashmir musk deer Moschus cupreus (KMD) are the least studied species of musk deer. We compiled genetically validated occurrence records of KMD to construct species distribution models using Maximum Entropy. We show that the distribution of KMD is limited between central Nepal on the east and north-east Afghanistan on the west and is primarily determined by precipitation of driest quarter, annual mean temperature, water vapor, and precipitation during the coldest quarter. Precipitation being the most influential determinant of distribution suggests the importance of pre-monsoon moisture for growth of the dominant vegetation, Himalayan birch Betula utilis and Himalayan fir Abies spectabilis, in KMD’s preferred forests. All four Representative Concentration Pathway Scenarios result an expansion of suitable habitat in Uttarakhand, India, west Nepal and their associated areas in China in 2050s and 2070s but a dramatic loss of suitable habitat elsewhere (Kashmir region and Pakistan-Afghanistan border). About 1/4th of the current habitat will remain as climate refugia in future. Since the existing network of protected areas will only include a tiny fraction (4%) of the climatic refugia of KMD, the fate of the species will be determined by the interplay of more urgent short-term forces of poaching and habitat degradation and long-term forces of climate change.

Himalayan Silver Fir (Abies spectabilis) and Himalayan Birch (Betula utilis) are tree species often found coexisting in sub-alpine forests of the Nepal Himalayas. To assess species-specific growth performances of these species, tree-ring samples were collected from the subalpine forest in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal. Standard ring width chronologies of both species were correlated with climatic variables in both static and running windows. Differential and contrasting temporal responses of radial growth of these species to climate were found. Warmer and drier springs appeared to limit birch radial growth. Whereas radial growth of fir showed weakened climate sensitivity. Moving correlation analyses revealed divergent influences of spring climate on both fir and birch. Significant warming that occurred in the 1970s coincided with growth declines in birch and an increase in fir, as indicated by basal area increment. In summary, recent warming has been unfavorable for birch, and favorable to fir radial growth. publishedVersion

A study on community structure was carried out along three altitudinal gradients viz., Lower (3000–3200m), Middle (3200–3400m) and upper (3400–3600m) asl in Sindh Forest Division (Sonamarg) and Tangmarg Forest Divisions (Gulmarg) in sub alpine zone of North Western Kashmir Himalayas, India. The floristic structure revealed that Betula stands at Sonamarg forests supported 48 species belonging to 26 families on South Eastern aspect and 53 species belonging to 28 families on South Western aspect, whereas Gulmarg forest was represented by 54 species of 28 families. The overall community structure of Betula stands depicted that Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae and Lamiaceae were the dominant families in these timberline forests. The dispersion showed that 65.48% species were contagiously distributed, 25.67 and 8.85% species showed random and regular distribution. Betula utilis shared the top niche with the dominance of 61.56 and 76.27% on SE and SW aspect at Sonamarg, and 71.81% at Gulmarg. Species richness decreased with elevation and species diversity of the forest was relatively low, the decrease in these parameter with increasing altitude can be directly related to high grazing pressure, harsh climatic conditions, topography and snow, which covers these areas for longer times especially during the growing season.

This study adopts a twofold strategy by reviewing literature from scattered Himalayan studies (145 sites) to use meta data (i) to synthesize the ecosystem properties of treeline ecotone, treeline response to climate change and influencing biotic factors, (ii) to analyze patterns of distribution of treeline species and their elevations, and (iii) to test relationship between treeline altitude and longitude and latitude across the 2500 km wide Himalayan Arc. Himalayan treeline is highly heterogeneous with regard to (i) species composition (58 species of 10 genera), and (ii) elevation (1700 m wide range in Treeline Elevation, TLE). Apart from temperature, variation in non-climatic factors, such as livestock grazing, and topography contribute considerably to the wide elevation range in TLE. Rhododendron, Juniperus, Abies, and Betula are common Himalayan treeline genera. Treeline elevation (3200–4900 m) and it increases (i) from NW to SE (18.4 m 1°−1 longitude), (ii) from periphery (from both north and south sides) to central part of the ranges, and (iii) from north to south aspect. A shift in dominance from deciduous Betula utilis (birch) to evergreen rhododendrons is discernible from the NW to SE. Treelines in the Himalayas differ between south and north aspects in species, elevation and anthropogenic activities, such as pastoralism. Response of treeline species to climate change could vary considerably, depending upon whether warmer temperatures of pre-monsoon months are accompanied by increased precipitation of the intensify droughts. Biomass accumulation rate declines rapidly towards treelines, and its role in treeline formation needs detailed investigations. An ecosystem approach is required to improve our understanding and management of Himalayan treeline areas.

Betula utilis D. Don. is an important species of alpine Himalaya and forms the major treeline component of western Himalaya. The different populations of B. utilis are declining and are under high risk. In the present study, novel expressed sequence tag–simple sequence repeat (EST–SSR) primers were developed from expressed sequence tag (EST) data of different Betula species. Of the 10,796 designed primers, the percentages of di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-repeats were 36%, 35%, 15%, 5.5% and 7.7%, respectively. For validation, 50 primers were synthesized randomly and were characterized in 20 different B. utilis accessions from north-western Himalaya. Of these, 45 primers amplified fragments in a range of 1–6. The 24 polymorphic primers produced 111 fragments in aggregate with 4.6 fragments on average. Polymorphism information content (PIC) ranged from 0.288 in marker BUMS-24 to 0.497 in BUMS-3 and BUMS-7, with an average of 0.447 among polymorphic markers. Dendrogram based on Jaccard’s similarity coefficient and UPGMA method showed that newly developed SSR markers distinguished twenty accessions of B. utilis into two groups. As no SSR markers were available in this species, the newly developed markers will foster molecular genetics research and conservation efforts for this species.

Globally, the increase in the climatic variability has led to adverse effects on the treeline species in the high-elevation mountain landscapes. Identifying the geographical space that supports the treeline species survival over time is essential for conservation biogeography. Increase in the global warming and snowmelt has made available the treeline species favourable niches in the higher elevations. Random Forest algorithm assuming non-parametric distribution was employed to predict the potential distribution of Betula utilis niche in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. The potential distributions were simulated in the Last Inter-Glaciation (LIG), present (the year 1970–2000) and future (the year 2061–2080) environmental conditions. The actual distribution of the species in the current time was modelled and evaluated. The model sensitivity with reference to independent evaluation dataset for highly suitable B. utilis niche was 0.78. The model statistics of the current time was further applied to both the LIG and future (2061–2080) scenarios in order to get a fundamental niche of B. utilis. The treeline species, B. utilis was projected to become vulnerable to 21st century climate changes. The high suitability of B. utilis occurrence in the LIG, current and the future scenario were more likely in the elevation ranges 2601–2800 m, 3801–4000 m, and 4201–4400 m, respectively. The magnitude of advancement was relatively more along elevation and longitude, compared to the latitudinal gradient. The present study provides scientific evidence to conclude that the treeline species potential distribution in HKH is climate driven.

The present study was carried out in Himachal Pradesh of the Western Himalayas, India to obtain information on the wild edible plants used by the migratory shepherds. The shepherds started their migration in July from Chitkul, Rakchham, Batseri, Sangla and Kamru of district Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh). Questionnaire for the survey, personal field visits and participatory observations were used to collect information about the use of various plants by the migratory shepherds. The shepherds move in a group of 5 to 6 comprising their own family members and size of the flock (of sheep and goats) varied from 654 to 990. The migration route followed from their villages to Churdhar ranges (mid hills) and to Sirmour ranges (low hills). It was observed that in all 50 species were used by shepherds enroute from high hills to low hills. In high hills, 23 species, in mid hills 31 species and in low hills 34 species were found to be used as livelihood source. Some of the plants, besides being used as fruits and vegetables, are also used as herbal tea (bark of Betula utilis) and condiments. Morchella esculenta was found to be one of the delicacies used for food in their tribe. The documentation of plant resources and the indigenous knowledge of shepherds highlighted in the present study is a step in raising awareness about the importance of these edible plants and their further conservation. Key words: Edible plants, sheep, goats, shepherds, seasonal migration, Himachal Pradesh.

Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster; hereafter musk deer) are endangered as a result of poaching and habitat loss. The species is nocturnal, crepuscular, and elusive, making direct observation of habitat use and behavior difficult. However, musk deer establish and repeatedly use the same latrines for defecation. To quantify musk deer habitat correlates, we used observational spatial data based on presence–absence of musk deer latrines, as well as a range of fine spatial‐scale ecological covariates. To determine presence–absence of musk deer, we exhaustively searched randomly selected forest trails using a 20‐m belt transect in different study sites within the Neshyang Valley in the Annapurna Conservation Area. In a subsequent way, study sites were classified as habitat or nonhabitat for musk deer. A total of 252 plots, 20 × 20 m, were systematically established every 100 m along 51 transects (each ~0.5 km long) laid out at different elevations to record a range of ecological habitat variables. We used mixed‐effect models and principal component analysis to characterize relationships between deer presence–absence data and habitat variables. We confirmed musk deer use latrines in forests located at higher elevations (3,200–4,200 m) throughout multiple seasons and years. Himalayan birch (Betula utilis) dominated forest, mixed Himalayan fir (Abies spectabilis), and birch forest were preferred over pure Himalayan fir and blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest. Greater crown cover and shrub diversity were associated with the presence of musk deer whereas tree height, diameter, and diversity were weakly correlated. Topographical attributes including aspect, elevation, distance to water source, and slope were also discriminated by musk deer. Over‐ and understory forest management can be used to protect forests likely to have musk deer as predicted by the models to ensure long‐term conservation of this rare deer.

Alnus nitida (Himalayan Alder) is a monophyletic species of family Betulaceae. It is distributed in the mountainous ranges of Hindu Kush and western Himalayan of the Sino-Japanese belt. Family Betulaceae has a cosmopolitan distribution with 2 genera (Betula and Alnus) and 95 species. Previously, the family was divided into Betulaceae (Alnus, Betula) and Corylaceae (Carpinus, Corylus, Ostrya, and Ostryopsis). Various species of the family are used for different purposes such as timber, lumber, and household utensils production across the globe. Many species have been studied against for their therapeutic potential against various ailments, i.e. obesity, cancer, tuberculosis. Stem bark of Betula utilis is used for spiritual purpose as well as to treat various diseases. Himalayan Alder is among those species that offers numbers of ecosystem services. A. nitida being a riparian species is cultivated by farmers along the stream sides of their fields to control soil erosion. Wood is used by local people for the formation of different pots. Nodulation and biomass production are also the prominent characteristics of the family. Some studies revealed that Alnus acts as an indicator species of eastern North America for dry period. Ethno-ecological surveys have revealed that Alder is preferred by local communities in several ways such as fuel, fodder, and construction purposes. The species is ecofriendly to form a phyto-social association with about 146 species in its geographical range in Pakistan. The nitrogen fixation capability makes it more suitable for agroforestry and inter-cropping. Alder can be used as an alternate to discourage shift cropping and to enhance the ecofriendly and high yield techniques of inter-cropping. Alder has prominent role in the absorption of heavy metals and boost up water quality. Since few years population of this important species is continuously decreasing and facing problem of extinction due to drought, developmental projects, deforestation, and other anthropogenic activities. This chapter provides a baseline for further comprehensive studies on its molecular genetics, phyto-chemistry, and conservation priorities for this and many other associated species.

Western Himalayan timberline are mainly dominated by Betula utilis (Himalayan birch) and closely associated with Abies spectabilis, Quercus semicarpifolia and Taxus baccata and formed the ecotone between the coniferous forest and alpine areas. Himalayan birch is socio-culturally and ecologically valued and considered a keystone species which plays significant role in the functioning of timberline ecosystem. A total of 13 timberline ecotone of pure Himalayan birch forests were selected to assess the magnitude of threat on dominant plant species using rapid threat assessment and rapid vulnerability assessment. It form the basis to design appropriate criteria, indicators and scores (ranging from 1 to 4) to rank the plant species under various threat categories. Besides, phytosociological studies were undertaken for assessment of species diversity, density and regeneration potential. The paper highlighted individual of Himalayan birch is declining in adult stages, however growth and vigor observed in seedling and sapling stages. Despite, Himalayan birch was found the most vulnerable species with a threat score of 29 followed by Taxus baccata and Juniperus communis. The annual exploitation of Himalayan birch estimated about 927.10 ​kg capita−1 yr−1 fuelwood and 551.15 ​gm capita−1 yr−1 bark by the people involved in collection of Ophiocordyceps sinensis. The current trends of unsustainable exploitation would facilitate the decline in population of the some ecological important species particularly Himalayan birch. Therefore, this study suggests the appropriate policies and strategies for conservation and management of Himalayan birch on one hand and socio-economic development of local communities on the other.

Background and AimsDelineating closely related and morphologically similar species with overlapping ranges can be difficult. Here, we use section Costatae (genus Betula) as a model to resolve species and subspecies boundaries in four morphologically similar trees: Betula ashburneri, Betula costata, Betula ermanii and Betula utilis (including ssp. utilis, and diploid and tetraploid races of ssp. albosinensis).MethodsWe genotyped 298 individuals (20-80 per species) from 38 populations at 15 microsatellite markers and a subset of 34 individuals from 21 populations using restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq). Morphometric analysis was conducted to characterise leaf variation for a subset of 89 individuals.Key ResultsMolecular analyses and leaf morphology found little differentiation between B. ashburneri, diploid B. utilis ssp. albosinensis and some samples of B. utilis ssp. utilis suggesting that these should be treated as a single species. By contrast, tetraploid Betula utilis ssp. albosinensis was divided into two groups with group I genetically similar to B. utilis ssp. utilis based on SNPs and group II, a very distinct cluster, which we propose as a new species, namely, Betula buggsii. Phylogenomic analysis based on 2,285,620 SNPs show a well-supported monophyletic clade of B. buggsii, forming a sister with a well-supported clade of B. ashburneri, diploid B. albosinensis and some samples of B. utilis ssp. utilis. Morphologically, Betula buggsii is characterised by elongated lenticels and a distinct pattern of bark peeling. Betula buggsii is geographically restricted to the Qinling-Daba Mountains.ConclusionsOur study reveals six genetically distinguishable species: B. ashburneri, B. buggsii, B. costata, B. utilis ssp. utilis, B. utilis ssp. albosinensis and B. ermanii. Our research demonstrates an integrative approach in delimitating species using morphological and genetic samples from their nearly entire distributions. Analyses based on subsets of species’ distributions may lead to erroneous species or subspecies delineation.

The study on determination of effect of different stratification regimes and GA3 concentrations on germination and growth performance of Betula utilis in nursery under temperate conditions of Kashmir Himalayas, India, was carried out during the year 2013–14. The resutls showed that increase in duration of stratification significantly increased both the germination and growth of the species over the time of 0, 30, 60 and 90 days. The maximum germination (89.11%) and germination energy 38.22% was recorded in the seeds subjected to a combined treatment of 90 days of moist stratification and application of 100 ppm GA3 (S3G2). Similarly the maximum height (21.43 and 40.82 cm), collar diameter (4.13 and 5.76 mm), vigour index (18.38 and 35.15), Leaf area index (1.15 and 1.49), dry biomass (2.46 and 4.44 g), root length (21.27 and 30.20 cm), root area (20.58 and 27.08 cm2), root volume (21.55 and 34.17 cm3) and soil binding factor (11.91 and 21.31) for the year 2013–14 was again recorded for the seeds stratified for 90 days and subjected to 100 ppm GA3. Therefore 90 days stratification can be considered as the most suitable approach to reduce the dormancy and to improve the germinability of this treeline species.

Betula utilis, commonly known as Himalayan birch is an important tree species of fragile ecosystem of Himalayas placed in endangered category. In the present study genetic diversity, structure and interrelationships of B. utilis accessions from North-western Himalayan regions were analyzed using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. 15 RAPD and 16 ISSR primers collectively amplified 109 polymorphic fragments with an average of 3.51 fragments in a size range of 300–1300 bp. Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) ranged from 0.21 to 0.5 with an average of 0.43. Dendrogram grouped all the accessions into two major clusters. Factorial analysis showed three groups for all the analyzed accessions. Bayesian clustering using STRUCTURE grouped all the accessions in two clusters and separated majority of accessions belonging to Jammu & Kashmir Himalaya (cluster-II) from other accessions of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand Himalaya (cluster-I). Exceptionally, four accessions namely, Sinth-12, Sinth-20, Son-06 and Son-16 from Kashmir grouped in Cluster-I. Structure analysis showed that two genetic stocks were contributing in genetic makeup of all the analyzed accessions. Results of the present study can be useful for selection of diverse accessions as well as can be useful in designing conservation and management strategies in North-western Himalayan regions.

In this study, the morphology and chemical composition of pollen grains of six birch species (Betula utilis Doorenbos, B. dahurica, B. maximowicziana, B. pendula, B. pubescens and B. humilis) were examined to verify which of these features allow distinguishing them in a more unambiguous way. For this purpose, scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy, as well as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and curve-fitting analysis of amide I profile, were performed. The microscopy images show that the pollen grains of B. pubescens, B. pendula and B. humilis are similar in diameter and significantly smaller than those of others species, with the largest diameter observed for B. utilis Doorenbos. However, the results obtained from FTIR spectroscopy indicate that the chemical compositions of B. pubescens and B. pendula are similar, but B. humilis is outlaying. Summarizing, it is not possible to unambiguously state, which feature or which technique is the best for differentiating between the six chosen birch species. However, the study showed that both techniques have potential for identification of birch pollen species.

This article enfolds a rapid and sensitive high-performance thin-layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method for the estimation of four triterpenoids, namely, betulin (BU), betulinic acid (BA), lupeol (LU), and oleanolic acid (OA), from the bark, roots, and leaves of Betula utilis D. Don, an endangered Himalayan tree. All the four phytoconstituents have high therapeutic value. Separation was performed on thin-layer chromatography (TLC) aluminum plates precoated with silica 60 F254 (20 × 20 cm) followed by detection of betulin, lupeol, and oleanolic acid carried out by derivatizing the plate with ceric ammonium sulfate followed by heating at 110°C for 5 min. For betulinic acid, the plate was dried and visualized after spraying with Liebermann–Burchard reagent. CAMAG TLC Scanner 4 equipped with winCATS software was used for densitometric scanning at 500–550 nm. The proposed technique was further validated in terms of linearity, precision, accuracy, and sensitivity as per the International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidelines. A good linear relationship was obtained for the calibration plots with r2 = 0.9994, 0.9995, 0.9969, and 0.9998 for betulin, lupeol, oleanolic acid, and betulinic acid, respectively. Accuracy of the method was checked by recovery study conducted at three different levels with the average recovery between 98.9% and 99.3% for all the four markers.

Cold desert regions harbor a unique habitat for a number of high-value medicinal plants (HMPs) and due to inaccessibility of medical facility, inhabitants of this region are highly dependent on medicinal plants. Over the years, with increasing demand for trade, extraction pressure on natural populations of these HMPs has grown substantially. This consequently has made such plants threatened in their natural habitats. However, quantification of threat intensity is lacking. For the first time, this study has attempted to identify and assess the ecological and threat status of HMPs from the cold desert area of Johar valley, West Himalaya, India. For ecological assessment, rigorous field surveys were conducted along the elevation gradient. The intensity of threat was evaluated by using rapid threat assessment (RTA) approach. A total of 22 threatened and high-value medicinal plants (THMPs) were identified from the region. Results of RTA placed Betula utilis and Nardostachys jatamanasi in the highest th...

This paper communicates an analytical exploration of the vegetation above tree line in Nandiar valley western Himalayas with respect to climatic, edaphic and topographic factors. The alpine pasture stretches above the tree limits between elevations of 2850–3800 m. Thirteen stands were selected on the basis of physiognomy of vegetation in 2014–15. The leading life form and leaf spectra were therophytes and microphyll respectively. Four plant communities were identified through two ways indicator species analysis at cut level 2. Bray-Curtis ordination showed that maximum stands have common species. Detrended correspondence analysis grouped species having similar habitats in ordination space. Canonical correspondence analysis constrained species along different environmental variables. The significant result were contribution by phosphorous (P = 0.01) and wind speed (P = 0.08). Few plant species like Betula utilis and Podophyllum emodi are threatened due to its medicinal collection. The alpine pasture of Nandiar valley is under severe stress due to anthropogenic and grazing factors. Overall, this research article call for greater attention to the types of conservation actives occurring and the ways they are working together to protect and recover the global alpine biodiversity.

A treeline can respond to climate change by shifting position, infilling, increasing recruitment, and increasing radial growth. More studies from understudied areas and their associated species are...

Seedling establishment is a crucial factor for spatial dynamics of treelines. However, safe sites for successful tree regeneration which is a basic prerequisite for a supposed treeline advance in response to climate warming have not been fully characterised, especially in the Himalayas. In this study, we aim at analysing safe sites of the tree species Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis and Rhododendron campanulatum, dominating the near-natural treeline ecotone in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal. We investigated microhabitat ground cover of established seedlings in rectangular plots along the treeline ecotone from subalpine forest stands via the krummholz belt to alpine dwarf shrub heaths (3800–4200 m). We examined protective elements that potentially ameliorate seedlings’ growth conditions and quantified the distance of seedlings to the nearest protective element. Our results showed species-specific microhabitat preferences for seedling establishment. While A. spectabilis seedlings establish on ground that is covered in average by 70% with litter, B. utilis and R. campanulatum seedlings primarily emerge on bryophyte mats (mean site cover 80%). Microhabitat structure did not vary significantly in relation to different vegetation types encompassing the treeline ecotone. The majority of seedlings of all species grew in maximum 2 m distance to at least one potentially protective element. Geomorphic elements and deadwood were the most important shelters for seedling establishment. Our results emphasise the importance of safe sites for successful tree regeneration in harsh environments. As growth conditions in high mountain ecosystems may substantially alter under contemporary climate change, the necessity of safe sites may increase to buffer potential extremes.

The Himalayas are experiencing dramatic warming and drought events, which occur at a faster rate than the global average. How will the high-elevation ecosystems cope with such changing conditions? This study aims to combine cambial phenology with quantitative wood anatomy to understand how the growth dynamics affect the trade-off between safety and efficiency of water transport in the Himalayan forests. We investigated the timing of xylogenesis and its relationship with hydraulic wood anatomical traits in Himalayan birch (Betula utilis D. Don) at two altitudes in the central Himalayas. Xylogenesis was monitored weekly from April to September 2014 by collecting microcores. We measured vessel area on histological sections, calculated the hydraulic diameter, and assessed the effects of climate on xylem production rate. Xylogenesis occurred from June to September in both study sites. Moisture availability influenced positively xylem growth besides thermal conditions. The onset and duration of vessel enlargement were correlated with the hydraulic diameter. Trees with earlier onsets and longer durations of vessel enlargement exhibited larger hydraulic diameters. The close relationship between cambial phenology and hydraulic diameter suggests that earlier growth resumption induced by climate changes may result in larger vessels, which are more efficient in water transport, but vulnerable to drought-induced cavitation. The ongoing warming and drying climate conditions may menace the survival of birch forest in the central Himalayas.

Rural communities in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan are dependant on natural capital for their livelihoods. Climate change impacts on ecosystem could have serious consequences for these communities but little research has been done to explore these potential impacts. In this study, we used Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) models to model current and potential future distribution of major timber species (Abies densa, Pinus wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa), fuelwood species (Quercus spp, Betula spp, Betula utilis, Rhododendron spp, Rhododendron arboreum) and an important non-timber resource (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in Bhutan Himalayan region. Models were based on species presence and absence data from 575 plots and a new high-resolution climate dataset developed for Bhutan. Future projections were based on IPCC's representative concentration pathway (RCP 8.5) for the 2080s in Bhutan. Mean annual temperature and precipitation of driest quarters were found to be the most influential variables in modelling the current distribution of these species, with the distribution of most of the species projected to decrease significantly and shift to higher elevations. The current distribution of Ophiocordyceps sinensis was modelled to decrease by 79% at the national level with only 21% range overlap between current and future distributions. Current distribution of timber species like Abies densa and Tsuga dumosa were modelled to decline by 98% and 99% respectively at national level with very low range overlaps between current and future distribution suggesting high species vulnerability to climate change. In contrast, fuel wood species like Betula spp, Quercus spp, Rhododendron arboreum all exhibited less vulnerability to climate change with over 50% of their current range overlapping with future distribution across Bhutan and in the Nikachu watershed. These potential changes in distribution patterns of these species could impact on the functions and ecosystem services provided by these species and socio-economic conditions of rural communities reliant on these species for their livelihoods in Bhutan. Lower rates of global greenhouse gas emissions and adoption of adaptation measures and management interventions can reduce these potential impacts.

Litter decomposition plays a vital role in carbon and nutrient budget of forest ecosystems, but our understanding of this process for high altitude ecosystems, especially the timberline zone, is not very clear. We studied leaf litter decomposition of Betula utilis, which is the main timberline species of Western Himalaya. We placed 144 litterbags (each containing 10 g of oven dried litter) at three ‘spatially well separated sites’ in Oct 2014, to study the direction and magnitude of change in key variables associated with leaf litter decomposition and to test for generality of decomposition process across these spatially distant sites. The results revealed that initial nutrient concentration and lignin content of litter was significantly different for the sites. Further, magnitude of mass loss and decay rate was found to be greater for up to 34 weeks (19.03 ± 4.55% and 0.35 ± 0.06 yr−1 respectively), which reached 47.01 ± 1.98% and 0.17 ± 0.01 yr−1 respectively, after 4 years. N, P and K concentrations showed sharp decease for up to 34 weeks, after which N consistently increased with incubation time, whereas P and K concentrations were relatively stable. The lignin and cellulose contents decreased consistently with incubation time (from 12.29 ± 1.21% to 5.21 ± 0.50% and from 16.87 ± 1.01% to 8.25 ± 0.50% respectively). There were significant increases in C:N and lignin:N ratios for up to 34 weeks, followed by a continuous decrease thereafter. The change in various variables associated with litter decomposition was not consistent among the sites and the magnitude of change was greater during initial stages due to leaching of labile components. The increase in N and decreases in C:N and lignin:N ratios with incubation time might be due to microbial immobilization of N and are important for nutrient conservation in timberline ecosystems, as such changes are related to faster decomposition of recalcitrant fraction of litter, N mineralization and building of soil nutrient pool.

Developing sustainable adaptation pathways under climate change conditions in mountain regions requires accurate predictions of treeline shifts and future distribution ranges of treeline species. Here, we model for the first time the potential distribution of Betula utilis, a principal Himalayan treeline species, to provide a basis for the analysis of future range shifts. Our target species Betula utilis is widespread at alpine treelines in the Himalayan mountains, the distribution range extends across the Himalayan mountain range. Our objective is to model the potential distribution of B. utilis in relation to current climate conditions. We generated a dataset of 590 occurrence records and used 24 variables for ecological niche modelling. We calibrated Generalized Linear Models using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and evaluated model performance using threshold-independent (AUC, Area Under the Curve) and threshold-dependent (TSS, True Skill Statistics) characteristics as well as visual assessments of projected distribution maps. We found two temperature-related (Mean Temperature of the Wettest Quarter, Temperature Annual Range) and three precipitation-related variables (Precipitation of the Coldest Quarter, Average Precipitation of March, April and May and Precipitation Seasonality) to be useful for predicting the potential distribution of B. utilis. All models had high predictive power (AUC ≥ 0.98 and TSS ≥ 0.89). The projected suitable area in the Himalayan mountains varies considerably, with most extensive distribution in the western and central Himalayan region. A substantial difference between potential and real distribution in the eastern Himalaya points to decreasing competitiveness of B. utilis under more oceanic conditions in the eastern part of the mountain system. A comparison between the vegetation map of Schweinfurth (1957) and our current predictions suggests that B. utilis does not reach the upper elevational limit in vast areas of its potential distribution range due to anthropogenically caused treeline depressions. This study underlines the significance of accuracies of current environmental niche models for species distribution modelling under climate change scenarios. Analysing and understanding the environmental factors driving the current distribution of B. utilis is crucial for the prediction of future range shifts of B. utilis and other treeline species, and for deriving appropriate climate change adaptation strategies.

A study was conducted to estimate the biomass and soil carbon stock in various sites of Abies pindrow (Silver fir) - Picea smithiana (Spruce) and Betula utilis (Bhojpatra) forests of district Shimla, Himachal Pradesh during the year 2014-2015. In Fir-Spruce mixed forests, the amount of carbon stock at Larot site for above ground, below ground, under storey and litter was 287.39 tC/ha, 57.48 tC/ha, 2.22 tC/ha and 0.92 tC/ha respectively. Whereas, values of these components at Khirki site were 267.31 tC/ha, 53.46 tC/ha, 3.65 tC/ha and 0.85 tC/ha respectively. The biomass as well as the carbon stock was higher at Larot site than Khirki site. The soil organic carbon stock (tC/ha) at 10-15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30-45 cm was 27.05, 24.91 and 18.35 respectively at Larot site. Whereas, these values for different depths were 27.36 tC/ha, 22.02 tC/ha and 19.01 tC/ha respectively for Khirki site. The value of total soil carbon stock was little more (70.31 tC/ha) at Larot site than Khirki site (68.39 tC/ha). In case of Bhojpatra forests, the amount of carbon stock at Larot site for above ground, below ground, under storey and litter was 75.32 tC/ha, 18.83 tC/ha, 11.38 tC/ha and 1.57 tC/ha respectively. In Bhojpatra forests, understorey i.e. biomass of shrubs and herbs contribute about 11.63% to the total biomass in the forest. The soil organic carbon stock (tC/ha) at 10-15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30-45 cm was 19.54, 15.43 and 11.88 respectively for this site. The soil organic carbon stock decreased with increasing the soil depth.

Changes in the position of altitudinal treelines and timberlines are considered useful indicators of climatic changes on tree growth and forest dynamics. We sought to determine if recent warming is driving contrasting growth responses of Himalayan birch, at moist treeline (Lete Lekh) and semi-arid timberline (Chimang Lekh) sites in the Trans-Himalayan zone of central Nepal. We used dendrochronological techniques to measure tree ring width (TRW) and basal area increment (BAI) of birch trees from climatically contrasting but nearby sites. The TRW series were correlated with climate records from nearby meteorological stations, and BAI was compared between populations to explore growth trends over recent decades. We found contrasting precipitation trends between nearby sites such that the wet site (Lete) is getting warmer and wetter, and the dry site (Chimang) is getting warmer and drier in recent decades. The radial growth of birch in both moist and semi-arid sites are positively correlated to spring (March-May) rainfall, and negatively correlated to mean and maximum temperature for the same period. The growth climate analysis indicated that moisture availability in early growing season is crucial for birch growth at these locations. The BAI of birch is declining more rapidly at the dry timberline than at the moist treelines in the recent decades, indicating that climatic warming might negatively impact birch radial growth where warming interacts with increasing spring drought in the region. Our work highlights contrasting growth response of birch to climate change at moist and semi-arid forests indicating that local climatic variation must be accounted for when assessing and forecasting regional patterns of tree growth in topographically complex regions like Trans-Himalaya, in order to make accurate predictions of vegetation responses to climate change.

The alpine treeline ecotone is an important component of mountain ecosystems of the Nepal Himalaya; it plays a vital role in the livelihood of indigenous people, and provides ecosystem services. However, the region faces a problem of paucity of data on treeline characteristics at the regional and landscape scales. Therefore, we used Remote Sensing (RS), and Geographic Information Science (GIS) approaches to investigate cross-scale interactions in the treeline ecotone. Additionally, European Space Agency land cover map, International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) land cover map, ecological map of Nepal, and United States Geological Survey Shuttle Radar Topography Mission-Digital Elevation Model were used to analyze treeline pattern at the regional scale. Digital Globe high-resolution satellite imagery of Barun (eastern Nepal) and Manang (central Nepal) were used to study treeline patterns at the landscape scale. Treeline elevation ranges from 3300-4300 m above sea level. Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, and Pinus wallichiana are the main treeline-forming species in the Nepal Himalaya. There is an east to west treeline elevation gradient at the regional scale. No slope exposure is observed at the regional scale; however, at the landscape scale, slope exposure is present only in a disturbed area (Manang). Topography and human disturbance are the main treeline controlling factor in Barun and Manang respectively.

Alpine treelines act as bio-indicators and bio-monitors of environmental change impacts in high elevation forests. This dendro-ecological study carried out in treeline ecotones in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (SNP), eastern Nepal Himalaya, aimed to assess treeline dynamics and to understand the response of treeline forming Abies spectabilis (D. Don, Mirb) and Betula utilis (D. Don) to environmental change. At three treeline sites we placed two to four belt transects (size: 20 m wide, variable length) which bisected the treeline as well as the tree species limit. The results revealed spatio-temporally heterogeneous regeneration with a higher regeneration of A. spectabilis compared to B. utilis . Warm temperatures during summer (JJA) growing seasons combined with sufficient moisture favored the growth of A. spectabilis while moisture stress during spring seasons (MAM) mainly limited the growth of B. utilis . The regeneration of A. spectabilis was favored by high temperatures throughout the year with sufficient moisture. The climatic response of the regeneration of B. utilis was spatiotemporally different and variable. Results predict a changing community structure in the treeline in response to future environmental change. During the past 200 years, A. spectabilis shifted upward by about 0.93 m/yr and B. utilis by 0.42 m/yr, with stabilization during the second half of the 20th century at the majority of the sites. The recent stability in treeline position of both species at most sites indicated that in addition to favorable climate, species-specific competitive abilities during the recruitment phase, recruitment suppression in the Krummholz and dwarf scrub belts, and grazing determine regeneration success and treeline position in the region.

Climate change is affecting the forest ecosystems worldwide. Impacts of climate change are more perceptible at higher altitudes and can be easily detected along the elevational gradient. The main aim is to study the impact of elevation on the population structure of Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don and associated trees species at Manaslu Conservation Area, central Nepal. A total of 30 quadrats were sampled from 3600-4100 meter above sea level (m asl.) at altitudinal difference of 100 m with 5 quadrates in each altitude. The present study showed that R. campanulatum, Betula utilis, Abies spectabilis and Sorbus microphylla are the treeline species. R. campanulatum was the most dominant species with highest importance value index (IVI) along the altitudinal gradient. At 4000 m asl. S. microphylla was the codominant species. B. utilis was the codominant species at 3600 -3900 m asl followed by S. microphylla and A. spectabilis . R. campanulatum and A. spectabilis showed a sustainable regeneration. No seedling of B. utilis was found along the altitudinal gradient indicating that the regeneration of this species might be affected by unfavourable micohabitat (eg. deep shade). R. campanulatum and S. microphylla were found above the treeline indicating that the climatic conditions were favourable for their growth. The height, diameter and density of the species differed along the elevational gradient and showed a species specific trend. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology Vol. 21, No. 1, 2016, page

A landscape level survey of vegetation structure and composition was conducted along the treeline ecotone in Western Himalaya in the states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. We used a combination of field surveys and remote sensing data (Landsat MSS and TM images) to quantify the extent and distribution of various classes of forests, forest cover, patterns of vegetation structure and composition and recent changes in forest cover along the treeline ecotone. Total area under the treeline ecotone (3000–4000 m) in these states comes to ca. 11587 km2, of which Himachal Pradesh has higher representation (6818.4 km2). In terms of extent, conifers (Abies and Pinus) occupy the largest cover followed by brown or Kharsu oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) and birch (Betula utilis). Mean tree density was 553 individuals ha−1 which ranged between 440 and 690 individuals ha−1. Average elevation of the treeline was approximately 3615 m above mean sea level, and the maximum altitude of tree growth was 4200 m. Time series analysis of remote sensing data reveals that there has been no altitudinal shift in the upper treeline during the last 40 years, although forest canopy cover has increased or decreased significantly within a protected area and outside, respectively.

The present study was conducted in Hamta Pass area of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh, India with a focus on Betula utilis populations. Totally 16 populations of B. utilis representing four habitats and three aspects were studied. The maximum sites were represented by moist and moist, shaded habitats with northwestern aspect. Totally 188 plant species representing trees, shrubs and herbs were recorded. Acer acuminatum, Abies pindrow, Prunus cornuta and Quercus semecarpifolia were the major associated species of B. utilis in the subalpine zone of Hamta Pass. Based on importance value index five tree communities, namely A. acuminatum, A. pindrow, B. utilis , Q. semecarpifolia and B. utilis –P. cornuta mixed were identified. Among the communities, total density of trees, shrubs and herbs was recorded from 160 to 270, 300 to 515 and 21 to 33 individuals m –2 respectively. The total basal area recorded was 6.94–42.10 m2 ha –1 , species richness 15–127, and species diversity for trees 0.4–0.9, shrubs 0.0–2.1 and herbs 1.7–4.2. The density and regeneration (i.e. seedlings and saplings) of B. utilis in most of the populations revealed that this species will continue to grow in the area. However, continued anthropogenic activities, climate change and other factors may cause population depletion in the study area.

Objective: The present study investigated the comparative analysis of fatty acid and antioxidant activity from the bark of Betula utilis, collected from Kashmir and Sikkim coded as BUK and BUS respectively. Methods: Fatty acid constituents were analyzed by GCMS (gas chromatography mass spectroscopy) in BUK and BUS bark. B. utilis bark extracts of both the locations were phytochemically investigated and radical scavenging activity was evaluated by DPPH in all solvent fractions. Results: Phenolic content were found to be higher in methanolic extracts of BUK bark, 5.8 ± 0.1 mg/gm and flavonoid content were higher in the water extract of BUK bark, 6.16 ± 0.2 mg/gm. The radical scavenging activity was found to be higher methanolic, alcoholic and water extracts of BUK bark. The lowest IC50 value for radical scavenging activity of methanolic and water extracts of B. utilis bark collected from Kashmir were found 18.7 ± 1.1 and 18.2 ± 0.3 μg/mL, respectively. Thirteen fatty acids were identified in the sample BUK as well as BUS in which the major fatty acids were found-Palmitic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid. BUK possess the highest amount of Palmitic acid (18.07%) in oily portion of the bark. Conclusion: The present study concluded that BUK and BUS extracts have shown significant antioxidant activity in comparison to standard but BUK possess potent radical scavenging activity over BUS, and higher amounts palmitic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid was present in the extract, and may a play an important role in nutritional and pharmaceutical applications.

A rapid and reliable method was developed and validated for determining betulin and betulinic acid in bark in Betula utilis by high-resolution magic angle spinning 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (HR-MAS NMR) spectroscopy. HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy clearly distinguished the resonances of betulin and betulinic acid in the bark of all accessions of B. utilis. The concentrations of betulin and betulinic acid were calculated and added to the spectra. The determination of the targeted metabolites in chloroform extract of bark of each accession of B. utilis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Quantitatively, betulin was present at higher concentrations than betulinic acid in all accessions. The HR-MAS NMR and HPLC results showed that betulin and betulinic acid varied significantly among accessions of B. utilis. Principal component analysis of the NMR and HPLC results provided classification into three metabolic groups in which the betulin concentration was high, moderate, or low....

The present study was aimed to anticipate how forest composition, regeneration, biomass production, and carbon storage vary in the ridge top forests of the high mountains of Garhwal Himalaya. For this purpose five major forest types—(a) Pinus wallichiana, (b) Quercus semecarpifolia, (c) Cedrus deodara, (d) Abies spectabilis, and (e) Betula utilis mixed forests—were selected on different ridge tops in the Bhagirathi Catchment Area of the Uttarkashi District of Garhwal Himalaya. The highest species richness (10 species) and stand density (804 ± 184.5 stems ha−1) were recorded in Abies spectabilis forests, whereas lowest species richness (4 species) and species density (428 ± 144.7 stems ha−1) were found in Quercus semecarpifolia forests. The total basal cover (TBC) values were maximum (91.1 ± 24.4 m2 ha−1) in Cedrus deodara forests and minimum (26.5 ± 11.7 m2 ha−1) in Pinus wallichiana forests. The highest total biomass density (TBD) (464.2 ± 152.5 Mg ha−1) and total carbon density (TCD; 208.9 ± 68....

Biological processes in soil are driven and mediated by root and soil microbiome (microbial communities) and are sensitive to many environmental variations. Soil microbial communities compete for nutrient and space and form mutualistic associations with host plants. Rhizosphere, the connecting site of plant roots with soil, influences the soil health and plant-microbe interactions. Soil enzyme activity, which is considered to be the biological indicator of soil health, is significantly influenced by microbial functioning. Betula utilis D. Don is a dominant treeline forming species that has been extensively studied for the impact of climate-mediated variations in sub-alpine Himalayan region. However, the microbial ecology of this species remains almost unexplored. Therefore, the present study aims to assess the endophytic communities associated with B. utilis roots along with the status of enzymes, nutrients, and microbial communities in rhizosphere soil in two seasons from three sites in North-Western Himalaya. Activity of soil enzymes (acid and alkaline phosphatase, aryl sulfatase, β-glucosidase, urease and dehydrogenase) varied statistically with respect to seasons. Except dehydrogenase, the soil enzymes activity correlated with pH, organic carbon, and phosphorus content in soil. High dehydrogenase activity is attributed to high microbial activity in dormant season. B. utilis roots were found to be colonized with a range of microbial communities namely, mycorrhizae, dark septate endophytes (DSE), bacterial endophytes and unidentified nematode like structures (NLS). While, in general, DSE colonization was higher during growing season, mycorrhizae dominated the roots during dormant season. Significant differences were obtained only in mycorrhizal colonization with respect to seasons and sites. Further, significant correlations were obtained among soil nutrients, enzyme activity, and microbial counts during growing season. B. utilis roots exerted negative rhizosphere effect on microbial communities. The study will have implications in understanding plant-microbe interactions under sub-alpine Himalayan region.

The Himalayas is one of the most ecologically sensitive and fragile areas in the world. The climate of the region is dominated by the monsoon seasonality, with typical dry winters and abundant summer precipitations. Here, forest vegetation spreads up to the world’s highest elevations, where cold temperatures and early spring droughts represent the main limiting factors for growth. In this study, we applied a dendro-anatomical approach to assess xylem trait chronologies and their association to local climate variability in the diffused broadleaved Betula utilis D Don close to the treeline (above 3900 m a.s.l.). We measured tree-ring width on increment cores from 73 trees. On seven cores, we prepared 12 μm thick sections, which were analysed with ROXAS for the assessment of ring-based xylem parameters. We then built up the corresponding trait chronologies and analyzed them against the time series of monthly temperatures and precipitations. Mean ring width (MRW), mean vessel area (MCA_V) and ring-specific hydraulic conductivity (Kr) positively correlated with summer temperatures in the previous and current year. In addition, MCA_V was significantly associated with March precipitations. Instead, fibres’ area showed a widely negative correlation only with temperatures during the previous and current season suggesting that fibres get narrower when vessels are wider. These results revealed that Himalayan birch is well adapted to the monsoon seasonality and is responding positively to atmospheric warming, thus suggesting the potential for this species to further expand in altitude under the forecasted climate change scenarios.

Compounds having antimicrobial activity obtained from plant sources are useful because they are new sources against antibiotic resistance. The present study is based on the evaluation of antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of the fresh bark of Betula utilis and to identify the chemical constituents responsible for antimicrobial potential, grown in high altitude of Himalaya, India. The chemical constituents of essential oil were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The essential oil was evaluated for the antimicrobial potential against human pathogenic bacteria and fungi by using a micro-dilution assay. GC-MS analysis revealed that the major constituents of the essential oil were geranic acid (11.38 %), β-seleneol (10.98 %), β-linalool (10.91 %), terragon (10.61 %), β-sesquiphellendrene (8.02 %), champacol (6.33 %) and 1,8-cineol (5.49 %). Result showed that B. utilis essential oil has a strong antimicrobial activity against the fungus Candida albicans and Gram (+) an...