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The experiences of gender-diverse children and young people (CYP) have come into sharp focus recently with a proliferation of research evidencing poorer educational outcomes for this group compared to cisgender peers. Yet, a systematic review of the literature, including positive, affirming experiences is yet to be conducted. Further key gaps within the literature include a paucity of research exploring the impact of intersectionality for this group, whilst the role played by educational psychologists (EPs) in supporting CYP with intersecting gender and neurodiversity remains unexplored. Paper 1, a systematic literature review (SLR) provides an overview of the research relating to the lived high school experiences of gender-diverse young people. Web and database searches identified 12 studies representing direct, first-hand experiences of high school. Data were analysed using thematic synthesis. The findings indicate that gender-diverse youth experience a range of negative and affirming experiences throughout high school linked to key themes including cisnormativity, language, identity, relationships and transphobia. Findings are discussed in relation to inclusive schooling practices as well as offering implications for professional practice. Paper 2, an empirical investigation, explores the experiences and practices of five EPs with applied knowledge of working with autistic, gender-diverse CYP. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and a reflexive thematic analysis carried out to develop themes. Findings highlight distinct areas of practice and challenges faced by EPs including the uncertainty and complexity of work in this emerging area. The nature of direct work with CYP and support for inclusive schooling practices are also explored. Implications for research and practice are discussed including the development of resources and guidance within educational psychology services to support practitioners in their work in this area. Paper 3 provides a discussion of the concept of evidence-based practice in relation to the role of the EP alongside consideration of effective methods for research dissemination. The implications of the research presented in Paper 1 and Paper 2 are also identified and a dissemination strategy for sharing findings with key stakeholders is outlined.

Background: Mainstream education can be difficult for autistic children given the social communication difficulties, inflexible thinking and sensory sensitivities associated with autism. Educators can still find providing a safe, inclusive and supportive environment for autistic students challenging. Subsequently autistic children are at a risk of experiencing school related anxiety and school avoidance. This has led some parents to decide to home educate which is the focus of the first paper. However, this is not a viable option for all families and so the second paper focuses on the supportive factors that have helped autistic girls successfully return, re-engage and maintain their attendance in mainstream education. Methods/participants: The first paper describes a systematic literature review (SLR) of papers exploring the experiences of parents who decide to home educate their autistic children. Ten papers published between 2011-2019 were identified using the PRISMA framework and evaluated for methodological quality and relevance of focus. The second paper, an empirical investigation, reports a case study design utilising semi-structured interviews with three autistic girls, their parents and key adults across three different secondary schools. The final paper focuses on dissemination. Analysis/findings: The SLR identified a range of reasons that led parents to home educate and revealed that this educative option can have good academic and social outcomes for autistic children. The empirical investigation identified a relational approach was at the core of autistic girls re-engaging with formal education. Conclusions/implications Although not all parents may be able to home educate, this review indicates that parents with appropriate emotional, financial and social supports have found home educating their autistic children empowering. Factors that supported autistic girls to overcome school avoidance included positive relationships with key adults, friendship, psychoeducation and good autism practice including safe spaces and a flexible approach. Implications for schools and educational psychology practice are considered.

Traditionally, autism has been conceptualised as a principally male condition though more recently, this traditional view has been challenged with the suggestion that girls are more likely to be under-diagnosed because of their ability to mask symptoms. Previous research into autism and education has focused on the experiences of autistic individuals in general and samples have largely consisted of male participants. The first paper describes a systematic literature review (SLR) of papers exploring the educational experiences of autistic females. 8 papers published between 2014-2018 were selected using the PRISMA framework and analysed using a conceptual framework devised from the literature into autism and education in general. The second paper, an empirical investigation reports three case studies in one secondary school context recognised for good autism practice. Semi-structured interviews with three autistic female pupils were conducted to highlight experiences of attending mainstream school. Interviews with parents and staff were used to provide a multi-perspective view of experiences. The final paper focuses on dissemination at the research site as well as more broadly. The SLR suggest that many of the educational experiences of autistic females are similar to those of their male counterparts, including difficulties accessing the curriculum, sensory needs and difficulties with social relationships. Areas highlighted as different include the tendency for females to mask their autism and differences in the perspectives of parents and staff regarding level of need. Thematic analysis of the interviews highlighted experiences of anxiety in relation to environmental, curriculum and relationship factors alongside inconsistencies in staff understanding, awareness of need and subsequent accommodations. The findings also showed that the girls valued the importance of being able to share their experiences. Findings from both the SLR and the empirical report highlight the importance of training school staff to understand the specific presentation and needs of autistic females. To increase the impact of this research, the findings will be disseminated at the research site as well as at the Educational Psychology Service where the researcher is based and at national conferences.

A systematic review of the literature that explored the processes and perceived effectiveness of qualitative methods used to elicit the views of young people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) about their educational experiences was conducted. Studies that were identified and screened using a trialled evaluation checklist and synthesised using the PRISMA guidelines identified data collection methods that were perceived to be useful. Limitations such as the over-representation of participants who were able to engage in verbal discussion and the lack of detailed description and evaluation of data collection methods were also identified. A multiple case study research was then conducted to explore two special schools' processes of eliciting the views of secondary school-aged pupils with ASD about their transition to adulthood and its perceived effectiveness. Qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with the school's staff and an observation of a transition meeting were gathered and thematically analysed individually, then compared and contrasted within school level. The findings revealed that both schools' processes of eliciting young people with ASD's views about transition to adulthood is a long process which involves three phases and is underpinned by a person-centred ethos. Perceived strengths and limitations of the process were also identified. Dissemination of the study's findings will include presentations and consultations with key stakeholders such as mainstream and specialist secondary schools and local authority post-16 steering group to explore the utility of the findings in different contexts. Collaboration with other educational psychologists (EPs) will also be conducted to explore this study's implications in the way they support schools in eliciting the views of young people with ASD.

The most thoroughly researched topic in relation to Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is the evaluation of interventions. Despite there being systematic literature reviews identifying evidence-based interventions (EBIs) for students with ASD, it is not clear to what extent educational psychologists (EPs) are using EBIs in their practice. The first paper in this thesis is a systematic literature review exploring which school-based interventions are reported in educational and school psychology journals and highlights the challenges of applying research data to idiographic individual casework. The second paper in this thesis is an empirical study investigating the extent to which EPs are using EBIs in their practice and the factors which influence EPs’ decision-making when planning interventions for students with ASD. The survey findings indicate that EPs are using many EBIs for ASD; however, there are many they are unfamiliar with. The most salient factors influencing EPs’ decision-making when planning interventions for students with ASD include the student’s individual needs and factors related to the school context. The third paper in this study discusses the dissemination of evidence to professional practice and looks at the implications of this research for individual EP roles, Educational Psychology Services and future research. Finally, a strategy for disseminating the findings will be outlined alongside a strategy for evaluating the impact of the dissemination.

As the prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) increases, School Psychologists (SPs) and Educational Psychologists (EPs) have an increasing role in assessing children with ASD. The systematic literature review aimed to provide an overview of the tools and processes EPs and SPs are using to assess children with ASD or possible ASD. Studies published between 1996-2016 were identified from four databases. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria, and were analysed using quality and relevance frameworks. Six studies were included in the final review. Commonly used tools are identified and discussed. The SLR drew some tentative conclusions around the range of tools used by SPs in the US. The small and dated UK sample means that limited conclusions can be drawn about current EP practice. Due to the gap in current knowledge around how EPs assess children with ASD or possible ASD, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to EP professionals in the UK and Ireland in order to gain an up to date picture. Data from 161 participants were used in the analysis. Analysis of the quantitative data involved descriptive statistics and content analysis was used to analyse the qualitative responses. Frequently used tools and the factors that seem to influence decision making around the choice of assessment are discussed. Implications for EPs' assessment practices and directions for future research are discussed. Having considered evidence based practice and practice based evidence, the final paper discusses dissemination of evidence to professional practice. A strategy for disseminating the findings of the empirical study to the profession is outlined.

Research shows that raising a child with ASD makes considerable demands on family resources, yet the experiences of neuro typically developing (NTD) siblings of children and young people with ASD remain relatively unexplored. The findings of quantitative research are mixed and inconclusive and little is known about the processes that mediate and moderate the experience of living with a sibling with ASD (Hodapp et al., 2005; Meadan et al., 2010; Petalas et al., 2009). Further descriptive and exploratory research is indicated with participants of different groups to illuminate the multi-factorial nature of the phenomenon and help understand the apparent differences in individual experiences and outcomes. This study uses semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to explore the self-reported experiences and perceptions of eight neuro-typically developing sisters, aged 10-19, who are also the sole NTD siblings in their families. Their parents were also interviewed to provide contextual information and to ascertain their views on the sibling experience. In addition to looking at their family life and sibling relationships, this study also explores school life and peer group relationships. Analysis suggests eight themes of sibling experience: Continuum of Perceived Challenge: Positively and negatively perceived aspects of having a sibling with ASD. Continuum of Acceptance; Coping and Resilience; Continuum of Relatability; Continuum of Positive Identity; Social world: Threats and Friends; Social Carer; Support. NTD sisters adopt a social caring role towards their sibling with ASD, that is different to that fulfilled by parents and transcends home and school boundaries. NTD sisters can be negatively affected by tension between home and school regarding provision for the child with ASD. Reconciling social persona with loyalty to one's sibling, developing a mutually satisfying sibling relationship and findings strengths and positive meaning in one's experiences, are associated with positive adjustment. Mother-daughter relationship and family beliefs and values are highly influential in the psycho-emotional adjustment of NTD sisters. Implications for the practice of applied psychologists and school-based professionals, in response to these findings, are explored and areas for further research are suggested.

Background: Research and professional experience suggest that young people with autism spectrum conditions (ASC) often find secondary school more difficult than primary school. Expert advice suggests that Local Authorities should offer a 'continuum of provision' to meet the diverse needs associated with ASC, but the high number of tribunals within England relating to provision for young people with ASC suggests that pupils' needs are not always being catered for appropriately. This project aimed to explore the range of secondary provision available to young people with ASC within one local authority and the decision-making processes used by parents and professionals to determine which provision is most appropriate for which pupils. Participants: Four Special Educational Needs Coordinators (SENCOs) and four parents of pupils with ASC were recruited from four different types of schools catering for secondary-aged pupils with ASC, along with two officers from the local authority involved with school placement decisions for children with ASC. Methods: This study used an embedded multiple case study design, with each school forming a case within the local authority system. Individual semi-structured interviews were carried out with each participant; these were audio-recorded and transcribed. Documents were gathered relating to school placement decisions and provision. Analysis/Findings: Data were analysed using thematic analysis and content analysis. The findings were presented as thematic maps for each individual school followed by a local authority-wide cross-case synthesis. The findings relating to decision-making processes were analysed and presented separately. Conclusion/Implications: The study extends understanding about the range of educational provision for secondary-aged students with ASC and how placement decisions are made within one local authority. Suggestions are made for further research.

Research has shown that social interaction and the development of friendships is important in promoting academic, personal and emotional development. Social interaction is a core difficulty for children and young people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). An increasing number of pupils with ASD are being educated within mainstream school where it is hoped that they will benefit from social opportunities with their peers and that the professionals working with them will be confident to support them (Keen and Ward, 2004). There is however growing evidence that school staff do not feel confident in supporting these pupils (House of Commons Education and Skills Committee, 2006; Robertson, Chamberlain and Kasari, 2003) and that this population of children are vulnerable to experiencing significantly poorer academic and social and emotional outcomes than their peers (Department for Education, 2012a; Humphrey and Lewis, 2008; Howlin and Goode, 1998). Teaching assistants (TAs) are often employed by schools to support pupils with ASD however research has suggested that the deployment of TAs might actually compound social interaction difficulties (Humphrey and Symes, 2011; Blatchford et al., 2009). TAs are in a unique position to support the social interaction of the pupils they work with however there is limited research into how TAs can be best utilised to facilitate social interaction between pupils with ASD and their typically developing peers within the classroom. This study piloted a researcher developed intervention, Better Together and conducted a process and outcome evaluation in order to investigate potential outcomes for TAs and pupils and examine systemic factors which might support or impede the intervention’s implementation and sustainability. The Better Together intervention aimed to train TAs to facilitate social interaction between pupils with ASD and their mainstream peers. The study involved three TA: pupil pairings within a single mainstream primary school and a single project coordinator. An evaluation of the ‘Better Together’ intervention package was undertaking using a fully mixed, sequential, dominant status design. Information pertaining to TA confidence levels was gathered pre and post intervention through semi-structured questionnaires. Structured observations were undertaken pre and post intervention and after a school term to gather information about the rate, range, maintenance and success of facilitative strategies used by the TAs. Semi-structured interviews with the TAs and project coordinator were carried out in order to obtain information about the implementation and outcomes of the intervention. The Social Inclusion Survey was administered at three time points to ascertain whether any changes in the social inclusion of target pupils had occurred.13Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The findings from this small scale study suggest that the TAs had an increased rate and range of facilitative behaviours following the intervention and that there was a simultaneous increase in student interactions between pupils with ASD and their peers. These gains were sustained over time. The intervention was valued by staff and plans were made to extend the principles to other schools within the area through the establishment of a TA network of support. Core facilitators and barriers to the implementation of the intervention were explored and discussed and implications for future research and the role of the Educational Psychologist (EP) are considered.

The global epidemiology of Autistic Spectrum Condition (ASC) is not thought to vary as a function of ethnicity. However, evidence suggests that the identified prevalence of ASC may be inconsistent across ethnic groups in the UK. In the UK, educational psychologists (EPs) often play a key role in the ASC identification process. Given the believed value of accurate identification of ASC to a child’s education, and the importance of providing minority ethnic groups with an equitable service, the following study explores how EPs incorporate ethnic minority cultural factors (EMCF) within ASC assessments. A multiple embedded case analysis was conducted with three EPs. Each was highly proficient in ASC assessment and brought experiences from both different geographical areas, and from service delivery through varied providers; a local authority (LA), a social enterprise, and private practice. Participants’ responses in two semi-structured interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A documentary analysis of the existing LA pathway for the assessment of ASC was completed. This was complemented with a quantitative demographic analysis of data relating to the regions in which each participant EP was working. Interview transcripts were analysed thematically, and findings are presented through thematic maps. Content analysis of the existing policies revealed considerable variation between LAs in how ASC is assessed in school age children. Integration of findings revealed six considerations made in ASC assessments with EMC children, potentially impacting upon their consultations with parents, and their direct work with the child. Further examination suggests that the EP’s work context can influence their considerations through four avenues. It appears that EPs’ understanding of EMCF within ASC assessments is influenced by professional experiences and opportunities within their local context. The study extends understanding how EPs consider EMCF in their assessments for ASC. Findings are discussed with regards to their implications for theory, practice and future research.