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Islands are biodiversity hotspots that host unique assemblages. However, a substantial proportion of island species are threatened and their long-term survival is uncertain. Identifying and preserving vulnerable species has become a priority, but it is also essential to combine this information with other facets of biodiversity like functional diversity, to understand how future extinctions might affect ecosystem stability and functioning. Focusing on mammals, we (i) assessed how much functional space would be lost if threatened species go extinct, (ii) determined the minimum number of extinctions that would cause a significant functional loss, (iii) identified the characteristics (e.g., biotic, climatic, geographic, or orographic) of the islands most vulnerable to future changes in the functional space, and (iv) quantified how much of that potential functional loss would be offset by introduced species. Using trait information for 1474 mammal species occurring in 318 islands worldwide, we built trait probability density functions to quantify changes in functional richness and functional redundancy in each island if the mammals categorized by IUCN as threatened disappeared. We found that the extinction of threatened mammals would reduce the functional space in 63% of the assessed islands, although these extinctions in general would cause a reduction of less than 15% of their overall functional space. Also, on most islands, the extinction of just a few species would be sufficient to cause a significant loss of functional diversity. The potential functional loss would be higher on small, isolated, and/or species-rich islands, and, in general, the functional space lost would not be offset by introduced species. Our results show that the preservation of native species and their ecological roles remains crucial for maintaining the current functioning of island ecosystems. Therefore, conservation measures considering functional diversity are imperative to safeguard the unique functional roles of threatened mammal species on islands., (Global Change Biology© 2024 The Author(s). Global Change Biology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Online digital data from media platforms have the potential to complement biodiversity monitoring efforts. We propose a strategy for integrating these data into current biodiversity datasets in light of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Soriano-Redondo et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Ongoing loss of biological diversity is primarily the result of unsustainable human behavior. Thus, the long-term success of biodiversity conservation depends on a thorough understanding of human-nature interactions. Such interactions are ubiquitous but vary greatly in time and space and are difficult to monitor efficiently at large spatial scales. However, the Information Age also provides new opportunities to better understand human-nature interactions because many aspects of daily life are recorded in a variety of digital formats. The emerging field of conservation culturomics aims to take advantage of digital data sources and methods to study human-nature interactions and thus to provide new tools for studying conservation at relevant temporal and spatial scales. Nevertheless, technical challenges associated with the identification, access, and analysis of relevant data hamper the wider adoption of culturomics methods. To help overcome these barriers, we propose a conservation culturomics research framework that addresses data acquisition, analysis, and inherent biases. The main sources of culturomic data include web pages, social media, and other digital platforms from which metrics of content and engagement can be obtained. Obtaining raw data from these platforms is usually desirable but requires careful consideration of how to access, store, and prepare the data for analysis. Methods for data analysis include network approaches to explore connections between topics, time-series analysis for temporal data, and spatial modeling to highlight spatial patterns. Outstanding challenges associated with culturomics research include issues of interdisciplinarity, ethics, data biases, and validation. The practical guidance we offer will help conservation researchers and practitioners identify and obtain the necessary data and carry out appropriate analyses for their specific questions, thus facilitating the wider adoption of culturomics approaches for conservation applications., (© 2021 The Authors. Conservation Biology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Conservation Biology.)

Digital data are accumulating at unprecedented rates. These contain a lot of information about the natural world, some of which can be used to answer key ecological questions. Here, we introduce iEcology (i.e., internet ecology), an emerging research approach that uses diverse online data sources and methods to generate insights about species distribution over space and time, interactions and dynamics of organisms and their environment, and anthropogenic impacts. We review iEcology data sources and methods, and provide examples of potential research applications. We also outline approaches to reduce potential biases and improve reliability and applicability. As technologies and expertise improve, and costs diminish, iEcology will become an increasingly important means to gain novel insights into the natural world., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Apps are small task-orientated programs with the potential to integrate the computational and sensing capacities of smartphones with the power of cloud computing, social networking, and crowdsourcing. They have the potential to transform how humans interact with nature, cause a step change in the quantity and resolution of biodiversity data, democratize access to environmental knowledge, and reinvigorate ways of enjoying nature. To assess the extent to which this potential is being exploited in relation to nature, we conducted an automated search of the Google Play Store using 96 nature-related terms. This returned data on ~36 304 apps, of which ~6301 were nature-themed. We found that few of these fully exploit the full range of capabilities inherent in the technology and/or have successfully captured the public imagination. Such breakthroughs will only be achieved by increasing the frequency and quality of collaboration between environmental scientists, information engineers, computer scientists, and interested publics.

Analyses of species-diversity patterns of remote islands have been crucial to the development of biogeographic theory, yet little is known about corresponding patterns in functional traits on islands and how, for example, they may be affected by the introduction of exotic species. We collated trait data for spiders and beetles and used a functional diversity index (FRic) to test for nonrandomness in the contribution of endemic, other native (also combined as indigenous), and exotic species to functional-trait space across the nine islands of the Azores. In general, for both taxa and for each distributional category, functional diversity increases with species richness, which, in turn scales with island area. Null simulations support the hypothesis that each distributional group contributes to functional diversity in proportion to their species richness. Exotic spiders have added novel trait space to a greater degree than have exotic beetles, likely indicating greater impact of the reduction of immigration filters and/or differential historical losses of indigenous species. Analyses of species occurring in native-forest remnants provide limited indications of the operation of habitat filtering of exotics for three islands, but only for beetles. Although the general linear (not saturating) pattern of trait-space increase with richness of exotics suggests an ongoing process of functional enrichment and accommodation, further work is urgently needed to determine how estimates of extinction debt of indigenous species should be adjusted in the light of these findings.

The term hot cave is used to describe some subterranean chambers in the Neotropics that are characterized by constantly high ambient temperatures generated by the body heat of high densities of certain bat species. Many of these species have limited geographic ranges, and some occur only in the hot-cave environment. In addition to the bats, the stable microclimate and abundant bat guano provides refuge and food for a high diversity of invertebrates. Hot caves have so far been described in the Caribbean and in a few isolated locations from Mexico to Brazil, although there is some evidence that similar caves may be present throughout the tropics. The existing literature suggests these poorly known ecosystems, with their unique combination of geomorphology and bat-generated microclimate, are particularly sensitive to disturbance and face multiple threats from urbanization, agricultural development, mining, and tourism., (©2012 Society for Conservation Biology.)

The last two decades have seen a conceptual shift within environmental and social sciences from an emphasis on ecosystem stability and balance to an acknowledgement of the importance of flux and change in the natural world. This has profound implications for conservation management and policy and has driven an (incomplete) transition from managing to maintain (bio)diversity and ecological stability at some historically derived "optimum" to managing to maintain important ecosystem and evolutionary processes such as nutrient cycles and migration. Here, we investigate whether this change from a "balance of nature" metaphor to a more dynamic perspective ("flux of nature") is reflected in the representation of conservation and ecosystem management in the news media, the Internet, and the academic literature. We found that the media and the global Internet community still portray the aim of conservation science and of conservationists as being one of maintaining stability, harmony and balance.

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In our opinion, rapid implementation of effective community-based management practices for these forest remnants may be the only hope for conserving their biodiversity while also supporting the collective empowerment and welfare of the communities who depend on them. Community managed forests and forest protected areas: an assessment of their conservation effectiveness across the tropics. Keywords: Biodiversity; community-based management; natural resources; sacred groves; social resilience; West Africa EN Biodiversity community-based management natural resources sacred groves social resilience West Africa 152 155 4 08/18/23 20230901 NES 230901 Sacred forests often comprise the last remaining native patches in the landscape, making them especially important reserves of natural resources for both local communities and biodiversity. [Extracted from the article]

Summary: Protected areas are frequently used loci for ecological and conservation research, with several national/international designations identifying scientific research as a key objective. For example, Ecological Stations (ESs) in Brazil are strictly protected areas with the explicit goals of protecting nature and hosting scientific research. Nevertheless, simply mandating scientific research does not necessarily translate into action. Here, we quantitatively assess the scientific productivity of ESs and identify the main socio-ecological factors associated with different levels of scientific research. Specifically, we adopt a multi-model inference approach with a hurdle regression model to independently evaluate the factors associated with the presence/absence of research and the volume of studies in ESs. Surprisingly, given their stated remit, a large proportion of ESs had little or no scientific productivity. Results also indicate that older ESs were more likely to be associated with published research and that the volume of publications was associated with the number of years since the first article was published. The presence of a management plan and a management council were also significant positive drivers of research. Our results strongly suggest that, despite their clear mandate, ESs are not effectively fulfilling their role as a policy instrument for generating valuable scientific data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Caatinga is an ecologically unique semi-arid region of northeast Brazil characterized by high levels of endemism and severe anthropogenic threats from agricultural development and climate change. It is also one of the least known biomes in Brazil due to a combination of inadequate investment, low regional research capacity and difficult working conditions. However, while the lack of scientific knowledge of the Caatinga is well known, the spatial and temporal distribution of knowledge production has not been investigated. This is important because such biases undermine the development of effective conservation policy and practice and increase the uncertainty associated with conservation actions. Here, we map the geography of conservation knowledge production in the Caatinga and use an innovative hurdle model to identify the presumptive factors driving these patterns. Our analysis revealed strong geographic patterns, with research sites concentrated in the east of the region and in areas close to roads and research centres. There was also a positive association between conservation knowledge production and risk of desertification, indicating that conservation scientists are responding to conservation challenges faced by Caatinga’s fauna and flora arising from climate change. Our results also highlight the pivotal role of pioneer scientists (those who develop research sites in previously unstudied/understudied areas) in determining the future geographic patterns of knowledge production. We conclude our article with a brief discussion of potential policies for increasing the spatial representativeness of conservation research in this remarkable ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main strategies to reduce the global loss of biodiversity has been the establishment of protected areas (PAs). High quality biodiversity knowledge is essential to successfully design PAs and PA networks, and to assess their conservation effectiveness. However, biodiversity knowledge is taxonomically and geographically biased. Even though PAs are typically more intensively surveyed than surrounding landscapes, they cannot avoid biodiversity knowledge shortfalls and biases. To investigate this, we performed a systematic literature review to assess publication trends in global biodiversity research taking place in PAs. Our data indicate that animals are more studied than plants, with vertebrates overrepresented in relation to invertebrates. Biodiversity in PAs has been mainly measured taxonomically (species richness or species diversity), while functional and phylogenetic diversity have rarely been considered. Finally, as predicted, there was a geographic bias towards European and USA terrestrial protected areas. These observed trends mirror more general studies of biodiversity knowledge shortfalls and could have direct negative consequences for conservation policy and practice. Reducing these biases and shortfalls is essential for more effective use of limited conservation resources. • A literature review showed biases in biodiversity knowledge of protected areas. • Animals (especially vertebrates) are more studied than plants in protected areas. • Diversity in protected areas has been mainly measured from a taxonomic perspective. • There are geographic biases towards European and USA protected areas. • Comprehensive biodiversity knowledge is needed to optimize conservation resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial and/or temporal biases in biodiversity data can directly influence the utility, comparability, and reliability of ecological and evolutionary studies. While the effects of biased spatial coverage of biodiversity data are relatively well known, temporal variation in data quality (i.e., the congruence between recorded and actual information) has received much less attention. Here, we develop a conceptual framework for understanding the influence of time on biodiversity data quality based on three main processes: (1) the natural dynamics of ecological systems-such as species turnover or local extinction; (2) periodic taxonomic revisions, and; (3) the loss of physical and metadata due to inefficient curation, accidents, or funding shortfalls. Temporal decay in data quality driven by these three processes has fundamental consequences for the usage and comparability of data collected in different time periods. Data decay can be partly ameliorated by adopting standard protocols for generation, storage, and sharing data and metadata. However, some data degradation is unavoidable due to natural variations in ecological systems. Consequently, changes in biodiversity data quality over time need be carefully assessed and, if possible, taken into account when analyzing aging datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazilian environmental law (the Forest Code) compels large landowners to conserve a proportion of forest on their properties, often necessitating restoration of degraded habitat. Sugar cane producers have been active participants in these restoration projects, especially in the northeast region where sugar cane has largely replaced the exceptionally biodiverse Atlantic forest. Despite the potential conservation importance of such restoration projects there have been few evaluations of their outcomes. Here, we assess sugar cane company restoration projects in an Atlantic rainforest region of northeast Brazil. Specifically, we assess the ability of restoration projects to: (i) restore species diversity and vegetation structure; (ii) increase connectivity between forest fragments, and; (iii) restore assemblage composition. Restored areas contained approximately half the species richness of remnant fragments and had a substantially different species composition. Moreover, the density of trees in restored areas was a third of that in remnants, despite a very similar height profile. The currently poor outcomes of Atlantic Forest restoration projects in northeast Brazil are a consequence of a severely limited capacity for natural regeneration and poor restoration practices. We conclude by identifying possible strategies to improve the quality of privately financed restoration projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists are increasingly using big-data approaches to tackle questions at large spatial, taxonomic, and temporal scales. However, despite recent efforts to gather two centuries of biodiversity inventories into comprehensive databases, many crucial research questions remain unanswered. Here, we update the concept of knowledge shortfalls and review the tradeoffs between generality and uncertainty. We present seven key shortfalls of current biodiversity data. Four previously proposed shortfalls pinpoint knowledge gaps for species taxonomy (Linnean), distribution (Wallacean), abundance (Prestonian), and evolutionary patterns (Darwinian). We also redefine the Hutchinsonian shortfall to apply to the abiotic tolerances of species and propose new shortfalls relating to limited knowledge of species traits (Raunkiæran) and biotic interactions (Eltonian). We conclude with a general framework for the combined impacts and consequences of shortfalls of large-scale biodiversity knowledge for evolutionary and ecological research and consider ways of overcoming the seven shortfalls and dealing with the uncertainty they generate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Using survey data for North American birds, we assess how well historical patterns of species richness are explained by stacked species distribution models and macroecological models. We then describe the degree to which projections of future species richness differ, employing both modelling approaches across multiple emissions scenarios. Location USA and Canada. Methods We use Audubon Christmas Bird Count and North American Breeding Bird Survey data to estimate current and future species richness of birds using two distinct approaches. In the first, we model richness by stacking predictions from individual species distribution models. In the second, we model richness directly, ignoring the contributions of specific taxa to richness estimates. Results The two modelling approaches show similar accuracies when validated with historical observations, particularly winter observations, and result in similar patterns of richness when projected onto current and future climate spaces. Patterns of projected change in species richness differed markedly between winter and summer seasons regardless of modelling approach. Our models suggest that bird species richness in winter will increase or remain stable across much of North America. In contrast, species richness in summer is projected to decrease over much of North America, except part of northern Canada, suggesting that climate may constrain many breeding bird species and communities in the future. Main conclusions Stacked species distribution models and macroecological models produce similar estimates of current and future species richness for each of two seasons despite being built on different concepts of community assembly. Our results suggest that, although the mechanisms that shape geographical variation in biodiversity remain uncertain, these limitations do not impede our ability to predict patterns of species richness at broad scales. Congruence of species richness projections across modelling approaches is encouraging for conservation planning efforts that focus on retaining biodiversity into the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots are areas of high vascular plant endemism combined with high levels of habitat destruction and land use change. Although such hotspots have also been shown to be centres for terrestrial vertebrate endemism, much less is known about how well these areas function as hotspots for other less well-studied groups, including the hyperdiverse arthropods, other invertebrates and fungi. Because there is a close evolutionary and ecological relationship between insects and plants, we suggest that the potential role of plants as umbrella species for herbivorous insects, potentially herbivorous fungi and nematodes, and parasitic insects should be explored. Finally, we reflect on the increasing social, economic, human conflict and governance issues and the impacts of increasing land use change and global climate change that threaten the biodiversity hotspot system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical habitat complexity regulates the structure and function of biological communities, although the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Urbanisation, pollution, unsustainable resource exploitation and climate change have resulted in the widespread simplification (and loss) of habitats worldwide. One way to restore physical complexity to anthropogenically simplified habitats is through the use of artificial substrates, which also offer excellent opportunities to explore the effects of different components (variables) of complexity on biodiversity and community structure that would be difficult to separate in natural systems. Here, we describe a software program (CASU) that enables users to visualise static, physical complexity. CASU also provides output files that can be used to create artificial substrates for experimental and/or restoration studies. It has two different operational modes: simple and advanced. In simple mode, users can adjust the five main variables of informational complexity (i.e. the number of object types, relative abundance of object types, density of objects, variability and range in the objects’ dimensions, and their spatial arrangement) and visualise the changes as they do so. The advanced mode allows users to design artificial substrates by fine-tuning the complexity variables as well as alter object-specific parameters. We illustrate how CASU can be used to create tiles of different designs for application in a marine environment. Such an ability to systematically influence physical complexity could greatly facilitate ecological restoration by allowing conservationists to rebuild complexity in degraded and simplified habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We collate and analyse data for land snail diversity and endemism, as a means of testing the explanatory power of the general dynamic model of oceanic island biogeography ( GDM): a theoretical model linking trends in species immigration, speciation and extinction to a generalized island ontogeny. Location Eight oceanic archipelagos: Azores, Canaries, Hawaii, Galápagos, Madeira, Samoa, Society, Tristan da Cunha. Methods Using data obtained from literature sources we examined the power of the GDM through its derivative ATT2 model (i.e. diversity metric = b1 + b2Area + b3Time + b4Time2), in comparison with all the possible simpler models, e.g. including only area or time. The diversity metrics considered were the number of (1) native species, (2) archipelagic endemic species, and (3) single-island endemic species. Models were evaluated using both log-transformed and untransformed diversity data by means of linear mixed effect models. For Hawaii and the Canaries, responses of different major taxonomic groups were also analysed separately. Results The ATT2 model was always included within the group of best models and, in many cases, was the single-best model and was particularly successful in fitting the log-transformed diversity metrics. In four archipelagos, a hump-shaped relationship with time (island age) is apparent, while the other four archipelagos show a general increase of species richness with island age. In Hawaii and the Canaries outcomes vary between different taxonomic groups. Main conclusions The GDM is an intentionally simplified representation of environmental and diversity dynamics on oceanic islands, which predicts a simple positive relationship between diversity and island area combined with a humped response to time. We find broad support for the applicability of this model, especially when a full range of island developmental stages is present. However, our results also show that the varied mechanisms of island origins and the differing responses of major taxa should be taken into consideration when interpreting diversity metrics in terms of the GDM. This heterogeneity is reflected in the fact that no single model outperforms all the other models for all datasets analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim MacArthur and Wilson’s dynamic equilibrium model of island biogeography provides a powerful framework for understanding the ecological processes acting on insular populations. However, their model is known to be less successful when applied to systems and processes operating on evolutionary and geological timescales. Here, we present a general dynamic model (GDM) of oceanic island biogeography that aims to provide a general explanation of biodiversity patterns through describing the relationships between fundamental biogeographical processes – speciation, immigration, extinction – through time and in relation to island ontogeny. Location Analyses are presented for the Azores, Canaries, Galápagos, Marquesas and Hawaii. Methods We develop a theoretical argument from first principles using a series of graphical models to convey key properties and mechanisms involved in the GDM. Based on the premises (1) that emergent properties of island biotas are a function of rates of immigration, speciation and extinction, (2) that evolutionary dynamics predominate in large, remote islands, and (3) that oceanic islands are relatively short-lived landmasses showing a characteristic humped trend in carrying capacity (via island area, topographic variation, etc.) over their life span, we derive a series of predictions concerning biotic properties of oceanic islands. We test a subset of these predictions using regression analyses based largely on data sets for native species and single-island endemics (SIEs) for particular taxa from each archipelago, and using maximum island age estimates from the literature. The empirical analyses test the power of a simple model of diversity derived from the GDM: the log(Area) + Time + Time2 model (ATT2), relative to other simpler time and area models, using several diversity metrics. Results The ATT2 model provides a more satisfactory explanation than the alternative models evaluated (for example the standard diversity–area models) in that it fits a higher proportion of the data sets tested, although it is not always the most parsimonious solution. Main conclusions The theoretical model developed herein is based on the key dynamic biological processes (migration, speciation, extinction) combined with a simple but general representation of the life cycle of oceanic islands, providing a framework for explaining patterns of biodiversity, endemism and diversification on a range of oceanic archipelagos. The properties and predictions derived from the model are shown to be broadly supported (1) by the empirical analyses presented, and (2) with reference to previous phylogenetic, ecological and geological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogeography is a vibrant academic discipline that plays an important role in framing and directing debates on some of the most important environmental issues of our time, such as the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, biotic homogenization and the effectiveness of global conservation policy. Despite this, biogeography suffers from a low public profile and may consequently be poorly understood by the public. Here I review the representation of the term biogeography, and a selection of biogeographers in the public sphere (newspapers, websites, blogs) and the academic sphere (journals and reports) to understand more fully the public perception of the discipline. As anticipated, the survey suggests that the term ‘biogeography’ has little public currency, and that the public still largely associate the subject area with either eminent Victorians such as A.R. Wallace or modern greats such as E.O. Wilson. I conclude by discussing the potential consequences of the virtual absence of biogeography from public discourse for education and professional biogeographers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate about poverty and conservation draws mainly on local case studies, particularly of the impacts of protected areas. Although it is clear that local and contingent variables have important effects on the social and economic impacts of protected area establishment, it is not known whether there is a general relationship between national wealth and the area, number and type of protected area designated. Here we conduct such an analysis. Our results suggest that wealthy countries have a larger number of protected areas of smaller size than poorer countries. However, we find few significant relationships between indicators of poverty and the extent of protected areas at a national scale. Our analysis therefore confirms that relationships between poverty and conservation action are dynamic and locally specific. This conclusion has implications for opposing positions within the debate on poverty and conservation. Critics of conservation who build upon local case studies to argue that protected areas make a significant contribution to poverty risk exaggerating the scale of the problem. However, conservation advocates also need to temper their enthusiasm. Outcomes in which both poverty alleviation and conservation goals are achieved may be possible in specific circumstances but clear choices will often need to be made between conservation and livelihood goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Concern over the implications of climate change for biodiversity has led to the use of species–climate ‘envelope’ models to forecast risks of species extinctions under climate change scenarios. Recent studies have demonstrated significant variability in model projections and there remains a need to test the accuracy of models and to reduce uncertainties. Testing of models has been limited by a lack of data against which projections of future ranges can be tested. Here we provide a first test of the predictive accuracy of such models using observed species’ range shifts and climate change in two periods of the recent past. Location Britain. Methods Observed range shifts for 116 breeding bird species in Britain between 1967 and 1972 ( t1) and 1987–91 ( t2) are used. We project range shifts between t1 and t2 for each species based on observed climate using 16 alternative models (4 methods × 2 data parameterizations × 2 rules to transform probabilities of occurrence into presence and absence records). Results Modelling results were extremely variable, with projected range shifts varying both in magnitude and in direction from observed changes and from each other. However, using approaches that explore the central tendency (consensus) of model projections, we were able to improve agreement between projected and observed shifts significantly. Conclusions Our results provide the first empirical evidence of the value of species–climate ‘envelope’ models under climate change and demonstrate reduction in uncertainty and improvement in accuracy through selection of the most consensual projections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is general agreement among scientists that biodiversity is under assault on a global basis and that species are being lost at a greatly enhanced rate. This article examines the role played by biogeographical science in the emergence of conservation guidance and makes the case for the recognition of Conservation Biogeography as a key subfield of conservation biology delimited as:the application of biogeographical principles, theories, and analyses, being those concerned with the distributional dynamics of taxa individually and collectively, to problems concerning the conservation of biodiversity.Conservation biogeography thus encompasses both a substantial body of theory and analysis, and some of the most prominent planning frameworks used in conservation. Considerable advances in conservation guidelines have been made over the last few decades by applying biogeographical methods and principles. Herein we provide a critical review focussed on the sensitivity to assumptions inherent in the applications we examine. In particular, we focus on four inter-related factors: (i) scale dependency (both spatial and temporal); (ii) inadequacies in taxonomic and distributional data (the so-called Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls); (iii) effects of model structure and parameterisation; and (iv) inadequacies of theory. These generic problems are illustrated by reference to studies ranging from the application of historical biogeography, through island biogeography, and complementarity analyses to bioclimatic envelope modelling. There is a great deal of uncertainty inherent in predictive analyses in conservation biogeography and this area in particular presents considerable challenges. Protected area planning frameworks and their resulting map outputs are amongst the most powerful and influential applications within conservation biogeography, and at the global scale are characterised by the production, by a small number of prominent NGOs, of bespoke schemes, which serve both to mobilise funds and channel efforts in a highly targeted fashion. We provide a simple typology of protected area planning frameworks, with particular reference to the global scale, and provide a brief critique of some of their strengths and weaknesses. Finally, we discuss the importance, especially at regional scales, of developing more responsive analyses and models that integrate pattern (the compositionalist approach) and processes (the functionalist approach) such as range collapse and climate change, again noting the sensitivity of outcomes to starting assumptions. We make the case for the greater engagement of the biogeographical community in a programme of evaluation and refinement of all such schemes to test their robustness and their sensitivity to alternative conservation priorities and goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We generate novel public interest metrics for protected areas (PAs) using Wikipedia data. • National and International public interest in Brazilian PAs are driven by the same factors. • Larger and older PAs close to human populations have higher public interest. • Wikipedia data has enormous potential for near real-time monitoring of public interest in PAs. • Low levels of public interest leave PAs vulnerable to developmental pressures. Protected Areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of global conservation action and the most effective strategy for conserving the Earth's biodiversity. Nevertheless, there is evidence that PAs are increasingly viewed by politicians and policy-makers as opportunity costs that constrain economic development. In the absence of societal resistance ('push-back') in the form of campaigns and/or lobbying, such attitudes leave many PAs vulnerable to downgrading, downsizing or degazettement (PADDD). The potential to mobilize public support for any given PA is difficult to directly measure, but is likely to be strongly correlated with contemporary levels of public interest and awareness. Here, we use Wikipedia page views (PVs) as a novel digital metric of public interest in PAs and demonstrate its utility through an analysis of Brazilian PAs. Because Brazil accounts for the vast majority of the World's Portuguese speakers, we were able to generate separate metrics for national (PVs of Portuguese editions) and international (PVs of English editions) interest. We found that both national and international public interest is highest for larger, older PAs, especially National Parks. These results possibly reflect a historical bias towards designating the most iconic areas in the country first, with less scenic and more contested areas designated more recently. We also found that many PAs do not have a Wikipedia page, and many of those that do are rarely viewed by the public. The apparent low level of interest in these parks leaves them particularly vulnerable to development threats and, in our opinion, needs to be urgently addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amphibians are very diverse, widely distributed, and the most endangered class of vertebrates. As with other taxa, effective conservation of amphibians needs to be supported by detailed scientific knowledge. However, species rich and broadly distributed taxa are typically characterized by high variability in research effort. Our objective was therefore to understand which factors (ecological and cultural) have led some amphibian species to be more researched than others. We used two proxies of research effort: i) the total number of articles on Web of Science (WoS) that mention the scientific name (or synonyms) of each species, and; ii) the number of conservation science articles on WoS that mention the scientific name (or synonyms) of each species. These measures were used as dependent variables in zero hurdle regression models with the aim of identifying the most important factors driving species-level knowledge production. Well researched species (generally, and for conservation) tend to have a longer history of scientific research, come from countries with high scientific capacity, have large body size, and to be present in man-made habitats. Endangered species tend to be less researched, generally and for conservation, possibly because they are often more difficult to study: many endangered amphibians are restricted to small, fragmented and remote habitats in countries with low scientific capacity. We conclude with a discussion of how taxonomic biases in research effort on amphibians can be addressed given the limited funds available for conservation research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas (PAs) are the main strategy to conserve natural values and reduce biodiversity loss. However, with increasing global food requirements, using land for protecting landscapes and species is becoming increasingly difficult to justify. Here, we argue that framing PAs as spatial assets provides an ideal platform for generating investment and increasing their political/cultural resilience. Specifically, we define and characterize PAs in terms of their biophysical, human, infrastructure, institutional and cultural assets, making explicit the forms of value they create and for whom, and identifying types of investment needed to generate value in the medium and long term. These assets can be protected, managed and/or invested in to generate (monetizable and non-monetizable) forms of value. They can also be at risk from a variety of factors. Building on contemporary conservation policy, our asset framework provides an innovative approach to the development and management of PAs in the 21st Century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing global biodiversity crisis not only involves biological extinctions, but also the loss of experience and the gradual fading of cultural knowledge and collective memory of species. We refer to this phenomenon as 'societal extinction of species' and apply it to both extinct and extant taxa. We describe the underlying concepts as well as the mechanisms and factors that affect this process, discuss its main implications, and identify mitigation measures. Societal extinction is cognitively intractable, but it is tied to biological extinction and thus has important consequences for conservation policy and management. It affects societal perceptions of the severity of anthropogenic impacts and of true extinction rates, erodes societal support for conservation efforts, and causes the loss of cultural heritage. Just as population declines may lead to biological extinction, the decline of collective attention and memory may lead to the societal extinction of species. Direct and vicarious experiences with species affect their societal salience and likelihood of societal extinction. Societal extinctions affect perceptions of the environment, lead to a shifting baseline syndrome, hinder establishment of more ambitious conservation/restoration targets, and diminish support for conservation efforts. Several mitigation actions, relying predominantly on conservation education and marketing, are needed to reduce or reverse the societal extinction of species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Knowledge of Namibia's mainland fauna species distributions on GBIF is still very low and patchy. • Ignorance scores are a recent approach for easily quantifying and visualising gaps and biases in biodiversity data. • A large proportion of Namibia has few or no records for reference taxonomic groups. • Birds records are a notable exception, possibly due to the influx of data from citizen science platform. Effective conservation efforts and predictions of future impacts on biodiversity depend heavily on publicly available information about species distributions. However, data on species distributions is often patchy, especially in many countries of the Global South where resources for biological surveys have been historically limited. In this study, we use biodiversity ignorance scores to quantify and visualize gaps and biases in biodiversity data for Namibia, with a focus on five terrestrial taxa at a spatial scale of 10 x 10 km. We model the relationship between ignorance scores and socio-geographical variables using generalized additive models for location, scale and shape (GAMLSS). Our findings demonstrate that despite a high volume of occurrence records available on the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), publicly available knowledge of Namibia's terrestrial biodiversity remains very limited, with large areas contributing few or no records for key taxa. The exception is birds that have benefitted from a massive influx of data from the citizen science platform eBird. Our study also highlights the importance of citizen science initiatives for biodiversity knowledge and reinforces the usefulness of ignorance scores as a simple intuitive indicator of the relative availability and distribution of species occurrence records. However, further research, biological surveys, and renewed efforts to make existing data held by museums and other institutions widely available are still necessary to enhance biodiversity data coverage in countries with patchy data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Culturomics is an emerging area of study that explores human culture through the quantitative analysis of large digital bodies of text. Culturomics shows great potential for the study of public perceptions and engagement with nature and biodiversity, and thus to contribute to the assessment and monitoring of major conservation goals (e.g. Aichi Target 1). In order to realize the full potential of culturomic approaches for conservation applications, researchers must develop solutions for existing methodological issues. For example, the use of scientific binomial names in species assessments has been recently proposed as a means to account for linguistic challenges associated with vernacular names, such as synonyms and homonyms. However, scientific names can also be affected by scientific synonyms arising from changes in species nomenclature. Here, we focus on a culturomic assessment of internet content and evaluate the importance of considering scientific name synonyms in such assessments. For this, we estimated how much omitting taxonomic synonyms affected webpage retrieval for bird species. Results indicate that failing to consider synonyms affected the number of webpages retrieved for over half of the species considered. In some cases, such omissions were severe (over 50% of total webpages omitted) and increased with the number of synonyms identified. We discuss the challenges posed by the dynamic nature of taxonomy in efforts to evaluate public interest in species using culturomic approaches and suggest that future studies should always strive to identify and account for any existing synonyms to minimize potential problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public interest in nature is an important driver of the success of conservation actions, such that increasing public awareness of biodiversity has become a major conservation goal (i.e. Aichi Target 1). Macro-scale monitoring of public interest towards nature has thus far been difficult, but the enormous quantity of information generated by the internet allows for new approaches using culturomic techniques. For example, other things being equal, we would expect that the vernacular (common) names of charismatic species with high levels of public interest (e.g. tiger, elephant) to appear on more web-pages than less ‘cultural’ species. Nevertheless, deriving metrics from such data is challenging because vernacular names often have multiple meanings (e.g. teal, jaguar) that could significantly bias culturomic metrics of cultural visibility. Scientific binomial names of species potentially avoid this problem because Latin is a ‘dead’ language and the scientific name typically applies only to the biological organism. Here, we investigate whether standard scientific names: i) are a robust proxy of web salience of vernacular species names, and; ii) have the same statistical relationship with vernacular species names across different cultural and language groups. Automated internet searches were carried out for scientific and vernacular names from a global bird species list and six national bird species lists (Australia, Brazil, Indonesia, Spain, Tanzania and USA). For national searches the results were restricted to country web domains. We found strong and consistent correlations between vernacular and scientific species names at both global and country level, independent of language and cultural differences. The universality of this relationship suggests that the web salience of scientific species names is a robust, cross-cultural indicator of species ‘culturalness’. Potential applications of this indicator include: i) the development of new indicators to assess public perceptions of biodiversity; ii) systematic identification of species with high cultural visibility; iii) empirical identification of the biogeographic, ecological, morphological and cultural characteristics of species that influence cultural visibility, globally and in different cultural settings, and; iv) near real-time monitoring of changes in species ‘culturalness’. The capture and processing of internet data is technically non-trivial, but can be replicated at low cost and has enormous potential for the creation of new macro-scale metrics of human-nature interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ignorance scores are a novel algorithm to explore digital biodiversity knowledge. • We used ignorance scores to explore GBIF species records for the Caatinga. • Our analysis reveals taxonomic and spatial biases in available species records. • Accessibility and convenience are associated with recording effort in the Caatinga. • Ignorance scores are a simple but useful indicator of species recording effort. The availability of quality information about species distributions is clearly central to the development of successful conservation efforts. Digital records of species occurrences are increasingly available and have been used in a number of conservation applications, such as species distribution models and conservation prioritization efforts. However, our knowledge of species distributions is still affected by several shortfalls which limit our capacity for effective action if not properly scrutinized. Ignorance scores have been recently proposed as an intuitive and straightforward indicator of biodiversity knowledge availability, but to date their usefulness in assessing biases in species occurrence data has been poorly explored in the scientific literature. We used ignorance scores to characterize and identify the factors driving the availability of recent species occurrence records in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) for multiple taxa in the Caatinga ecoregion, the largest seasonally dry tropical forest in the world. Specifically, we calculated ignorance scores based on species records within 10 × 10 km cells covering the Caatinga region and modelled the relationship between ignorance scores and a set of socio-geographical variables using generalized additive models for location, scale and shape (gamlss). Most studied taxa had high ignorance scores across the Caatinga, indicating a low availability of recent species records in GBIF for this region. Our results also suggest that factors associated with accessibility and convenience are the main correlates of species recording effort in this region. Ignorance scores were lower at intermediate values of road and human population density, indicating that observers tend to avoid urban and inaccessible areas. We also found evidence of increased recording effort in areas close to universities and protected areas while vegetation cover seemingly had little effect on ignorance scores. Overall, our results suggest that efforts to compile and digitize recent species occurrence records should be encouraged in order to improve our knowledge of this regions' unique biodiversity and the efforts to preserve it. Furthermore, ignorance scores are a useful indicator of the availability and distribution of species occurrence records in the Caatinga. We discuss a range of potential extensions to this indicator that could expand its scope for future applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]