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Panthera gombaszoegensis was recorded over from 100 African and Eurasian localities, ranged between 2.5 and 0.3 Myr. Among them, seven cave sites, Żabia, Tunel Wielki, Kozi Grzbiet, Draby 3, Poludniowa, Biśnik, and Komarowa caves, dated in the range of 1.7–0.3 Myr, were those in Poland. They were located in Sudety Mts, Krakow-Czestochowa Upland, Wielun Upland and Holy Cross Mts. The material from Polish sites is not very numerous, being represented mostly by isolated teeth, metapodials and phalanges, however it is well informative diagnostically. From each site, except the Biśnik Cave, remains of a single large-sized individual, mostly of males, were found. The oldest record from Żabia Cave, dated on 1.7–1.5 Myr, because of lack of suifficient diagnostic features, was classified as P. gombaszoegensis. Bones from the other sites were assigned to Panthera gombaszoegensis gombaszoegensis, late Early and Middle Pleistocene chronoform widespread in Eurasia. Analysis of a large series of teeth size in the course of time does not showed any particular changes, and the size of the Eurasian jaguar was more or less comparatively large through its entire timespan occurrence. Panthera gombaszoegensis was ecologically flexible species able to hunt in a wide prey spectrum; its size, comparable with that of a small lion Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758) or island tiger Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758), guaranteed this jaguar one of the leading position among large carnivores. This was a member of stabile by 1 Myr carnivore paleoguild, single, conical-toothed cat, and it was well adapted to changed environmental conditions initiated by glacial-interglacial cycles. It seems that climate changes do not affected so much on P. gombaszoegensis as previously thought. The main factor responsible for the jaguar decline was the arrival of the Pleistocene lion, which affected negatively and caused strong competition. Because to its flexibility, jaguar was able to survive relatively longer than other ancient carnivores. Gradually as the density and abundance of the lion increased, a compact and wide geographic range started to shrink up to the form of isolated areas. Areas with the last, relict jaguar survivors were located far away one from another and overwhelmed by populations of P. s. fossilis. The final extinction of the species was between 350 and 300 kyr, and among them Polish find from the layer 19ad of Biśnik Cave should be highlighted as one of the latest Eurasian record of Panthera gombaszoegensis.

The present is a palaeobiological and taphonomic analysis of a Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4–3 (Late Pleistocene) assemblage of animal remains and hominin artefacts from layers 7–5 of Biśnik Cave, Czestochowa Upland, Poland. The analysis indicates that the bone assemblage is the result of a time-averaged palimpsest of both biotic and episodic abiotic events, the former consisting of many successive generations of animals and hominins that frequented the cave, and the latter including hydraulic winnowing. In fact, the taphonomic history of the fossil assemblage from Biśnik Cave's layers 7–5 is partially obscured by the overprint of hydraulic winnowing, which purportedly removed a certain amount of the original specimens. Besides evidence of cave bear deaths from non-violent, hibernation-related mortality and of occupation by generations of denning wolves and hyaenas, there is a wealth of flint artefacts, alongside remains of a few fireplaces and of a structure built in the cave by hominins to partition the cave chambers. The studied layer contains an impressive number of shed antlers, primarily of the red deer Cervus elaphus. Crocuta crocuta spelaea is normally held responsible for such accumulations of shed antlers in various European caves; Biśnik Cave's layers 7–5 will therefore simply add to the list. However, the role of accumulator of shed antlers attributed to the Pleistocene spotted hyena does not match the behaviour of its modern counterpart and seems not accounted for metabolically. The only reasonable alternative is that the antlers were collected by hominins. From this alternative perspective the cave would have functioned as a warehouse, where naturally shed antlers were stored as raw material, potentially to be shaped into tools and/or employed as tools to make other tools. The palaeobiological and taphonomic analysis presented here provides new insights into the succession of pre- and postdepositional events that involved the bone remains accumulated in the cave, as well as into the interactions between the animals and hominins of the time. More importantly, if hominins, and not hyaenas, were responsible for the amassment of the shed antlers in Biśnik Cave, this study raises doubts as to the hyaenid or human origin of other similar cave accumulations of shed antlers throughout Europe.

Panthera spelaea was recorded in Poland from 18 open-air and 42 cave sites dated in the range 750–28 ka. Most of these records are located in southern Poland (Silesia) and neighbouring areas. Among them, the find of Panthera spelaea in Kozi Grzbiet mentioned here for the first time is one of the oldest European records of the species. Most of the obtained AMS dates are concentrated on the second half of MIS 3 and showed that the Pleistocene lion disappeared more or less synchronously across Poland. The findings of its remains from open-air sites are mostly accidental discoveries during field works, while those in caves are mostly connected with archaeological research and the exploitation of cave sediments for producing fertilizers. Aside of a few juvenile bones and milk teeth, the remains of adult individuals, mostly males, predominate in the studied sample. Their behavior to hunting cave bear during the times, when the other, more typical food sources were scarce, tendention to hunt very big preys and went into the conflicts with other carnivores than females do, resulted in higher injuries and mortalities. Within the species, three chronosubspecies were recognized, with P. s. fossilis recorded from 7 sites, dated between 750 and 240 ka and P. s. intermedia only partially recognized in Wierzchowska Gorna Cave. The most numerous are the remains of P. s. spelaea which were found in 48 localities dated between 150 and 28 ka. With the exception of four caves, the Polish finds of P. spelaea are generally less abundant at sites where they occur. Older P. s. fossilis, dated on MIS 19–12, was a large form with robust stature and broad cheek teeth. Younger P. s. fossilis dated on MIS 11–9 was represented by a large and massive specimens, but with more advanced morphological dental features. Polish individuals of P. s. spelaea were slightly smaller and less massive than P. s. fossilis, with narrower cheek teeth. Since MIS 3, a dwarf and gracile specimens appeared, which is correlated with the genetic turnover ca. 48–45 ka. The Pleistocene lion was one of the earliest disappeared large carnivores predated only by a cave hyena. There are no direct evidences of P. spelaea encounters with humans. The extinction of P. spelaea is broadly correlated with the general collapse of the “mammoth steppe” ecosystem and was resulted of multiple reasons like climatic changes, re-building of herbivore guilds, competition and human pressure. Wolf and, to a lesser extent, bears were the main competitors for the Pleistocene lion in Poland.

Subfossil remains of the Quaternary megafauna from two Ukrainian natural history collections stored at Kaniv Nature Reserve and the National Museum of Natural History NAS of Ukraine were examined. Most of the bones were collected in 1965–1966, in the building pit and the gateway of the Kaniv hydroelectric power plant. The fauna is represented at least by ten taxa (Gulo gulo, Mammuthus trogonterii chosaricus, Mammuthus intermedius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Megaloceros giganteus, Alces alces, Bison priscus, Cervus elaphus, Capra cf. ibex, and Equus ferus). Skeletal parts are represented mainly by skulls, long bones, horns, and tusks. Based on the species composition of proboscideans, at least part of the faunal assemblage is dated by the end of the Middle Pleistocene (Dnieper Stage = Saale, Warta, MIS 6), but majority of bones could be older or younger (Late Pleistocene and Holocene age) due to the alluvial origin of accumulation.

Sackdilling Cave is a karst fissure filled with a fossiliferous breccia including abundant fossil remains, mostly snails and small mammals. The taxonomic status of mustelid remains from this cave was previously regarded as controversial and, consequently, different authors listed different species from the locality. A detailed revision of the material shows the presence of five mustelid species: Meles sp., Martes vetus, Mustela strandi, Mustela palerminea, and Mustela praenivalis. Among them, especially noteworthy is the presence of the type specimen of Martes vetus. The Sackdilling holotype resembles Martes foina and differs from that of Martes martes in a short and broad viscerocranium; wide and less extended forward incisor row; compressed, short and wide temporal region; large, strongly inflated and convex tympanic bullae; and narrow P3 with weak lingual bulge. Some dental characters are specific for Martes vetus and show some intermediate values between Martes foina than Martes martes. Among them are the P4 protocone length and the M1 trigon length. The revised material from Sackdilling Cave of Mustela palerminea and Mustela praenivalis was compared with that from other Early and early Middle Pleistocene sites of Europe and showed the presence of intermediate characters. Subsequently, based on the entire mustelid assemblage and other faunal elements (mainly rodents), the age of this fauna was estimated as ca. 0.9–0.7 Ma.

Cranial material of Pachycrocuta brevirostris from the late Early Pleistocene site of Nogaisk is the first record of this species in Ukraine. This large hyena was a representative of the Tamanian faunal complex and a single specialised scavenger in these faunas. The revisited European records list of P. brevirostris documented the presence of this species in 101 sites, dated in the range of 3.5–0.4 Ma. This species first disappeared in Africa, survived in Europe until ca. 0.8–0.7 Ma, and its last, relict occurrence was known from south-eastern Asia. The main reason of extinction of P. brevirostris probably was the competition with Crocuta crocuta. The cave hyena was smaller, but its teeth were proportionally larger to the body size, better adapted to crushing bones and slicing meat, and could also hunt united in larger groups.

The rediscovery of old collections and revision of the fossil material from more than 30 Sudeten caves and rock shelters allow reconstructing the faunal changes during the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene. We found that the composition of mammalian assemblages of Sudety Mts during MIS 3 differed significantly from the Holocene and modern one, and reflected the colder climate. Mammals belonging to the Mammuthus-Coelodonta faunal complex inhabited open flattened lowlands (Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) surrounding Sudeten area. Several large carnivores (Canis lupus spelaeus, Ursus arctos priscus, Ursus ingressus, Gulo gulo, Mustela eversmanii, Panthera spelaea spelaea, Crocuta crocuta spelaea) as well as herbivores (Mammuthus primigenius, Coleodonta antiquitatis, Megaloceros giganteus, Rangifer tarandus, large form of Equus ferus, Bison priscus, and Ovibos moschatus) made up the core of this assemblage. Our studies showed that most of these faunal elements were also present in Sudety Mts, despite the previous opinion that these mountains formed an effective natural barrier during the Late Pleistocene. Besides, it seems that during cold phases they could be refugees for forest animals, which were also present in the Mammuthus-Coelodonta faunal complex, but lower quantities. They avoided flat treeless Silesian lowlands and concentrated in mountainous and hilly regions. In this context, during the Late Pleistocene Sudety Mts were a “forested island” confined to elevated areas or river valleys. Range extensions, contractions, and continuations on different scales resulted in mammalian paleoassemblages which differed in particular from the modern ones. The analysis of the mammal faunas from Sudeten sites revealed that there were three heterochronous mammalian faunal complexes replaced each other throughout the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene. Differences between these assemblages resulted from changes in morphology, areas and extinction of several species. The existence of different faunal elements was distinguished by the chronological and geographical change in the structure of mammalian assemblages. At the end of MIS 3 most of the cold-adapted species from the Mammuthus-Coelodonta faunal complex like Ursus ingressus, Panthera spelaea spelaea, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Bison priscus, and Megaloceros giganteus disappeared. During the second phase, at the latest Pleistocene and the Holocene boundary, all the species of the Mammuthus-Coelodonta faunal complex still not became extinct. Several species from this assemblage disappeared later in the Holocene. It should be noted that the role of the human in the changes of faunal complexes and species extinctions during the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene in the Sudety Mts cannot be so far demonstrated.

The Middle Pleistocene was a period of dynamic changes in Europe. During MIS 11, a number of modern mammal taxa appeared and environmental conditions remained warm and favourable for a relatively long time. The Medzhybizh 1 locality of Ukraine dated to this very period comprises alluvial deposits with rich animal remains, which allow not only to reconstruct the fauna composition, but also to highlight the environmental conditions that dominated at this locality. A revision of the fauna of Medzhybizh 1 locality based on remains of all vertebrate groups revealed a taxonomically diverse fish community (16 species of 11 genera) dominated by cyprinids common for lacustrine or riverine assemblages. Amphibians are represented by 11 species, while the number of reptile and bird remains are less significant. Mammals are the most represented group at the locality, including small mammals (30 species), carnivorans (2 species), and ungulates (5 taxa), the latter dominated by C. elaphus. The taxonomic composition of terrestrial groups indicates temperate climate with boreal-type forests and meadows similar to cold steppe, as well as low wet areas and riparian habitats inhabited by amphibians, reptiles, insectivores, beavers, and various voles. The fish assemblage indicates a partially overgrown but well-aerated water body (lake or slow-flowing river) with sandy-silty bottom. Lithic artefacts found at the Medzhybizh 1 locality contribute to a better understanding of relationships between ancient hominins and faunas during the Middle Pleistocene of Eastern Europe., Archaeological field works at Medzhybizh were supported by the NASU state research projects 0105U001383 (2005–2009), 0109U008921 (2010–2014) and partly funded by the State Fund of Fundamental Research of Ukraine grant 0118U001457 (F77/50–2018). This research was also supported by the grant 0201/2048/18 ‘Life and death of extinct rhino (Stephanorhinus sp.) from Western Poland: a multi-proxy palaeoenvironmental approach’ financed from the funds of the National Science Centre, Poland. JvdM received support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Inovación y Universidades (current grant numbers PGC2018-093925-B-C31 and PGC2018-095489-B-I00).

The Micoquian is the broadest and longest enduring cultural facies of the Late Middle Palaeolithic that spread across the periglacial and boreal environments of Europe between Eastern France, Poland, and Northern Caucasus. Here, we present new data from the archaeological record of Stajnia Cave (Poland) and the paleogenetic analysis of a Neanderthal molar S5000, found in a Micoquian context. Our results demonstrate that the mtDNA genome of Stajnia S5000 dates to MIS 5a making the tooth the oldest Neanderthal specimen from Central-Eastern Europe. Furthermore, S5000 mtDNA has the fewest number of differences to mtDNA of Mezmaiskaya 1 Neanderthal from Northern Caucasus, and is more distant from almost contemporaneous Neanderthals of Scladina and Hohlenstein-Stadel. This observation and the technological affinity between Poland and the Northern Caucasus could be the result of increased mobility of Neanderthals that changed their subsistence strategy for coping with the new low biomass environments and the increased foraging radius of gregarious animals. The Prut and Dniester rivers were probably used as the main corridors of dispersal. The persistence of the Micoquian techno-complex in South-Eastern Europe infers that this axis of mobility was also used at the beginning of MIS 3 when a Neanderthal population turnover occurred in the Northern Caucasus.

The Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), restricted today largely to South and Southeast Asia, was widespread throughout Eurasia and even reached North America during the Pleistocene. Like many other species, it suffered from a huge range loss towards the end of the Pleistocene and went extinct in most of its former distribution. The fossil record of the dhole is scattered and the identification of fossils can be complicated by an overlap in size and a high morphological similarity between dholes and other canid species. We generated almost complete mitochondrial genomes for six putative dhole fossils from Europe. By using three lines of evidence, i.e., the number of reads mapping to various canid mitochondrial genomes, the evaluation and quantification of the mapping evenness along the reference genomes and phylogenetic analysis, we were able to identify two out of six samples as dhole, whereas four samples represent wolf fossils. This highlights the contribution genetic data can make when trying to identify the species affiliation of fossil specimens. The ancient dhole sequences are highly divergent when compared to modern dhole sequences, but the scarcity of dhole data for comparison impedes a more extensive analysis.

Revision of the Silesian bear fauna, based on material from 152 sites, mainly cave and karstic localities, and also archaeological and open-air sites, shows the presence of 13 forms and species. These records encompass the last 16.5 Ma and may be divided into five main morphophyletic groups. The oldest bears, represented by the genera Ballusia and Ursavus , are dated to 16.5–11 Ma, and belonged to the stem forms of the subfamily Ursinae. After a break of 6 My, the earliest members of the genus Ursus appeared, and all known Pliocene bears in Silesia belong to the genus Ursus were identified as Ursus minimus . They represent one or two migration events. Additionally, between 3.6 and 3.2 Ma, a single occurrence of Agriotherium insigne was recorded from the Weze 1 site. A few Early Pleistocene bear records are represented by U. etruscus , which was a probable ancestor of both arctoid and spelaeoid bear lineages. The oldest representative of Ursus ex gr. arctos known so far and assigned to U. a. suessenbornensis is known from one latest Early Pleistocene (1.2–0.9 Ma) locality, while other Polish records of this form require confirmation. The first occurrence of U. deningeri , the oldest taxon within the U . ex gr. deningeri–spelaeus lineage, was recorded from ~700 ka deposits in Silesia. During the pronounced cold period of MIS 12, the Scandinavian ice sheet covered almost the entire modern territory of Poland, with the exception of the Sudetes and the Carpathians. The accompanying drastic faunal turnover led to the formation of the pan-Eurasian Mammoth Fauna at ~460 ka. At that time a characteristic member of this fauna, the steppe brown bear Ursus arctos priscus , a specific ecomorph adapted to live in open grasslands, appeared in this region. It survived until the beginning of MIS 1, when modern Ursus arctos arctos appeared in Silesia and survived to the present day. U. deningeri was the most common bear during the Middle Pleistocene, while the first records of U. spelaeus spelaeus appeared since MIS 7. The latter form was replaced by U. ingressus during the Late Pleistocene (~110–100 ka). Spelaeoid bears totally dominated the cave assemblage, and finally vanished between 27 and 24 ka.

Fossil bear material from the lowermost deposits of the Jasna Strzegowska cave is described and its taxonomic status assessed. Comparison with bear remains from other Early and early Middle Pleistocene localities of Eurasia shows the presence of two bear species: Ursus etruscus and U. deningeri , based on morphological and size characters of the teeth and postcranial bones. The teeth of U. deningeri from the Jasna Strzegowska cave are larger, wider and have much more complicated occlusal surfaces when compared with the teeth of U. etruscus . Both bear species are characterized by relatively short and robust metapodials, although those of U. etruscus are on average less massive. Some differences in muscle attachments and articular surfaces have also been found. Metapodials of primitive arctoid bears, that co-occurred with U. etruscus and U. deningeri , are much longer and slimmer. U. etruscus and U. deningeri probably did not live in the Jasna Strzegowska cave at the same time. Based on its time range in Eurasia and morphological characteristics, the age of U. etruscus is estimated as Early Pleistocene, between 1.8–1.3 Ma. This is its first description from Poland, and the remains described are in size and morphology indistinguishable from material from other European localities. For U. deningeri , an early Middle Pleistocene age is suggested.

Archeological and genetic evidence suggest that all domestic cats derived from the Near Eastern wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and were first domesticated in the Near East around 10,000 years ago. The spread of the domesticated form in Europe occurred much later, primarily mediated by Greek and Phoenician traders and afterward by Romans who introduced cats to Western and Central Europe around 2000 years ago. We investigated mtDNA of Holocene Felis remains and provide evidence of an unexpectedly early presence of cats bearing the Near Eastern wildcat mtDNA haplotypes in Central Europe, being ahead of Roman period by over 2000 years. The appearance of the Near Eastern wildcats in Central Europe coincides with the peak of Neolithic settlement density, moreover most of those cats belonged to the same mtDNA lineages as those domesticated in the Near East. Thus, although we cannot fully exclude that the Near Eastern wildcats appeared in Central Europe as a result of introgression with European wildcat, our findings support the hypothesis that the Near Eastern wildcats spread across Europe together with the first farmers, perhaps as commensal animals. We also found that cats dated to the Neolithic period belonged to different mtDNA lineages than those brought to Central Europe in Roman times, this supports the hypothesis that the gene pool of contemporary European domestic cats might have been established from two different source populations that contributed in different periods.

Results derived from the analysis of small carnivores from a burial chamber at the Late Neolithic Catalhoyuk (TP Area) shed light on the socioeconomic significance of stone martens (Martes foina), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and common weasels (Mustela nivalis). All of these are fur-bearing animals, though only the stone marten remains to show evidence that this animal was exploited for its pelt. The evidence consists of the observed skeletal bias (only the head parts and foot bones were present) and skinning marks. Two of five sets of articulated feet are most likely linked with an almost completely preserved human infant skeleton, one of two well-preserved skeletons that were interred on the burial chamber floor. In contrast to these, other human skeletons were found mostly incompletely preserved, though with evidence of articulation. It seems that the articulated forepaws were deliberately incorporated into the structure, most likely as a part of burial practice and ritual behavior. These distinctive deposits, along with rich grave goods, emphasize the uniqueness in the entire Anatolian Neolithic of the assemblage from the burial chamber, which is decorated by a panel incised with spiral motifs.

The steppe brown bear U. a. “priscus” is constant but not a common member of the Late Pleistocene paleocommunities. It is not distinct arctoid species, but a large brown bear ecomorph which lived in open environments. Instead to speleoid bears, which disappeared ca. 26-24 ka BP, arctoid bears, thanks to their ecological plasticity, were present in most of the European areas even during the cold phases. The size and diet of these bears were modified under the climate conditions and food availability. U. a. “priscus” cannot be distinguished genetically, but it differs metrically and morphologically. It was a big sized form with enlarged and broad cheek teeth. Late Pleistocene brown bears, especially those lived before the LGM were more carnivorous than the Holocene and recent brown bear. The steppe brown bear survived till the beginning of the Holocene, where the last relict populations lived around the Baltic and the North Sea decreasing in size and merging genetically with widely distributed Eurasian populations of U. a. arctos.

The Pleistocene lion Panthera spelaea was not a homogenous taxon; it was represented by three chronoforms. The oldest one, from the Early and Middle Pleistocene, was P. s. fossilis, the youngest was the Late Pleistocene cave lion P. s. spelaea. The intermediate form between them was P. s. intermedia. The scarcity of stratigraphically old lion made it difficult to understand the evolution of this carnivore. Therefore, we revised the fossil material of the Pleistocene lion from Polish excavation sites. The analysis revealed the presence of P. s. fossilis in 7 sites: Tunel Wielki, Poludniowa, Wschodnia, Draby, Biśnik, Deszczowa and Wierzchowska Gorna caves. The remains from these localities significantly differed in their average size and teeth proportions from the nominate younger chronoform, i.e. the cave lion. Using this material and all other available data, we compared the lion remains grouped into four palaeoclimate periods: MIS 17-12, MIS 11-9, MIS 8-6 and MIS 5-2. We found significant time-related trends in many morphometric features of dentition and limb bones. Between the first two periods, the lion became larger but from MIS 8, it gradually decreased in size. The teeth showed a much greater rate of changes than the metapodial bones, which in turn were characterised by more heterogeneous and mosaic evolution. The changes observed in the fossil material can result from in situ evolution of lion populations occupying Europe or immigration and replacement of the native forms by those from other regions, for example Asia.

Archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that all domestic cats derive from the Near Eastern wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and were domesticated twice, first in the Near East around 10 000 years ago and for the second time in Ancient Egypt ca. 3 500 years ago. The spread of the domesticated form in Europe occurred much later, primarily mediated by Greek and Phoenician traders and afterwards by Romans who introduced cats to Western and Central Europe around 2 000 years ago. We investigated mtDNA of Holocene Felis remains and provide evidence of an unexpectedly early presence of cats bearing the Near Eastern wildcat mtDNA haplotypes in Central Europe, being ahead of Roman Period by over 2 000 years. The appearance of the Near Eastern wildcats in Central Europe coincide with the peak of Neolithic settlement density, moreover most of those cats belonged to the same mtDNA lineages as those domesticated in the Near East. Thus, although we cannot fully exclude that the Near Eastern wildcats appeared in Central Europe as a result of introgression with European wildcat, our findings strongly support the hypothesis that the Near Eastern wildcats spread across Europe together with the first farmers, perhaps as commensal animals. We also found that cats dated to the Neolithic period belonged to different mtDNA lineages than those brought to Central Europe in Roman times, this supports the hypothesis that the gene pool of contemporary European domestic cats might have been established from two different source populations that contributed in different periods.

Coulet des Roches is a natural karst trap in Southern France. Its infilling dates back to the end of the Pleniglacial (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM) and the end of the Tardiglacial (Last Glacial, LG). Three mustelid species have been identified in this infilling: the common polecat (Mustela putorius, minimum number of individuals (MNI) = 4), the stoat (Mustela erminea, MNI = 14) and the weasel (Mustela nivalis, MNI = 48). The common polecat remains are metrically and morphologically indistinguishable from recent European specimens. The smallest mustelids are mainly represented by average-sized specimens, which are slightly smaller than extant species. A partial weasel skeleton of an extremely small pygmy weasel, regarded as a typical glacial element, was also discovered. Sexual dimorphism is strongly pronounced. Seventeen horses have been identified, corresponding to the chrono subspecies Equus ferus gallicus. The analysis of the muzzles and metapodials shows overall adaptation to cool and dry weather conditions. The ibexes are typical of Capra ibex (MNI = 15). The p3 morphology is similar to the LGM populations located on the southern side of the Durance River, with an important dilation of the metaconid, except for the oldest LGM specimen. This dilation is older on the southern side of the Durance River, as it occurs at the end of MIS 3. This difference could reflect the barrier role of the Durance River. Micromammals are abundant (mostly related to rodents and shrews; 18 genera/species; MNI = 470). The paleoecological study highlighted important and rapid climatic and environmental fluctuations throughout the sequence. As a result of climatic fluctuations, the plains constituted a corridor for the migration of temperate species to Provence during cold periods (“southern refuge zone”) and their re-immigration to Western Europe during temperate episodes. In a related and complementary way, the highland areas not only played a natural role as a geographical barrier, but also constituted a refuge zone during interglacial episodes for some micromammal species originating from northern and eastern parts of Europe (“cryptic southern refugia”).

The Stajnia Cave is one of the most important archaeological sites due to the finds of the first remains of Neanderthals in Poland, and several tens of thousands of flint artefacts from the Middle Palaeolithic. Based on geological, geochemical, palaeobotanical, palaeozoological, archaeological and isotope analyses, coupled with absolute age determinations (OSL, U-Th and C 14 ), 15 lithostratigraphic layers were distinguished and palaeoenvironmental conditions during the sedimentation of these beds were determined. The cave loams accumulated through weathering, aeolian and fluvial processes. Their age may be correlated with an interval from the Early Glacial to the Late Pleniglacial of the Visulian (Weichselian) Glaciation. Archaeological relics related to the Neanderthals have been discovered in layer D with an absolute age of about 52,000–45,000 years BP and correlated with MIS 3 – the Middle Plenivistulian (Interplenivistulian). Climate oscillations in the Vistulian are reflected by the type of the sediments and their physical-chemical features, allowing determining warmer interstadial and colder stadial periods. Generally, the climate was cold, characteristic of tundra areas with a typical vegetation and fauna, and with the mean temperature of the warmest month not exceeding 12°C. Based on multi-proxy studies it can be concluded that from layer E1 upwards, the climate conditions became progressively drier. At that time, the climate was cold with continental features enhancing tundra domination. This conclusion is confirmed by palaeontological investigations and the record of stable oxygen isotopes in the teeth of reindeer. The studies have also indicated seasonal migration of reindeer on the tundra that surrounded the cave. Probably, short-term slight climate warmings occurred during the Middle Plenivistulian (Interplenivistulian).

This study analyzed size changes in the course of the time among European Middle and Late Pleistocene lions. The general decreasing size as a tendency in cave lion evolution is confirmed. The whole time span of lion presence in Europe was divided into four main periods. The first period covers Middle and late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 19-17 to MIS 7-6) and is characterized by the presence of very large individuals with somewhat primitive morphology. It might be cautiously said that lions in that time were comparatively large throughout the Middle and late Middle Pleistocene. The second period included the last part of the late Middle and the beginning of the Late Pleistocene (MIS 6-5). This period is documented by a mixed presence of large individuals with somewhat primitive features together with smaller, evolutionarily more advanced dentition lions. The third period covers the first part of the last glacial, from MIS 5 to the beginning of MIS 3. For this period, the occurrence of moderate sized specimens with evolutionarily advanced dentition is documented. The last period began with dramatic population decline and genetic variability reduction. It lasted from MIS 3 and 2, and within it size drops sharply. Among moderate sized specimens, very small lions with somewhat lesser posture also appeared. Asian or African affinities as a result of a new migration event for those dwarf lions could not be ruled out. Size decrease showed that Panthera spelaea was a dynamically evolved species. Thus, the size does not seem to be a reliable criterion in determining the age of cave lion findings. The general overview is complicated by the great sexual dimorphism, local evolution and extinction, climatic conditions, and migrations. Size changes in P. spelaea evolution cannot be used as a useful biochronological tool.

The pre-Quaternary fossil record of Canis in the Old World is scarce, and the first appearance of this genus in Europe remains an enigma. Amongst the oldest fossils assigned to this genus, there is a natural cast of the brain (endocast) collected in Węże 1, Poland, from Pliocene deposits dated between 3.3 and 4.0 Ma. We reexamined this specimen and found that it differs from the brain of Canis in having its region medial to the coronal sulcus heart-shaped in dorsal view, its region rostral to the presylvian sulcus shorter and less constricted laterally, and its cerebellum less overlapped by the cerebrum and lacking a lateral twist of the posterior vermis. We identified this fossil, as well as another fossil canid endocast from Węże 1, as representing the raccoon dog genus Nyctereutes. The previously reported presence of Canis in Węże 1 is therefore not confirmed. Specifically, both endocasts can be referred to N. donnezani because this is the only species of Nyctereutes that has been recognised in this locality on the basis of craniomandibular and dental fossils. Our study represents a taxonomic application of comparative neuroanatomical and palaeoneurological data, an approach that may become increasingly useful with the growing knowledge of the endocranial morphology of fossil mammals.

The deposits of Biśnik Cave yielded numerous bear remains from sediments dated to the MIS 8–MIS 3 interval. This situation allowed examination of the paleoecology of Ursus spelaeus over time, compared with two other species of bears: Ursus deningeri and Ursus arctos, also present in fossil material from Biśnik Cave. The stable isotope ratios (δ13C, δ18O) in tooth enamel were applied in combination with examination of seasonal deposition of dental cementum. The δ13C values showed the diet of each bear species stayed in the range of C3 plants. Results for U. spelaeus showed a wider range of δ13C values than for U. deningeri or U. arctos. The values are relatively negative in comparison to fossil bears from other European sites. Low δ13C values observed in bears from Biśnik Cave could be linked to a canopy effect and document a forested environment for these bears. No correlation between δ18O and δ13C values was noted. The cementum analysis revealed that season of death of all species was winter and all studied specimens died during hibernation. The highest mortality concerned mostly individuals below 4 years old and the highest individual aged was U. deningeri.

In this paper, the evolution of wolves and deer is presented as expressed in changes in size and proportions in molars, metapodials and phalanges, which are well represented in the fossil record. This has two advantages: firstly, samples are often large, and secondly this is a taxon-free approach, focussing on the data, rather than presenting the lineages in the form of sequences of names of chrono species or subspecies. This allows more precise documentation of the changes. Occasionally rapid evolutionary changes are found, which mark a time slice and which have biochronologic value. Several canid and deer lineages were studied previously in this way, while others are presented for the first time here, and Polish material is incorporated in all. In some cases, the Polish material helps to improve the timing of the evolutionary events, while in others, the existing information is used to confirm or improve the dating of Polish localities.

Climate changes that occurred during the Late Pleistocene have profound effects on the distribution of many plant and animal species and influenced the formation of contemporary faunas and floras of Europe. The course and mechanisms of responses of species to the past climate changes are now being intensively studied by the use of direct radiocarbon dating and genetic analyses of fossil remains. Here, we review the advances in understanding these processes by the example of four mammal species: woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), cave bear (Ursus spelaeus s. l.), saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) and collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx ssp.). The cases discussed here as well as others show that the migrations, range shifts and local extinctions were the main responses to climate changes and that the dynamics of these climate driven processes were much more profound than it was previously thought. Each species reacted by its individual manner, which depended on its biology and adaptation abilities to the changing environment and climate conditions. The most severe changes in European ecosystems that affected the largest number of species took place around 33–31 ka BP, during the Last Glacial Maximum 22–19 ka BP and the Late Glacial warming 15–13 ka BP.

The cave bear (Ursus spelaeus sensu lato) is a typical representative of Pleistocene megafauna which became extinct at the end of the Last Glacial. Detailed knowledge of cave bear extinction could explain this spectacular ecological transformation. The paper provides a report on the youngest remains of the cave bear dated to 20,930 ± 140 14C years before present (BP). Ancient DNA analyses proved its affiliation to the Ursus ingressus haplotype. Using this record and 205 other dates, we determined, following eight approaches, the extinction time of this mammal at 26,100–24,300 cal. years BP. The time is only slightly earlier, i.e. 27,000–26,100 cal. years BP, when young dates without associated collagen data are excluded. The demise of cave bear falls within the coldest phase of the last glacial period, Greenland Stadial 3. This finding and the significant decrease in the cave bear records with cooling indicate that the drastic climatic changes were responsible for its extinction. Climate deterioration lowered vegetation productivity, on which the cave bear strongly depended as a strict herbivore. The distribution of the last cave bear records in Europe suggests that this animal was vanishing by fragmentation into subpopulations occupying small habitats. One of them was the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland in Poland, where we discovered the latest record of the cave bear and also two other, younger than 25,000 14C years BP. The relatively long survival of this bear in karst regions may result from suitable microclimate and continuous access to water provided by deep aquifers, indicating a refugial role of such regions in the Pleistocene for many species.

The Borsuka Cave is located in the southern part of Krakow-Czestochowa Up- land, about 20 km west of Krakow. During excavations conducted in 2008-2010 a very rare and interesting faunal assemblage from layer VI was found, dating to the Upper Pleniglacial. Among cold steppe-tundra or taiga species such as Rangifer tarandus, Vulpes alopex, Equus sp. or Coelodonta antiquitatis taxa adapted to forest environment were also found. Associated with them we found snails, such as Ena montana, Aegopi- nella pura and Perforatella incarnata; insectivores, like Sorex araneus, carnivores, such as Martes martes, Meles meles and Lynx cf. lynx; ungulates, like Alces alces and Bos primigenius and, among rodents, Clethrionomys glareolus, Apodemus sylvaticus/flavicol- lis and Castor fiber. This assemblage is the first from southern Poland during this time pe- riod to comprise such relatively rich material, and indicates the presence of forest adapted species at the end of the Upper Plenivistulian. No similar assemblages are known from other caves from the Krakow-Czestochowa Upland, and this suggests that during Late Pleistocene in a limited area of Poland, short episodes of forest formations could appear.

The fossil-bearing deposits of Żabia Cave (Czestochowa Upland, Poland) yielded a diverse vertebrate fauna (75 taxa in total) of middle Early Pleistocene age. The assemblage comprises 5 amphibian, 10 reptilian and 6 bird taxa. Small mammals are represented by13 insectivorous species, 6 taxa of bats, 2 lagomorphs and 18 rodents. Large mammals include 15 species of carnivores, an unidentified horse, and 3 even-toed ungulates. The assemblage contains few Pliocene relict forms (e.g. Mioproteus wezei, Asoriculus gibberodon, Beremendia fissidens, Mimomys pitymyoides, Pannonictis ardea) and numerous Early Pleistocene newcomers (e.g. Sorex runtonensis, Ochotona zabiensis, Prolagurus ternopolitanus, early Microtus, Gulo schlosseri, Lutra simplicidens, Cervalces carnutorum). The assemblage documents migration of species associated with cool climate into Central Europe in the middle Early Pleistocene.

The first leopard (Panthera pardus) from the Pleistocene of Poland was discovered in the sediments of Biœnik Cave. Bones show morphological and metric similarity to large specimens of the modern leopard. This finding provides evidence for the existence of the leopard in late Middle and early Late Pleistocene in Europe north of the Carpathian arch.

Two forms of cave lion Panthera spelaea GOLDFUSS, 1810: Middle Pleistocene Panthera spelaea fossilis REICHENAU, 1906 and Upper Pleistocene Panthera spelaea spelaea GOLDFUSS, 1810 are reported from the Bisnik Cave (Czþ estochowa Upland, Southern Poland). A detailed examination of tooth (particularly carnassials) and mandible morphology provides a basis to discuss the inferred size trend from the earlier, bigger P. s. fossilis to the smaller and more recent chronosubspecies P. s. spelaea. The original acquisition labels and detailed stratigraphy make it possible to place these finds within an updated stratigraphic and biochronological framework. The cave lion remains from the Bisnik Cave show that the large, primitive form fossilis was replaced by the more specialized form spelaea.

Investigations in four natural traps from southeastern France have provided new and extensive information on the palaeoenvironment from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 21,000 to 15,075 cal BP), the Late-glacial period (15,075 to 11,490 cal BP) and the beginning of Holocene (11,490 to 2835 cal BP). Radiocarbon and U/Th dates provided precise chronological data. In the Coulet des Roches, an LGM and a near complete Late-glacial period sequence were identified. The infilling preserved skeletons of large mammals, revealing a new faunal assemblage for southeastern France. For the first time, two distinct southern expansions of Dicrostonyx torquatus have been identified, correlated firstly to the LGM and secondly to the Late-glacial period. Dicrostonyx torquatus was found to be associated with Microtus oeconemus during the Oldest Dryas (15,075 to 18,270 cal BP). Morphological adaptations to the cold climate were indicated by some mammals (Vulpes vulpes, Mustela nivalis, Mustela erminea, Equus caballus gallicus). Among the birds, Bubo scandiacus and Pyrrhocorax graculus were found to be abundant. Palynological data suggested a very open landscape as well as a cold and rather dry climate. Rangifer tarandus remains were recovered from the Oldest Dryas layers of Aven des Planes. During the Allerod, a wooded environment permitted the dispersal of Cervus elaphus, Sus scrofa, Tetrao urogallus as well as reptiles and amphibians. Holocene sequences existed in these two natural traps as in Aven Souche n° 1 and n° 2. At this time, a sparsely wooded landscape covered much of the area. Cervus elaphus and Tetrao urogallus were still present with Canis lupus, Lynx lynx and Felis silvestris. Areas of open landscape were occupied by Otis tarda. During the Bronze Age (2200 to 800 cal BC) and Iron Age (800 to 50 cal BC), Aven des Planes, Aven Souche n° 1 and n° 2 were used by humans and had a sepulchral destination.

Estimates of genetic diversity and phylogenetic affiliation represent an important resource for biodiversity assessment and a valuable guide to conservation and management. We have found a new population (Jawor—JW) of the common hamster Cricetus cricetus in western Poland that is remote from the nearest populations by 235–300 km. With the objective of genetically characterizing of this population, we compared it with other populations from Poland and Germany by taking into account sequences of four mitochondrial DNA genes and variation at 10 microsatellite loci. The JW population exhibited low levels of genetic diversity and allelic and haplotype richness, which likely reflects its extreme isolation. This factor, coupled with inbreeding and genetic drift, are major threats to JW. A neighbor-joining tree based on mtDNA haplotypes shows that JW clusters among samples representing the Central subgroup that is known from central Germany but that has not yet been identified in Poland. Findings presented here improve our understanding of the spread and diversification of the common hamster. We offer the following hypotheses to explain the observed pattern of mtDNA haplotype distribution: JW could be a byproduct of postglacial migrations or back-migrations from eastern refugia to the western part of Europe, or/and be a result of population and habitat fragmentation. We recommend translocation of individuals as an effective management strategy, both at the level of Central phylogeographic group and at the species level, to overcome the negative consequences of inbreeding and geographical isolation of the JW population.