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Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins generated by the Fusarium spp. in foods and feeds. More than 15 isomers of Fumonisin are recognized, and the B series of Fumonisins is the primary and referral isomer of Fumonisin. Fumonisin B can cause leukoencephalomalacia in rabbits and horses and porcine pulmonary edema in swine. Fumonisin B is also nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, immunotoxic and carcinogenic. It blocks sphingolipid biosynthesis (and hinders the synthesis of ceramide) by a noticeable resemblance to sphingosine and sphinganine. This paper provides a review of the toxicity, occurrence, and mechanism of carcinogenicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity as well as immunotoxicity of Fumonisins, which are primarily found on a variety of food and feed in Africa, America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania. In this paper, current information on contamination of feeds and foods by Fumonisins around the world is summarized. Because of economic losses induced by Fumonisins and their harmful effects on animal and human health, various procedures to detoxify infected feeds and foods have been illustrated in this review, including biological, physical, and chemical processes. Additionally, we discuss dietary intakes and maximum limits of Fumonisins in some countries.

Background: This study was undertaken to evaluate the major causes of mortality at different stages of incubation and their economic impact in response to sustainability challenges at the Rwandan National Hatchery.Methods: The study evaluated the fertility, hatchability and embryonic deaths in broiler-producing flocks (B series) and layer-producing flocks (L series) at Rubilizi, a state-owned hatchery in Kigali, Rwanda.Results: Mean fertility in the B series (94.23%) was not significantly different (P > 0.05) from that of the L series (93.24%). Mean hatchability in the B series (57.39%) was significantly (P 0.05).Conclusions: Low hatchability in the L series possibly resulted from the higher number of embryonic deaths and hatch debris and not from reduced fertility or cull chicks. Total chick losses during the study amounted to US$54 327.00. The hatchery was experiencing more losses in layers than in broilers as emanating from low hatchability of the layers. Further investigations are needed with aim to maximise the hatchery’s capacity.

The influence of cornmeal industrial production processing on the distribution of fumonisins in thevarious different production chain corn derivatives (corn, corn flour, germ, middlings, broken corn,cornflake and cornmeal flour)was studied.Free and hydrolyzed fumonisin fractions were extracted and their content was determined by HPLC-MS/MS analysis. Results showed that fumonisin amounts decreased significantly after cleaning and corn-flaking processes, achieving a final reduction of about 40% in the cornmeal semolina, while higher levelof contamination in corn flour (fumetto) and middlings were detected. Furthermore, in order to betterunderstand the influence of the different treatments on fumonisin distribution, the occurrence of theirfree and masked forms during this industrial processing was investigated.Results for masked fumonisins showed that they were not detected probably due to different climaticand technological factors.© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. IntroductionFumonisins are a group of secondary metabolites mainly pro-duced by Fusarium verticilloides and Fusarium proliferatum, that canoccur in corn and corn-base products. These mycotoxins, especiallythose pertaining to B series (FBs), may cause a variety of undesir-able effects in mammals, such as hepatocarcinogenic, hepatotoxic,nephrotoxic, and cytotoxic diseases. In human, the high incidenceof esophageal cancer has been related with FB1 exposure (Creppy,2002). The consumption of fumonisin-contaminated maize hasalso been associated with the occurrence of neural tube defects(Marasas et al, 2004). For these reasons FB1 has been classified as a2B carcinogenic by the International Agency of Research on Cancer(IARC, 2002). The joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Ad-ditives (JECFA) has determined a maximum tolerable daily intake(PMTDI) of 2

Seventeen new compounds, naphthacemycins A1–A11, B1–B4 and C1–C2, were isolated from a cultured broth of Streptomyces sp. KB-3346-5 during screening for circumventors of β-lactam resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic studies, including NMR and X-ray crystallographic analysis. The naphthacemycin A series has a new skeleton displaying a 7-phenylnaphthacene-5,6,11(12H)-trione. In contrast, the quinone moiety of the A series is changed to dehydroxyquinol in the B series and to a semiquinone-like structure in the C series.

The fumonisin B1-4 (FB1-4) toxin-producing capacities of 60 strains of Fusarium verticillioides isolated in the main maize-cultivating areas of Hungary were screened on rice grains in vitro. The amounts of FB1, FB2, FB3 and FB4 in the extracts of the culture material were determined by RP-HPLC/ESI-IT MS without any sample clean-up. All F. verticillioides strains produced all analogues (FB1-4) of the fumonisin B series. The strains did not differ significantly in their cultural characteristics, though the analytical results allowed the distinction of three idiosyncratic FB1-4-producing chemotypes with characteristic proportions of the fumonisin B analogues. The dominant chemotype produced them in the sequence FB1 > FB2 > FB3 > FB4, with large amounts of FB1 and FB2. A second chemotype produced a higher amount of FB3 than of FB2, while the third chemotype produced large amounts of FB2 and FB4. The proportion of FB1 in the extracts was inversely correlated with the total FB yield. No differences in FB1-4 producing capacity were observed between strains isolated from various locations or different sources.

A survey of the secondary metabolite chemistry profiles of New Zealand sponges of the genus Latrunculia has yielded new members of the discorhabdin A- and B-type families. The structure elucidation of (+)-(6 R ,8 S )-1-thiomethyldiscorhabdin G ∗ /I ( 5 ) and both enantiomers of 16a,17a-dehydrodiscorhabdin W ( 6 ) are reported. Absolute configurations were assigned by comparison with a dataset of recently reported electronic circular dichroism spectra of discorhabdin alkaloids. A stereochemical correction of the recently reported natural product (+)-3-dihydrodiscorhabdin A from (3 S ,5 R ,6 S ,8 S )-( 7 ) to the C3-epimeric (+)-(3 R ,5 R ,6 S ,8 S )-( 8 ) and assignment of absolute configuration is also presented. Semi-synthesis of (+)-(3 S ,5 R ,6 S ,8 S )-( 7 ) from (+)-discorhabdin A provided further evidence for this structure revision. Cytotoxicity data is reported for 5 – 8 .

In a population of wild rabbits originating from the Island of Zembra (Tunisia), several unknown allotypic specificities of the b series have been detected and two of them, b95 and b96, have already been described. In order to learn about their relationship with other allotypes of the same series and present in the domestic rabbit, a study of b95 and b96 cross-reactions with heterologous antisera was undertaken. From the data presented in this paper, it can be concluded that the b96 allotype is very closely related to the b6 allotype, which suggests that they are encoded by real structural genes at the b locus as presumed for b4 and b4 var allotypes; the b95 allotype, which behaves as an intermediate form, can be considered as an ancestral allotype.

We did not reveal any difference in the expression of the b series allotypic patterns (carried by the constant region of the κ light chains) either with anti-allotypic sera prepared against IgG or with anti-allotypic sera prepared against light chains when the light chains carrying a given allotypic pattern were respectively associated with allotypically different heavy chains to form an IgG molecule. Very probably, the b series allotypic determinants are relatively far away from the association region of the light and the heavy chains in the IgG molecule. These two kinds of antisera reveal the same set of determinants on IgG and on their isolated light chains, but this set seems to have a different configuration on the isolated light chains and on the same light chain included in the IgG.

In a population of wild rabbits coming from Island of Zembra (Tunisia) and belonging to the subspecies Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus , several unknown allotypic specificities, presumably of the b series, have been detected. One of them, designed by A95, is described in this paper. The A95 allotype is inherited as a b allotype and its antigenic determinants are located on the light chain of immunoglobulins. These concordant data confirm that b 95 is an allele at the b locus.

The frequencies of 32 HLA antigens of the A and B series were determined in a previously unstudied population of Mexican-Americans in South Texas. The phenotype and gene frequencies for this group are presented and are contrasted with those determined in studies of Mexican/Mexican--American populations from two different locales. The statistically significant differences observed emphasize the need for indigenous controls when evaluating racially heterogeneous populations for disease-associated HLA antigens.

In pearl culture, a graft tissue cut from the mantle of a pearl oyster is inserted into the body of the oyster together with a nucleus. The aim of the present experiments was to examine whether or not anatomical parts of the mantle from which graft tissues had been taken would have any effect on the quality of the pearl developed later in the body. In the experiments the graft tissue was obtained from different sides of the mantle, the right and the left, each side divided into series of A, B, and C, with subdivisions I, II, and III (Fig. 1). The operated oysters were cultured in an area of Ago Bay for about four months till December 1954. The subsequent inspection, comparing the developed pearls in association with the graft tissues from the specific areas revealed: 1. In producing thicker layers of the pearl in term of weight, the graft tissues from the right side of the mantle was better than the ones from the left; A series of the tissue were as good as B series and better than C, the tissues from area III were the best followed by the tissues from areas II and I in this order (Table 1). 2. The occurring frequency of colored pearls differed between the graft tissues from each other side of the mantle, but did not among the tissues from other subdivisions of the mantle (Table 3). 3. The occurring frequency of lustrous pearls varied between these tissues compared with each other: A and C, III and II, III and I; but no differences was apparent between any other pair of the comparison.

The leaves, stem-bark and root-bark of Mitragyna ciliata, M. inermis and M. stipulosa have been examined quantitatively and qualitatively for alkaloids. In addition, the plant parts of M. stipulosa collected at 12 regular monthly intervals have been similarly examined. The presence of mitraphylline in the leaves of this plant and the absence of indole alkaloids was confirmed. The predominant leaf alkaloids are oxindoles of the A series, those of the stem- and root-bark, oxindoles of the B series. Whereas the general alkaloidal pattern of M. ciliata appears similar to that of M. inermis rather than M. stipulosa, a more detailed study suggests that M. ciliata and M. inermis have a distinctly different metabolic pattern in relation to the C(9)-OMe alkaloids.

Rooting responses of cabbage leaves(Bassica oleracea L. var.capitata) were studied. β-indolylbutyric acid (I.B.A.) at a concentration of 2.5 p.p.m. was found suitable for the purpose. Very young and old leaves were found to be unsuitable for successful rooting. In the series A (without axillary bud) the sixth leaf was found to be most suitable, while in the B series (with axillary bud) the fifth as well as the sixth leaves were found to be suitable. These leaves showed the best response by producing longer and maximum number of roots in the shortest time interval. The presence of axillary buds shortened the time period required for the initiation of roots however, no such correlation could be observed in connection with lengthening or larger production of roots. In general, the treated leaves initiated roots earlier than the control. From the successfully rooted leaves with or without axillary buds, secondary buds were produced which grew into fairly big, edible cabbage heads. It is suggested that this method of induced rooting might be fruitful in vegetative propagation of cabbage during the growing season.

A world-wide sample of 114 homokaryotic strains of the tetrapolar mushroom, Schizophyllum commune, was analysed to determine the extent of the "multiple-allelic" series of A and B incompatibility factors. The sample contained 96 distinct and interfertile A factors and 56 different B factors. No evidence was found for non-random geographical distribution or for any departure from numerical equality of specific factors either in the A series or in the B series. Assuming random distribution and equal frequency of factors of both series, these data indicate 339 with 5 per cent limits of 562 and 216 A factors and 64 with 5 per cent limits of 79 and 53 B factors in the natural population. Since sexual fertility between strains depends upon heterozygosity of both A and B factors, the outcrossing efficiency in the natural population is 98.15 per cent.

Pleurotus ostrcatus has been shown to have a tetrapolar mating system with multiple factors at both the A and B series. Interstock dikaryons produced an average yield of 716.1 g of oyster mushrooms...

A previously undetected allotypic specificity, A96, was observed in the wild rabbit population of Zembra (Tunisia). The A96 allotype is inherited as a b allotype, and its antigenic determinants are located on the kappa light chains of immunoglobulins. Although cross-reacting with b6, the A96 allotype carries its own allotypic determinants, and is therefore distinct form the known allotypes of the b series (b4, b5, b6, b9, b4var and b95). The data indicate that A96 is encoded by an allele at the b locus, tentatively designated b 96.

Twelve different HLA antisera, detecting antigens of both A and B series and the superspecificities w4 and w6, were tested for platelet-aggregating activity in 75 antiserum-platelet combinations. The correlation between the HLA specificities of the antisera and the aggregating effect on platelets carrying the corresponding antigens was significant (P = 0.011). Because the platelet aggregation test is being used for screening of circulating immune complexes, falsely positive reactions caused by HLA antibodies must be eliminated by adequate control experiments.

Anti-Salmonella abortus-equi antibodies of restricted heterogeneity produced in large amounts by a rabbit have been fractionated to show individual spectrotypes simple enough to give, in most of the cases, a single focused protein band. Idiotypic and allotypic specificities of these antibodies were studied. With two anti-idiotypic sera which recognized the same idiotypes no difference was found in the idiotypic specificities of the antibodies from nine fractions with individual spectrotypes ranging from pH 5.5 to pH 6.5. The rabbit which developed this antibody response was heterozygous for the b series allotypic specificities. The two allotypic specificities encoded by the related allelic genes were revealed in all the antibody fractions despite the fact that antibodies of most of these fractions exhibited only a single focused IgG band upon 1EF analysis. Presumably the amino acid substitutions related to the b series allotypic specificities are not involved in the electric charge of the entire molecule. Therefore spectrotypes showing a single focused protein band are not always indicative of homogeneity for a product with such an electrophoretic behavior.

Adult rabbits were sensitized against rabbit immunoglobulin allotypic specificities of the a and b series by means of two injections of their own lymphocytes coated with the appropriate IgG. The splenic lymphocytes from these sensitized rabbits were injected, 24 hr after birth, into newborns that had inherited from their father the allotypic specificities susceptible to recognition by the sensitized lymphocytes. A significant percentage (40%) of the young rabbits subjected to this treatment developed a total suppression of expression of these specificities with the well-known compensatory effect due to an increased expression of the corresponding allele. We have observed that the T Julius subset of the sensitized splenic lymphocytes was responsible for the induction of this suppression that was established without discernible intervention of anti-allotype antibodies. In one instance we observed that the expression of the allotypic specificities transmitted by the father, although established at 5 weeks of age, gradually declined and totally disappeared at 13 weeks of age.

IN 1957 Smithies1, using the technique of starch-gel electrophoresis, described inherited variants of human β-globulins. Smithies and Hiller2 established the identity of these β-globulins with the iron-binding protein, trans-ferrin, and this was afterwards confirmed with iron-59 and autoradiography3. During the past few years widespread sampling of human populations has demonstrated the existence so far of 14 transferrins. In order of decreasing mobility in starch-gel electrophoresis these are4: B0, BO–1 B1, B1–2, B2, B3, C, D0, D4 (D0–1), Dmontreal Dchi, D1, D2, D3. The present communication reports another transferrin of the B series.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the chymotrypsinogens and chymotrypsins. Two chymotrypsinogens and several chymotrypsins are known at present—that is, α-chymotrypsinogen and crystalline chymotrypsinogen, named B. Proteins of the B series differ from those of the α series in electrophoretic mobility and in the ease with which they are retained on resins, but not in molecular weight. For the preparation of α-chymotrypsinogen, ten to twelve average-size beef pancreases, removed immediately after slaughter, are immersed at once in enough 0.25 N ice-cold H 2 SO 4 to cover the glands. For the crystallization of α-chymotrypsin, ten grams of the crystalline α-chymotrypsinogen filter cake containing ammonium sulfate, or 5 g. of salt-free crystalline α-chymotrypsinogen, is suspended in 30 ml. of water and dissolved by the addition of a few drops of 5 N H 2 SO 4 . For the preparation of chymotrypsinogen B, The original extract from thirty average-size beef pancreases is prepared exactly as described for α-chymotrypsinogen. The whole operation is carried out in the cold room. The extract is brought to 0.2 saturation of ammonium sulfate (114 g. of solid salt per liter of extract). Activity of chymotrypsins can be determined by a variety of methods which may be conveniently subdivided into two groups: (1) methods using natural substrates; (2) methods using synthetic substrates. Both types of method require dilute solutions of enzymes of accurately determined concentrations.