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Ultrasound technology has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing enzymatic biodiesel production, yet the cavitation effect induced can compromise enzyme stability. This study explored the efficiency of polyols in enhancing lipase stability under ultrasound conditions to further improve biodiesel yield. The incorporation of sorbitol resulted in the highest fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content in the ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production catalyzed by Eversa® Transform 2.0 among the investigated polyols. Furthermore, sorbitol enhanced the stability of the lipase, allowing it to tolerate up to 100 % ultrasound amplitude, compared to 60 % amplitude in its absence. Enzyme activity assays revealed that sorbitol preserved 99 % of the lipase activity, in contrast to 84 % retention observed without sorbitol under an 80 % ultrasound amplitude. Circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy analyses confirmed that sorbitol enhanced lipase rigidity and preserved its conformational structure under ultrasound exposure. Furthermore, employing a stepwise methanol addition strategy in ultrasound-assisted reactions with sorbitol achieved an 81.2 wt% FAME content in 8 h with only 0.2 wt% enzyme concentration. This promising result highlights the potential of sorbitol as a stabilizing agent in ultrasound-assisted enzymatic biodiesel production, offering a viable approach for enhancing biodiesel yield and enzyme stability in industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focused on the ultrasound-assisted transesterification of simulated low-quality feedstocks using a low-cost liquid lipase Eversa® Transform 2.0 (ET2). Enzyme characterization was also performed to investigate the effect of ultrasound parameters on enzyme structure. The optimal ultrasound parameters, 40 % amplitude, and 5 % duty cycle effectively enhanced the reaction rate compared to the conventional stirring method while retaining 95 % of the enzyme activity. Analysis of circular dichroism (CD) spectra revealed the preservation of the secondary structure of ET2 under the optimal ultrasound intensities, while fluorescence spectra indicated a slight change in its tertiary structure. The implementation of a two-stage methanol dosing strategy in the ultrasound-assisted reaction effectively mitigated lipase inhibition, yielding a remarkable fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content of 92.2 % achieved within a 12-h reaction time. Notable, this high FAME content was achieved with only a 4:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio and a 0.5 wt% enzyme concentration. Under these optimized conditions, the ultrasound-assisted reaction also demonstrated a 15 % improvement in the final FAME content compared to the conventional stirring method. These promising results hold significant potential for advancing the field of biodiesel production via ultrasound technology, contributing substantively to sustainable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fuel crisis and environmental concerns, mainly due to global warming, have led researchers to consider the importance of biofuels such as biodiesel. Vegetable oils, which are too viscous to be used directly in engines, are converted into their corresponding methyl or ethyl esters by a process called transesterification. With the recent debates on ''food versus fuel,'' non-edible oils, such as Jatropha curcas, are emerging as one of the main contenders for biodiesel production. Much research is still needed to explore and realize the full potential of a green fuel from J. curcas. Upcoming projects and plantations of Jatropha in countries such as India, Malaysia, and Indonesia suggest a promising future for this plant as a potential biodiesel feedstock. Many of the drawbacks associated with chemical catalysts can be overcome by using lipases for enzymatic transesterification. The high cost of lipases can be overcome, to a certain extent, by immobilization techniques. This article reviews the importance of the J. curcas plant and describes existing research conducted on Jatropha biodiesel production. The article highlights areas where further research is required and relevance of designing an immobilized lipase for biodiesel production is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Biofuel, peoples’ long awaiting alternative fuel, is yet to struggle a long way to reach in retail outlet all over the world as an economical and environmental friendly fuel. Biofuels include bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, bio-synthetic gas (bio-syngas), bio-oil, bio-char, Fischer-Tropsch liquids, and biohydrogen. Among these bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas are predominant which can be produced either using chemical catalyst or biocatalyst from biomass. At present, the conventional process involves the chemical catalyst while a rigorous research is focused on using a biocatalyst. This review brings out the advantages and disadvantages of using different type of catalyst in biofuel production and emphasis on new technologies as an alternative to conventional technologies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Increase in volume of biodiesel production in the world scenario proves that biodiesel is accepted as an alternative to conventional fuel. Production of biodiesel using alkaline catalyst has been commercially implemented due to its high conversion and low production time. For the product and process development of biodiesel, enzymatic transesterification has been suggested to produce a high purity product with an economic, environment friendly process at mild reaction conditions. The enzyme cost being the main hurdle can be overcome by immobilization. Immobilized enzyme, which has been successfully used in various fields over the soluble counterpart, could be employed in biodiesel production with the aim of reducing the production cost by reusing the enzyme. This review attempts to provide an updated compilation of the studies reported on biodiesel production by using lipase immobilized through various techniques and the parameters, which affect their functionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Liquid lipase from genetically modified Aspergillus oryzae was used to catalyse biodiesel production. • Initial FFA content in feedstock was varied to represent low-quality feedstock. • Highest biodiesel conversion of 96.7% was obtained using feedstock with 80% FFA content. • Methanol tolerance of liquid lipase was improved in the presence of FFA. • Modified kinetic model was used to estimate the reaction rates of feedstocks with varying FFA content. A low-cost liquid lipase from genetically modified Aspergillus oryzae (Eversa® Transform 2.0) was used in this study for biodiesel production. The catalytic performance of this enzyme was evaluated using refined palm oil adjusted with different free fatty acid (FFA) content. The methanol-to-oil molar ratio was varied from 1:1 to 8:1 to determine the reaction rate, ester conversion and methanol tolerance of this enzyme at different FFA content. The reaction was carried out at low temperature (40 °C) for 24 h using very low enzyme concentration (0.2 wt%). The results showed that the enzyme could tolerate a higher dosage of methanol and could increase reaction rate and conversion when higher FFA content was present in the feedstocks. A biodiesel conversion of 97% could be obtained when the feedstocks contained ≥80 wt% FFA. Furthermore, a new semi-empirical model based on the Ping-Pong Bi-Bi mechanism has been developed to estimate the reaction kinetics of biodiesel production from feedstocks containing a mixture of triacylglycerol and FFA. In conclusion, Eversa® Transform 2.0 can be used for the production of biodiesel from low-quality feedstocks containing high FFA content in a sustainable and economical manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Core shell nanostructures have endorsed great enhancements in the production of biodiesel with well-controlled size, shape, and surface properties. A simple and reproducible hierarchically porous core-shell CaSO 4 /Fe 2 O 3 -SiO 2 material with controllable core morphology was developed. The materials with a well mesoporous structure were prepared by ethanol/H 2 O media using NaNO 3 as the etchant to construct the co-valent bond in Fe 2 O 3 framework, and the CH 3 COONa was an electrostatic supporter and subordinate reducing agent under mild. Solvothermal conditions. The morphology, porosity and conjugated structure of CaSO 4 /Fe 2 O 3 -SiO 2 were measured systematically. The materials of CaSO 4 /Fe 2 O 3 -SiO 2 showed remarkable performance in biodiesel production with crude Jatropha curcus and methanol. At suitable state, the biodiesel production reached 94%. Furthermore, the material was easily dispersed in the reaction system, quickly separated from the reaction products without using centrifugation or filtration, and satisfactory catalytic activity maintained after being recycled nine. Controlling the interaction among the active phases of core shell structure might boost structural stability of the material. In addition, the performance was compared with several forms of material in the case of biodiesel production. Therefore, the data are remarkable for offering a new juncture for the fabrication of novel and eco-friendly procedure of hierarchically porous material in the potential biodiesel production. Moreover, the easy separation of material from process fluid and the safe handling were the main impacts to imply the CaSO 4 /Fe 2 O 3 -SiO 2 core-shell material for biodiesel production. Graphical abstract Image Highlights • Core-shell CaSO 4 /Fe 2 O 3 -SiO 2 materials developed for biodiesel production. • The materials showed excellent performance under optimum conditions. • The materials were exhibited high recyclability even after nine cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The insecure supply of fossil fuel coerces the scientific society to keep a vision to boost investments in the renewable energy sector. Among the many renewable fuels currently available around the world, biodiesel offers an immediate impact in our energy. In fact, a huge interest in related research indicates a promising future for the biodiesel technology. Heterogeneous catalyzed production of biodiesel has emerged as a preferred route as it is environmentally benign needs no water washing and product separation is much easier. The number of well-defined catalyst complexes that are able to catalyze transesterification reactions efficiently has been significantly expanded in recent years. The activity of catalysts, specifically in application to solid acid/base catalyst in transesterification reaction depends on their structure, strength of basicity/acidity, surface area as well as the stability of catalyst. There are various process intensification technologies based on the use of alternate energy sources such as ultrasound and microwave. The latest advances in research and development related to biodiesel production is represented by non-catalytic supercritical method and focussed exclusively on these processes as forthcoming transesterification processes. The latest developments in this field featuring highly active catalyst complexes are outlined in this review. The knowledge of more extensive research on advances in biofuels will allow a deeper insight into the mechanism of these technologies toward meeting the critical energy challenges in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This work deals with the enzymatic transesterification of palm oil with methanol in a solvent-free system. Among the five lipases tested in the initial screening, lipase PS from Burkholderia cepacia resulted in the highest triglyceride conversion. Lipase PS was further investigated in a novel immobilized form by encapsulating within a biopolymer, κ-carrageenan. Using the immobilized lipase the production parameters of biodiesel from palm oil were optimized. The optimal conditions for processing 10g of palm oil was: 30°C, 1:7 oil/methanol molar ratio, 1g water, 5.25g immobilized lipase, 72h reaction time and 23.7g relative centrifugal force. At the optimal conditions, triglyceride conversion of up to 100% could be obtained. The immobilized lipase was stable and retained 82% relative transesterification activity after five cycles. Liquid core lipase encapsulated in κ-carrageenan could be a potential immobilized catalyst for eco-friendly production of biodiesel. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sludge palm oil is a by-product produced as a result of oil loss into waste streams during the palm oil milling process. It is non-edible, inexpensive and abundantly available, thus making it an attractive feedstock for biodiesel production. However, it contains high contents of water and free fatty acids, rendering the conventional alkali-catalyzed process unsuitable. Therefore, this research aimed to improve the production of biodiesel from sludge palm oil using a low-cost liquid lipase (Eversa® Transform 2.0) produced from a genetically modified Aspergillus oryzae. The activity of the liquid lipase was determined to be 9600 IU mL−1. We performed the reaction using low-input process conditions with only 0.2 wt% enzyme concentration and 5:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio at a low operating temperature of 45 °C. Under an optimum stirring speed of 750 rpm, a crude biodiesel with a high ester content of approximately 94 wt% could be produced. Additionally, the crude glycerol produced has a higher purity compared to that produced via a chemical-catalyzed process. Overall, an economical and sustainable enzymatic process for the conversion of sludge palm oil into high quality biodiesel and glycerol has been demonstrated in this study. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recovery of waste as feedstock away from organizational limitations corresponds to a prospective supplementary revenue stream for the organization. A novel waste eggshell of Gallus domesticus derived superbasic nanocatalyst was synthesized through betaine amphoteric surfactant-assisted decomposition, adsorption and precipitation processes. By varied the duration synthesis of gel mixture, the morphology transformation from liquid-solid interconnected macro-size particles to regular spheroidal nanoassemblies particles is detected. The surfactant at the liquid-solid interface facilitates the mono dispersion of nanoparticles by hindering growth of crystals. The average particle diameter of the produced superbasic nanocatalyst was in the range of 27–16 nm. The synthesized nanoparticle formation mechanism in the presence surfactant has also been addressed in this study. The catalytic activity of superbasic nanocatalyst was investigated for biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) via glycerolysis and transesterification with methanol at atmospheric pressure. Artificial neural network (ANN) based on the genetic algorithm (GA) was applied for optimization of varied reaction parameters. It was observed that the reduction of acidity varied with varying reaction conditions. The highest fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield (97%) was obtained when the reaction was allowed to run at 60 °C for 300 min, while at 90 °C the maximal FAME yield of 98% was achieved after 120 min. The kinetic parameters of nanocatalyst were determined, and the reaction system followed pseudo first order kinetics. The results suggest that this two steps process using superbasic nanocatalyst affords a promising method to convert oils with high FFA level to biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liquid lipase has recently been gaining popularity in converting secondary lipid feedstocks to biodiesel. However, it was unknown whether enzymatic biodiesel production could affect the retention of high-value phytonutrient(s) in the feedstocks. For the first time, the retention of tocols (a highly potent antioxidant) during enzymatic conversion of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to biodiesel using a low-cost liquid lipase, Eversa® Transform 2.0, was studied. This study investigated the effects of methanol dosage on ester and fatty acid contents alongside tocols retention. The highest ester content (92.03 wt%) was achieved within a short reaction time of 4 h using 2 wt% enzyme concentration and 3:1 methanol-to-PFAD molar ratio. Interestingly, tocols retention was found to be correlated to the extent of fatty acid conversion. The maximum tocols retention was determined to be 91.98%. After vacuum distillation, the tocols content was enriched 25-fold (∼66,000 ppm) in the heavy phase, whereas the ester content increased to ∼96 wt% in a light-colored distillate (biodiesel). In conclusion, it is feasible to efficiently produce high-value phytonutrient(s) alongside biodiesel from secondary feedstock via an enzymatic route using a liquid lipase. The findings from this work provide the industry an opportunity to improve process economics and sustainability of biodiesel production. [Display omitted] • High FAME content of up to 92.03 wt% was achieved in 4 h using liquid lipase. • Retention of tocols was correlated to the extent of FFA conversion to FAME. • Highest tocols retention achievable was 91.98%. • Tocols was enriched by 25-fold (∼66,000 ppm) after distillation. • Ester content in distillate increased to 95.80 wt%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of spherical millimetric gamma-alumina (γ-Al 2 O 3 ) as a catalyst support for the production of biodiesel from palm oil was demonstrated. The catalyst support was produced using dripping method, and KI catalyst was loaded on the support using impregnation method. The highest FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) yield of 98% was obtained when the reaction was carried out under the conditions of catalyst to oil ratio of 0.6 g (4wt.%, g cat. /g oil ) using 0.24 g KI / g γ-A l 2 O 3 of catalyst loading, reaction time of 4 h, temperature of 60 °C and methanol to palm oil molar ratio of 14:1. XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis showed the formation of K 2 O and KAlO 2 phases on the KI/γ-Al 2 O 3 catalyst which were possibly the active sites for the transesterification reaction. The highest number and strength of basic sites generated from the solid phase reaction of the KI/γ-Al 2 O 3 catalyst loaded with 0.24 g kF/g γ-Al 2 O 3 were confirmed by temperature programmed desorption of CO 2 (CO 2 -TPD) analysis. The nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms was revealed a mesoporous structure of the catalysts. The leaching of potassium species in reused catalysts was observed, as verified by XRF (X-ray fluorescence). KI/γ-Al 2 O 3 had a long life time and maintained sustained activity even after being repeatedly used for 11 cycles. The biodiesel yield was comparable to that produced from smaller catalysts. Thus, the catalyst could be potential for industrial use, as they can be handled safely, easily separated from the process fluid and used in fixed bed reactor to minimize pressure drop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The use of spherical millimetric gamma-alumina (γ-Al2O3) as a catalyst support for the production of biodiesel from palm oil is demonstrated. The catalyst support was produced using a dripping method, and KF and NaNO3 catalysts were loaded on the support using the impregnation method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed the formation of Na2O and NaAlO2 phases on the NaNO3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst and the formation of K2O and KAlF4 on the KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, which were possibly the active sites for the transesterification reaction. The highest number and strength of basic sites generated from the solid phase reaction of the KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst loaded with 0.24 g kF/g γ-Al2O3 and the NaNO3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst loaded with 0.30 g NaNO3/g γ-Al2O3 were confirmed by temperature programmed desorption of CO2 (CO2-TPD) analysis. The nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms also revealed a mesoporous structure of the catalysts. The biodiesel yield was comparable to that produced from smaller catalysts, and this result indicated the potential of the macrospherical catalysts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

To date, irregularity and lack of power supply remain a global problem in the rural areas of underdeveloped and developing countries. This paper proposes a new concept for rural electrification by using palm oil mills to co-produce biodiesel from sludge palm oil. We performed a case study based on a medium-sized palm oil mill in Central Kalimantan. Approximately 2.5 tonnes of biodiesel could be produced daily using an enzymatic batch process and potentially support around 1,375 households of 4 people each in the surrounding areas. Subsequently, we performed a techno-economic assessment to study the commercial feasibility of the concept for rural electrification using the enzymatic biodiesel as opposed to commercial diesel. A 10% price deduction was applied to incentivize the local community to use the co-produced biodiesel. From our analysis, the rural electrification concept was found to be commercially viable with a return on investment of 29% and a breakeven period of less than 4 years of operation. Barring the short-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the price fluctuations of diesel and crude palm oil, the long-term commercial prospect of this rural electrification concept is attractive as it financially benefits both the rural community and the mill operators. [Display omitted] • Co-production of biodiesel in palm oil mills for rural electrification was proposed. • Biodiesel is produced from sludge palm oil using Eversa® Transform 2.0 lipase. • Daily biodiesel production capacity of 2.5 tonnes can support 1,375 households. • ROI of 29% and breakeven period of <4 years based on 10% deducted biodiesel price. • The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the project's commercial prospect was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]