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Section One: - Introduction 1. 1 Preface Banks are vital to any healthy economy due to their crucial role in society. Nowadays, they provide a wide range of services and products. Their principal function is to transfer surpluses into deficit units by taking deposits from the community and giving them back to the community through lending (Paddy, 2012) as providers of financial resources and information to the economy. They even play a more critical function in developing economies. Borrowers, "individuals and businesses," have no easy access to capital markets. Therefore, well-functioning commercial banks accelerate economic growth, while poorly functioning ones hinder economic development and thus increase poverty (Muye and Muye, 2017).Lending is one of the principal types of banking activity, which is essential for meeting the ever-growing consumer needs and taking part in the production and socio-economic development of the country. Various forms and types of banking credits demonstrate that lending is the core of banking as a source of profit, while there is a constant demand from individuals and business entities (Yanenkova et al., 2021).On the other hand, these banks face different risks that need intervention with various protection ways to decrease these risks. Risk management (RM) is the procedure for identifying, monitoring, and measuring risk (Spucháková & Adamko 2015). One of these risks is CR, which these banks face due to lending and credit processes. CR is associated with the businesses of financial institutions as the financial position of a borrower deteriorates (Afriyie et al., 2018). Banks have developed credit scoring models to improve evaluating creditworthiness process during the credit evaluation process to reduce CR and promote lending quality (Paddy, 2012). 1.2 The Importance of the research: - Could be summarized as the following: - Managing CR allows commercial banks to understand the behavior of their customers to pre-assess their degree of the risk - The research reveals how important CRM is in financial institutions and how they cannot possibly be stable, achieve their future objectives and survive. - CRM improves the performance of commercial banks and secures a competitive advantage. - Advanced CRM prevents such banks from losses and the possibility of bankruptcy. 1.3 Objectives of the research: - They are explained as follows: - - To clarify CRM in selected banks. - The research aims to demonstrate the impacts of various CR policies implemented by such banks in Erbil city. - To determine whether the policies implemented as precautions contributed to risk reduction. - To assess the Central Bank's and monitory authorities' roles in controlling banking CR. - To evaluate the role of these banks' management in CRM. - To evaluate the CRM technology and software used by these banks. - To explain whether or not any other related factors affect CR. - To help researchers and bank decision-makers design and develop a proper, robust, and advanced CRM policy. - To add additional research in this field for interested people and to know more about CRM. 1.4 Research Problem: - According to the financial and banking literature, credit risks are the real threat to commercial banks' safety, stability, and survival. As a result, CR issues and the need for research and studies to offer specific ways and tools to mitigate their effects are needed. On the other hand, mismanagement of risks, particularly credit risks, and an improper study of risks scientifically and realistically have disastrous consequences on commercial banks' safety, stability, and survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of loan commitments on bank lending behavior in both deposit-funding and liability management environments. Assuming that the bank lends exclusively under commitments and that the number of commitments exercised is uncertain, the bank must choose its supply of commitments. Given this choice, the bank becomes a passive lender to commitment holders. Our focus on forward credit markets sheds new light on the private bankers' assertion that they do not directly determine their level of lending, but merely "accommodate" the credit needs of their customers. Similarly, the central banker's claimed inability to control monetary aggregates in the short-run becomes understandable in a new context. It is shown that the advent of liability management will reduce the volume of loan commitments and the expected size of the bank and of the banking system. It is also shown that increased uncertainty regarding borrower takedown behavior diminishes the volume of commitments, expected bank and banking system size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aims to analyze the effects of non-performing loans ratio to lending behaviour on listed conventional banks in Indonesia in the period of 2006-2015. By applying the Threshold Regression method from Hansen (1999) and using the most recent non-performing loans ratio as the threshold variable, researcher found that the moral hazard problem is exist when the NPLs ratio exceed 5.29 per cent. We figure out whether there is different behavior in lending between bank which has NPLs ratio above the threshold and below the threshold. And as result, we found the difference since there is threshold effect from our fixed effect panel regression. This difference is not yet shows that the moral hazard is exist in banking system of Indonesia. However, the signs from the independent variables explain that there is moral hazard. Bank with NPLs above the 5.29 per cent has loan growth which increase the NPLs, whereas bank with NPLs below 5.29 per cent has loan growth which decrease the NPLs. The troubled bank behave differently from the rules, with their bad condition, they are adapting riskier lending strategy instead of prudent lending strategies. The determinants of the non-performing loans ratio in Indonesia are loan growth rate (LGR), last period loan growth rate (1.LGR), equity to total asset ratio (ER) and bank size (Size). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A banking system is more vulnerable when there are felt more negative effects on this as a consequence of the global financial crisis events. In the context of the objective of enhancing financial stability and, in particular, limiting the likelihood of failure of the banking system it is useful to verify how the main characteristics which play a role for banking system vulnerability behaved in the case of the Republic of Moldova: system's liquidity, capitalization, competition, diversification, presence of foreign banks, and wholesale funding. In order to determine how hard was hit the banking system of Moldova by the recent financial crisis in the article are analyzed quantitative and qualitative the above mentioned characteristics and identified the crisis effects on them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we seek to spatialise aspects of the Northern Rock Bank crisis of 2007 by marrying two radically different approaches. We combine a discussion of financial lending practices with an articulation of herd behaviour in conditions of uncertainty. Both were part of the still-unfolding picture of a traumatic episode in the geography of finance but also convey lessons on the behaviour of society in situations of shortage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This paper aims to clarify the relationship between individual banks and banking industry behaviour in credit expansion. The authors argue that the balance sheet structure of an individual bank is only partially determined by its management's decision about how aggressively to expand credit; it is also determined by the balance sheet positions of other banks. This relationship is shown explicitly by a simple disaggregation of the variables that enter into the economy-wide money multiplier. The approach taken here revives the multi-bank approach to banking analysis pioneered by Wallace and Karmel in the 1960s, which is particularly well-suited to integrating micro and macro levels in Keynesian banking analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the relationship between banking sector performance and the quality of regulation and supervision as measured by compliance with the Basel Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision (BCP). Using BCP assessment results for 65 countries and 1998-2002 panel data for other variables, we find a significant positive impact of higher compliance with BCP on banking sector performance, as measured by nonperforming loans and net interest margin, after controlling for the level of development of the economy and the financial system and macroeconomic and structural factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basil Moore hits a lot of nails on the head in his July/August "Challenge" article, "Is the Money Stock Really a Control Variable?" Moore demonstrates that the money stock is not a reliable economic control variable. But he does not bring out clearly the perverse and harmful results that can follow from attempts to control this variable by a "monetary growth rule," as is presently being done by the Federal Reserve System, under pressure from the Reagan administration. Moore correctly perceives that the level of bank lending has a far more powerful influence on total spending than has the growth rate of any narrow monetary aggregate. As he points out, major banks no longer regulate their lending by their excess reserves. Instead they make loans and loan commitments first, and then seek the added funds that may be needed to cover their reserve requirements. In Moore's analysis, the endogenous nature of the money stock arises from the fact that the Federal Reserve is unwilling or unable to resist pressure from the banking community to provide the necessary reserves. The major bank borrow most of these funds on a short-term basis from any parties who hold demand deposits and are temporarily willing to lend. them: small "correspondent" banks, nonbank financial institutions, state and local governments, and large business corporations.